Bios 1030 Exam 2 Review PDF

Bios 1030 Exam 2 Review Chapters 6-10 Allorah Henson **[Ch 6: Digestive System and Homeostasis]** - **[Homeostasis]**- the tendency of an organism to maintain a relatively stable internal environment. - **[Dynamic Equilibrium]**- when something is constantly adjusting change - **...

Bios 1030 Exam 2 Review Chapters 6-10 Allorah Henson **[Ch 6: Digestive System and Homeostasis]** - **[Homeostasis]**- the tendency of an organism to maintain a relatively stable internal environment. - **[Dynamic Equilibrium]**- when something is constantly adjusting change - **[Set point]**- a specific value of some aspect that homeostasis is trying to maintain in the body (ex. Body temp: 98.6[^∘^]{.math.inline}F). - **[Negative feedback Loop]**- a type of self-regulating system where the increased output from the system inhibits future production by the system. (Ex. Body sweats to decrease a high body temp) - **[Thermoregulation]**- a process that allows your body to maintain its core internal temperature (humans: 98.6[^∘^]{.math.inline}F). - **[Endotherm]**- an organism that is able to maintain a constant body temperature in the face of different environmental temperatures. (humans are endotherms) - **[Ectotherms]**- an organism that relies on its environment as a heat source to maintain body temperature. (reptiles are ectotherms) - **[Know the negative feedback mechanism for regulating body temperature for both hot and cold: memorize the steps and the chart.]** - **[Fever-]** when the body's temperature increases to a new homeostatic equilibrium point. (increase in body heat makes the body less favorable to bacterial growth and increases activities of the cells to fight infection). - **[Pyrogens-]** compounds that are produced and circulated to the hypothalamus resetting the "thermostat" to a higher temperature during an infection. - **[Heterotroph-]** relying on other organisms as or for a food source (humans are heterotrophs) - At a cellular level humans need amino acids, lipid molecules, nucleotides, and simple sugars to function. - We consume larger macromolecules and break them down into simple molecules (fats, carbohydrates, protein) - **[GI Tract]**- the pathway of digestion: oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus. - **[Mastication]**- chewing of food. - **[Salivary glands]**- **[submandibular]** (under the jaw/mandible), **[parotid]** (by the ear), and **[sublingual]** (under the tongue). The salivary glands moisten food and produce **[lipase]** (breaks down fats) and **[amylase]** (breaks down starches). - **[Bolus]**- the mass of saliva moistened food that is mixed together after chewing. - **[Pharynx]**-back of the throat. The area where the esophagus and larynx meet. - **[Epiglottis]**- a flap of tissue that covers the opening of the trachea to prevent food/drink from entering the lungs. - **[Esophagus]**- a tubular organ that connects the mouth to the stomach. - **[Peristalsis]**- an involuntary contraction that pushes food from the esophagus toward the stomach. - **[Gastroesophageal sphincter]**- the lower esophageal sphincter. The end of the esophagus, where it meets the stomach. - **[Stomach]**- a sac-like organ that secretes gastric digestive juices. A large portion of protein digestion occurs here. - **[Pepsin]**- an enzyme that helps breaks down protein. - **[Stomach Acid]**- Hydrochloric acid- the gastric acid secreted within the stomach. - **[Gastric Juice]**- Pepsin + Stomach acid. - **[Chyme]**- the food that has been partially digested by the stomach with the gastric juices. - **[Pyloric Sphincter]**- the sphincter that connects the stomach to the small intestine. - **[Small intestine]**- the long, tubular organ where the digestion of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates is completed. - **[Villi]**- the highly folded surface (looks like fingers) of the intestine. These villi are covered in **[microvilli]** that have specialized epithelial cells at their surface that absorb nutrients from the digested food and release them to the bloodstream on the other side. - **[Parts of the small intestine (3)]**: duodenum, jejunum, and the ileum. - **[Ileocecal valve]**- the part of the small intestine (ileum) that meets the large intestine (cecum). This is where you will find the **[appendix]**. - **[Large intestine]**- reabsorbs water from indigestible food material and processes the waste material (fecal matter). It is called the large intestine because it has a greater diameter (width) than the small intestine, not length. Where you will find your normal flora or gut bacteria. - **[Parts of the large intestine (3)]**: cecum, colon, rectum - **[Parts of the colon]**- ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon. - **[Anus]**- opening at the far-end of the digestive tract. It has 2 sphincters: an inner involuntary sphincter, and an outer voluntary sphincter. - **[Accessory organs]**: salivary glands, the liver, the pancreas, and the gall bladder. - **[Liver]**- largest internal organ in humans- plays an important role in the digestion of fats and detoxifying of blood. Produces bile. - **[Gallbladder]**- stores bile and creates bile salts. - **[Pancreas-]** secrets bicarbonate that neutralizes the acidic chyme and a variety of enzymes (trypsin-digestion of proteins, amylase-digestion of carbohydrates, and lipase-digestion of fats). - **[Essential nutrients-]** nutrients that must be obtained from food, meaning we cannot produce them. **[CH 7: Energy Considerations]** - **[Metabolism-]** all of the chemical reactions that take place inside cells, including those that consume or generate energy. - **[ATP-]** adenosine triphosphate- this is the primary energy currency of all cells. We need ATP to perform immediate work. - **[Know the equation for photosynthesis:]** 6CO2+6H2O C6H12O6+6O2 - **[Metabolic Pathway]**- a series of chemical reactions that take a starting molecule and modifies it, step-by-step through a series of metabolic intermediates, eventually yielding a final product. Can be anabolic or catabolic. - **[Anabolic Pathway-]** builds polymers from monomers. - **[Catabolic Pathway-]** breaks down polymers into their monomers. - Catabolism and anabolism are opposite processes. - **[Enzyme]**- a protein used for facilitating a reaction step in metabolism. Enzymes usually break down another specific protein. (amylase is an enzyme that breaks down starches) - **[Catalyst]**- a substance that helps a chemical reaction to occur. - **[Thermodynamics-]** the study of energy and energy transfer involving physical matter, AKA the science of the relationship between heat, energy, and work. - **[System-]** in thermodynamics this refers to the matter relevant to a specific case of energy transfer. - **[Surroundings-]** in thermodynamics, this is everything outside of the system. - **[Open system-]** an energy system in thermodynamics where energy can be exchanged with its surroundings. - **[Closed system-]** an energy system in thermodynamics where energy cannot be exchanged with its surroundings. - Biological organisms are open systems. - **[1^st^ law of Thermodynamics]** (Conservation of Energy) states that the total amount of energy in the universe is constant and conserved. (there has always been and will always be the same amount of energy in the universe) - **[2^nd^ law of Thermodynamics]** states that energy will always be long as heat in energy transfers or transformations. - **[Heat Energy]**- in thermodynamics, it is the energy transferred from one system to another that is not work. - **[Potential Energy]**- the type of energy that refers to the "potential" to do work - **[Kinetic Energy]**- the energy associated with objects in motion. - **[Activation energy]**- the small amount of energy input necessary for all chemical reactions to occur. - **[Cellular Respiration]**- a set of metabolic reactions an processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into ATP, and then release waste products. This includes Glycolysis, the transition reaction cycle, Krebs Cycle (AKA the citric acid cycle) (fermentation will occur in the absence of O2), and the electron transport chain. - **[Glycolysis]**- the pathway from glucose to ATP and NADH. **KNOW THE STEPS**! **[Ch 8: Blood]** - **[Heart]**- hollow muscular organ that pumps blood through the body through a network of blood vessels. - **[Blood Vessels]**- tubular organs in the Cardiovascular system in which blood travels. - **[Blood]**- a connective tissue in which nutrients and cells travel through the body, and where wastes from our cells get deposited. - **[Cardiovascular system]**= heart + vessels + blood. - **[Blood-]** made up of plasma and formed elements. - **[Formed elements-]** RBCs, WBCs, and platelets - **[Red Blood Cell-]** RBC, AKA **[erythrocyte]**. - Most common formed element. Made in red bone marrow by a process called hematopoiesis. Primary function is to pick up inhales oxygen from the lungs and transport it back to the body's tissues and to pick up some of the carbon dioxide waste (about 24%) at the tissues and transport it back to the lungs for exhalation. RBCs remain in the vessels. - RBCs rely on fermentation because they lack mitochondria. - RBCs lack endoplasmic reticula so they can't produce their own proteins to repair themselves. Because of this, their life span is about 115 days. - **[Hemoglobin]**- a large molecule made up of proteins and iron. Consists of four folded chains of proteins called **[globin]**. Each of these globin molecules is bound to a red pigment molecule called **[heme]**, which contains and ion of iron. Each hemoglobin can transport 4 oxygen molecules. A single red blood cell can contain 300 million hemoglobin molecules, there for a single red blood cell can carry 1.2 billion oxygen molecules. - **[Oxyhemoglobin]**- when oxygen from the lungs binds to the iron ions of the hemoglobin. - **[Deoxyhemoglobin]**- when the hemoglobin releases the oxygen molecules to the body tissues. - **[Aging RBCs]** are recycled in the spleen, liver, and the bone marrow. - **[Erythropoietin-]** a special hormone made in the kidneys and liver that regulate RBC production. - **[Anemia-]** where the number of RBCs or hemoglobin is deficient. KNOW THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANEMIAS FROM THE POWER POINT. - **[White Blood Cell-]** WBC, AKA **[leukocyte]**. Protect the body from external threats such as pathogens. Some seek out and destroy internal threats such as cells with mutated DNA or cells that are infected with a pathogen. WBCs often leave the vessels for defensive functions. - **[Types of WBCs-]** **[Agranulocytes]**, which originate from **[lymphoblast stem cells]** include **[monocytes]** and **[lymphocytes]**. Granulocytes, which originate from **[myeloblast stem cells]** include **[basophils]**, **[eosinophils]**, and **[neutrophils.]** (Know what they look like from the pictures in textbook and on power point). - **[Three-part policy of WBCs-]** detect, deflect, destroy. - **[Phagocytes-]** name means to eat. They chase down and consume invaders, destroying them. - **[Neutrophils-]** most abundant WBC- self destructs after devouring invaders. Their dead cells are what pus is made of. - **[Macrophage-]** derived from monocyte WBC, can consume and digest invaders over and over again. - **[Natural Killer Cells]**- a type of lymphocyte that attacks cells that have been affected, causing their **[apoptosis]** (cell death). - **[B-Cells]**- "B-lymphocyte"- recognized friend from foe using the thousands of protein receptors it its surface. It will also remember them. - **[T-Cells]**- "T-lymphocyte"- attack cells that have been infected or are cancerous. They regulate the immune response. You have 5 types of T cells, examples being the Helper T-cells and cytotoxic t-cells. - **[Platelet-]** AKA **[Thrombocyte]**. Repair damaged blood vessels. With the help of proteins (fibrins) platelets block the ruptured areas of the blood vessels to prevent further blood loss. - **[Functions of blood]**: Primary=transportation, defense, distribution of heat, and maintaining homeostasis. - Blood transports nutrients and gases to our cells, and waste from those cells and sends them to the liver and kidneys for excretion. Blood transports hormones from endocrine glands throughout the body. - **[Composition of blood]**- A **[hematocrit test]** can measure the percentages of RBCs, WBCs, platelets, and blood plasma. WBCs and platelets make up the **[buffy coat,]** a thin layer between the plasma and RBCs, makes up about 1% of the sample. During the hematocrit test, the blood sample is spun in a centrifuge where the heavier red blood cells are pulled toward the bottom of the tube, the lighter plasma is at the top, and they are separated by the buffy coat. (roughly 37-52% RBCs, 1% WBCs and platelets, and the rest will be plasma) - **[Hemoglobin]**- a pigment that changes color depending upon the degree of oxygen saturation. Lots of O2, bright red blood. Less O2, dusky, more blue blood. - **[Normal blood temp]**- 100.4 F - **[Males]**: 5-6 L of blood, **[Females:]** 4-5 L of blood in the body. - **[Blood pH]**- 7.35-7.45 is normal for a healthy person. Lower=acidemia, higher=alkalemia. - **[Plasma Proteins]**- Albumin, Globulins, Fibrinogen. - **[Albumin]**- most abundant plasma protein. made in the liver. Acts as a binding protein to transport fatty acids and steroid hormones. Contributes to osmotic pressure of blood. Filled with hemoglobin, which transports gases. - **[Globulins]**- second most abundant plasma protein. made by a specialized b cell called a plasma cell. 3 main subgroups of globulins, **[Alpha, Beta, and Gamma]**. A&B transport iron, lipids, and fat-soluble vitamins to the cells. Gamma globulins are proteins involved in immunity and are better known as immunoglobulins or **[antibodies]**. - **[Fibrinogen]**- least abundant. Made in the liver. Essential for blood clotting. - **[Blood Type]**: Your blood cells have specialized glycoprotein markers (**[antigens]**) called **[agglutinogens]**. There are two types: A and B. You can have one, none, or both of these molecules. - **[A antigens=]** a blood type - **[B antigens=]** b blood type - **[A and B antigens=]** AB blood type - **[Neither antigen=]** O blood type - You also have Rh antigens. If you have the Rh antigen, you are Rh+, if not you are Rh-. So, if you have A+ blood type, you have both the A antigen and the Rh antigen present. **[Ch 9: Heart]** - **[Pericardium]**- a covering that encloses the heart and the proximal ends of large blood vessels to which it attaches. Has 2 layers: visceral layer (epicardium) and the parietal layer. - **[Wall of the heart]**- Epicardium (outermost), Myocardium (middle, muscly), endocardium (inner). - **[Chambers of the heart]**- **[Right Atrium]** (right upper), **[Right Ventricle]** (right lower), **[Left Atrium]** (left upper), **[Left Ventricle]** (left lower). - **[Valves]**- Tricuspid (RAV valve)- separates RA from RV, Bicuspid (LAV valve) separates LA from LV. Aortic semilunar- separates aorta from LV. Pulmonary semilunar- separates pulmonary trunk from the RV. - **[Papillary Muscles]**- attach to the cusps of the AV valves via **[chordae tendinea]**, controlling the valves. - **[Major vessels associated with the heart]**: superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, pulmonary trunk, pulmonary arteries, pulmonary veins, ascending aorta, descending aorta, and the aortic arch. - **[KNOW THE PATHWAY OF BLOOD THROUGH THE HEART]**!!!!!!! - **[CARDIAC CIRCUITS]**- Pulmonary and systemic. Pulmonary sends oxygen-poor blood from the heart to pick up oxygen in the lungs and unload carbon dioxide. Systemic sends oxygen-high blood and nutrients from the heart to all body cells and removes wastes. - **[Systole]**- contraction of heart chambers - **[Diastole]**- relaxation of heart chambers - **[Systole+Diastole= cardiac cycle]**. - Cardiac muscles cells contract as a unit, this action is known as **[functional syncytium]**. - **[Intercalated discs]**- connections between cardiac muscle cells that include gap junctions. - The heart is **[autorhythmic,]** meaning it is able to initiate contraction itself without external nervous stimulation. It makes its own electrical impulses. - **[Cardiac conduction system]** coordinates the events of the cardiac cycle. - **[SA node]**- (sinoatrial node) specialized cardiac muscle tissue that reaches threshold and triggers action potential on its own. Your **[pacemaker]**. - **[AV node]**- (atrioventricular node) specialized mass of cardiac muscle fibers found in the interatrial septum that conducts cardiac impulses from the SA node to the AV bundle. - **[AV bundle]**- (atrioventricular bundle)- a group of specialized muscle fibers that conduct impulses from the AV node to the Purkinje fibers in the ventricular muscles of the heart. - **[Purkinje Fibers]**- specialized cardiac muscle fibers that conduct the cardiac impulse from the AV bundle into the ventricular walls. - KNOW THE PATHWAY OF CONDUCTION THROUGH THE HEART! - **[ECG]**- electrocardiogram (EKG)- a recording of electrical changes in the myocardium during the cardiac cycle. Uses **[electrodes]**, records the **[defections]** away from the **[baseline]**. - Made up of 5 waves: p, q, r, s, t (be able to identify these) Ch 10: Blood Vessels - **[Blood vessels-] tubular organs inside which blood is carried throughout the body.** - **[Blood vessel wall-]** 3 layers: **[tunica externa]** (outside), **[tunica media]** (middle, mostly smooth muscle cells), and **[tunica intima]** (inner). - **[Lumen-]** opening in the blood vessel, where blood flows through. - **[Vasodilation-]** expansion of blood vessels - **[Vasoconstriction-]** narrowing of blood vessels - **[5 types of blood vessels-]** arteries, veins, arterioles, venules, capillaries - **[Arteries-]** strong, elastic vessels for transporting blood away from the heart under relatively high pressure. - **[Veins-]** less muscularized than arteries, adapted for transporting blood to the heart under relatively low pressure. Veins have valves to prevent blood from flowing backward. Blood flow in veins is helped by the surrounding skeletal muscle. - **[Arterioles-]** arteries subdivide into progressively thinner tubes and eventually give rise to finer, branched arterioles. - **[Venules-]** microscopic vessels from capillaries that merge to form veins. - **[Capillaries-]** microscopic channels that supply blood to the tissues themselves. Gas exchange occurs between the capillaries and the surrounding cells and tissue fluid (**[interstitial fluid]**). - Regions of the body: CH 10 power point slide 14 - Major vessels of the body: CH 10 power point slide 15 Please read the textbook chapters, review your notes, and review the videos I have linked in the power points. Good luck!