Biology Term Test PDF

 Chapter 1 4 20 1. ,. , 20 2. -...

 Chapter 1 4 20 1. ,. , 20 2. - Microevolution & Population Genetics - Lecture 2 14. 20. I Evolution Factors contributing to phenotype Neutral Mutation An individuals Change of genetic makeup genotype (set of alleles No effect the - on organism nor of time. individual) , and the a population over possessed by an affecting survival or reproduction. Natural Selection environment of where the individual Deleterious Mutation lives When genetic variation is Genetic changes that. harmful - are in a population of organisms, Species to an organism Group of individuals that & the organisms best suited for can exchange Advantageous Mutation growth & reproduction in a environment genetic material through interbreeding Increases an individuals fitness. contribute disproportionally to future generations. to produce fertile offspring. Environmental Variation Gene Pool Self-Assesment Questions Why are germ-line mutations more important in evolution Variation among individuals due All the alleles present in all individuals in than somatic ones? Germ line mutations are more important then somatic to differences in the environment. a population or species. (Skin color , hair type ones because they are passed down to generations unlike , somatic ones as they are not passed down. Genetic Variation eye colour , etc.) Why is recombination critical to generating genetic variation? It’s critical since it shuffles segments of DNA. Differences in genotype among Population Genetics individuals in a population. Study of variation in natural populations. Usually stems from mutations Genetic Variation Sources Evolutionary Tree Mutations & Recombination. Tips or Branches - Group of Recombination happens in meiosis in organism. the production of sperm & Nodes Most - recent ancestor eggs causing Tree of Life Segments of DNA to be shuffled from chromosome to chromosome Set of evolutionary relationships among all organisms. Somatic Mutation Self-Assesment Questions Occurs in somatic cells (non-reproductive How does evolution account for both the unity and diversity of life? Germ-Line Mutations Evolution accounts for both the unity and diversity of life as it Occurs in reproductive cells , passed describes the history of organisms and its diversity through the evolutionary tree. to next generation. Chapter 1 4 20 1. ,. , 20 2. - Microevolution & Population Genetics - Lecture 2 20 2. Allele Frequency Self-Assesment Questions Chapter 20 3. , 20. 4-. What does it mean that an allele is “fixed” in a population? The proportion of a specified allele Hardy-Weinberg & Agents of If its frequency is 1(100%) (An allele is fixed if there is only one among all the alleles of a gene in a allele for that gene in a Evolution-Lecture 3 population. Fixation Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Process by which one allele replaces all A state in which allele & genotype frequencies do not change time , the absence of of the other alleles in a population. over implying evolutionary Genotype Frequency forces. It also specifies a mathematical relationship The proportion of a specified genotype allele frequencies & genotype frequenciess. among all the genotypes for a particular Requirements : set of in population. 1 There is no difference in the survival & reproductive success of gene or genes a. Genotype Possibilities individuals with different genotypes.. The 2 population is sufficiently large to prevent sampling errors. Gel Electrophoresis. 3 Populations not added to subtracted from by are or migration. Separates segments of DNA 4. There is no mutation to their size. Individuals mate at random. 5 according as they migrate through a get when an Nonrandom Mating electrical charge is applied. Mate selection biased by genotype or relatedness. can only identify mutations that Genetic Drift Random change amino acids. Silent mutations change in the frequency of an allele due to its can not be used under get electrophoresis , statistical effects of finite population size. but DNA sequencing can detect all Frequencies genetic variation in a stretch of DNA. p= frequency of A AA = p2 Polymorphism q = frequency of a a = q Genetic difference among individuals p + = Aa = 2pq q that is present in multiple individuals in a population. Chapter 20 3. , 20. 4-Hardy-Weinberg & Agents of Evolution-Lecture 3 20 4. Adaptations Hemoglobin # Allele codes for normal hemoglobin (fully functional round, The exquisite fit of organisms to , & Allele codes for a polypeptide that differs by having a their. environment Example : In a individual single amino acid. Also distorts into a sickle cell shape trait that enhances the fitness of a an organism and causing sickle cell anemia causing. capillary blockagee. to its environment. AA homozygotes lack sickle cell anemia , but vulnerable to As Fitness malaria. heterozygotes do not have severe sickling disease & have some protection towards A measure of the extent to which an malaria. SS homozygotes are protected from individuals the genotype is represented in malaria but burdened with sickle-cell anemia. The of it to survive Stabilizing Selection next one. measure ability A form of selection that selects against and reproduce in a particular. environment extremes & therefore maintains the status quo. Modern Synthesis CEX Optimal : birth weight is blw 2 extremes The current theory of evolution which combines fat baby In small baby. Darwins theory of natural selection & Mendelian genetics. Directional Selection Results shift of the of Positive Selection in a mean value a trait in a population over time. (EX : Finches Natural Selection that increases the frequency of beak sizes before & after drought ) (Usually. due to a advantageous allele environmental change. Negative Selection Disruptive Selection Natural Selection Operates in favor or extremes & against that reduces the frequency of intermediate form , selecting against the means a deleterious allele. Balancing Selection Selective Pressure The set of environmental conditions both physical Acts to maintain 2 or more alleles of a given cair , soil) & biological that result in some organisms & surviving reproducing more then others gene in a populationn. Heterozygote Advantage Sexual Selection Promotes traits that increase its access to reproductive activity Balancing selection in which the heterozygotes Intrasexual Selection fitness is higher then the homozygotes, Interactions blu one sex (male competition resulting in selection that ensures that both Entersexual Selection alleles remain the population B/W in at intermediate frequencies. males & females , females choose male. Chapter 20 5. , 20 6. - Hardy-Weinberg & Agents of Evolution- Lecture 4 20 5. , 20 6. Bottleneck Molecular Evolution An extreme , temporary , reduction in population Evolution at the level of DNA size that may result in marked loss of genetic which in time results in diversity & in the process genetic drift. genetic divergence of population. Founders Event MolecularClock Acute genetic drift when a few individuals establish The time for which2 species have a new population. (EX Colinization) : been evolutionarily separated & the Genetic Drift amount of genetic diversity blu them is the molecular Genetic Drift is more impactful in smaller populations clock. The slowest clock belongs to the then larger ones. histone gene. Migration Pseudogene A The movement of organisms from one place to another , including gene that is no longer functional since the movement of individuals from one population to anotherr. they are neutral. Its molecular clock also Gene Flow fast. goes Movement of alleles from one population to another by interbreeding blu members of a population. Inbreeding Type of nonrandom mating where mating happens with close relatives , leading to less heterozygosity & more homozygosity of rare recessive alleles. Enbreeding Depression Reduction in fitness caused by breeding close relatives causing homozygosity of harmful recessive mutations. Evolutionary Mechanisms Chapter 22- Reading a Phylogenetic Tree-Lecture G, 7 , 8 9 , 22. Phylogeny Polyphyletic The evolutionary history & relatedness Grouping that do not include the last of of of a group organisms. common ancestor all members. Speciation Genus The set of processes by which isolated Closely related species populations diverge from one point to Family another to the point where mating blu Closely related genera members of the 2 population fail to produce Orders fertile offspring. closely related family Phylogenetic Tree Class Branching diagram that represents a hypothesisClosely related order about the evolutionary relationships among Phylum groups of organisms. Closely related classes Nodes kingdom Branches split which represent common ancestor. Closely related phyla. Sister Groups Domains A Eukarya, Bacteria , Archea group of species closelyrelaany to another group of species than ted other group of species Taxa Taxonomic rank also known as group that can be a family , genus , or species. Monophyletic (Cladez Monophyletic Group) Grouping that includes all the descendants of a single common. ancestor Paraphyletic Grouping that includes some not all descendants of a. common ancestor Chapter 22- Reading a Phylogenetic Tree-Lecture G, 7 , 8 9 , 22 2. Characters Parsimony Morphological , physiological, Choosing the simplest hypothesis to account for a given or molecular features that set of observations. Selecting for the tree requiring make the fewest an organism evolutionary steps.. Character States DNA Sequence The observed condition of a Fewest difference most closely related, greater character , such as the presence differences , distantly related. or absence of a lung Homologous Characters that are similar in different species because of descent from a common. ancestor (shared ancestry) Analogous Similar characters that evolved independently in different groups as a result of similar selection pressures. Synapomorphies Shared or derived character basis , of cladistics Cladistics Phylogenetic reconstruction on the basis of shared evolutionary changes in characters Out group A of organisms that has older group an common ancestor than the common ancestor of the group of interest meaning it servesas a reference for evolutionary within the in groups. Chapter 22- Reading a Phylogenetic Tree-Lecture G, 7 , 8 9 , 22. 3 Fossils Fossils are the remains of once living organisms preserved through time in Sedimentary rocks. They are also direct documentation of ancient life Fossilization White Beds - Top of mountain that contains vertebrae fossils of 260million years a go. Limestone-> The middle, marine animals Skeleton preserving about 335 million years ago Trilobites - The bottom , oldest around 500million years a go- Trace Fossils A track , such as a dinosaur trace left by animals. , Molecular Fossils Stero , bacterial lipids, or pigment molecule that is resistant to decomposition & Present in sedimentary rocks. Geological Time scale Series of time divisions that mark Earths long history. Radiometric Dating & Dating ancient material using radioisotopes including the decay of radioactive") to nitrogen for the intervals of 10 years. Half-Life Amount of time it takes for a substance to reach half or original value Radioactive Decay Time it takes for half of the atoms in a given sample of substance to decay Mass Extinction Big Event that dropped diversity which has occurred Sor more times in 541 mill years Chapter 22- Reading a Phylogenetic Tree-Lecture G, 7 , 8 9 , 22 4. Phylogenies Chapter 21- Speciation/Biological Species /Reproductive Clear prediction that the deepest 21 1. node in the tree of life marks the Biological Species Concept divergence of Bacteria & Archaea. Described by Ernst Mayr, species are Cambrian Explosion groups of actual or potentially interbreeding A phase of rapid animal diversification populations that are reproductively isolated from other that took place 541 million such. years ago groups The Mesozoic Era Morphospecies Concept Witnessed major evolutionary innovation Idea that members of the same species usually on land and. water look like each other more than like other species. The Cenozoic Era Polymorphism Mammals - that survived the era then Species may not look alike but show different diversified quickly phenotypes. (Catterpillar to butterfly Cryptic Species Ecological Species concept Species considered to belong to a single One to one correspondence blo a species & Species due to there similar looks but in niche belong to 2 species because of differences Phylogenetic Species Concept at the DNA sequence level. The idea that members of a species all Hybrid Offspring share a common ancestry & common fate. offspring produced by a cross , applied to interbreeding b/w 2 closely related species. Niche A description of the role a species plays in its environment & of its requirements , both abiotic and biotic Chapter 21- Speciation - Lecture 8 , 9 21 2. Prezygotic Genetic Incompatibility Genetic dissimilarity blu Describesfactorsthat i organisms 2 Such as different # of chromosomes, like Postzygotic a post-zygotic isolation factor. Describes factors that cause failure - Prezygotic & Postzygotic Isolating Factors of fertilized egg to develop into a fertile individual Geographic Isolation Form of isolation which prezygotic in individuals are separated in space Ecological Isolation Form which individuals 21 3 of prezygotic isolation in. are separated on the basis of where they live Partially ReproductivelyIsolated or what they do in an. environment Describes populations that have not yet diverged Temporal Isolation into separate species but whose genetic differences Form of prezygotic isolation in which individuals are extensive enough for hybrid offspring to are reproductively active at different times. reduce fertility or viability compared with offspring Behavioral Isolation produced by crosses blu individuals within populations. Individuals mate with others on the basis of Allopatric specific courtship rituals , songs , and etc. Populations geographically separatedArameach other. Gametic Isolation subspecies Incompatibility blu gametes of different Allopatric populations that have yet to evolve individuals. even partial reproductive isolation but have acquired Mechanical Isolation population specific - traits Individuals are unable to mate. (EX : Structural Dispersal(How populations become allopatric incompatibility of genitalia. Individuals colonize a distant place far from the parents. Chapter 21- Speciation - Lecture 8 , 9 21 3. Vicariance(How populations become allopatric Instantaneous Speciation Geographical Barriers arises in I population , Occurs in a single generation caused dividing it in 2 or more populations that are by hybridization blo 2 species in physically separated from each other. which the offspring are reproductives Peripatetic Speciation isolated from both parents. Allopatric Speciation where a few individuals from a mainland population disperse to a new location Chapter 25-Eukaryotic Cell-25. remote from the original population & evolve separately Eukaryotes Midland population Rely mainly on internal scaffolding of proteins Central & Largest population of to species organize the cell Island Population Apply to true islands (land surrounded by water) or to ecological islands that similarity isolate their inhabitants (ponds , fishes Diatoms Adaptive Radiation Store nutrients in large internal vacuoles for Unusually rapid evolutionary diversification in later use when nutrient levels in the environment which natural selection accelerates the rate of become low. speciation within a group , resulting in new Sex species adapted for specific niches. Promotes genetic variation by meiotic cell Co-Speciation division (resulting in gametes that are genetically Two groups of organisms speciate in response unique & Fertilization a new combination of to each other & at the same time, producing genes brought together by the fusion of gametes. matching phylogenies. HaploidCells Sympatric One complete set of chromosomes (n) Describes populations that are in the same Diploid Cells geographical location. Two sets of chromosomes (In Chapter 25-Eukaryotic Cell 25. Zygote Algae DiploidCell formed by Fusion of Photosynthetic Protist 2 Protozoa gametes 25 2. Heterotrophic Protists Symbiosis Major Eukaryote groups A close interaction that has Opistnokonts , amoebozoans, evolved blu species that live archaplastids. together , often interdependently. Opisthokonts Symbiosis blu a heterotrophic host & Most diverse eukaryotic group a photosynthetic partier is common through includes animals & fungi the eukaryotic domain , reef-forming coral , etc Choanoflagellates are examples Closest protistan relatives of animals , Endosymbiosis mostly unicellular One partner lives within the other ; Amoebozoans theory of origin for chloroplasts & Eukaryotes with amoeba like cells that move Mitochondria. & gather food by means of pseudopodia. Chloroplasts & Mitochondria Coenocytic Chloroplasts & Mitochondria have Containing many nuclei within a large cell own genomes but are small relative to Archaeplastids free-living bacteria to which they are Includes land plants closely related , Stramenopiles Includes unicellular organisms , gaint kelps , algae 25 3.. etc Protists Alveolates Eukaryotes that do not have features of Small Vesicles in some species store calcium animals , plants , fungi. ions Chapter 25-Eukaryotic Cell 25 4. Microfossils Homeotic Genes A microscopic fossil of bacteria protist A gene that specifies the identity of a body Chapter 18-Control/Regulators part segment during embryonic development or. 181 Homeodomain Hierarchical DNA binding domain in homeotic Gene regulation during development , proteins , whose sequences are similar from horrotic protein to the genes expressed at each stage in one the process control the expression of next. genes that act later. Cellular Blastoderm 18 3. Structure formed by the nuclei in Evolutionarily Conserved the single cell embryo & each nucleus Traits , structures , macromolecular becomes enclosed in its own cell membrane. Sequences that persist relatively Gastrulation unchanged through diversification of Cell movement which the cells of organisms & remain similar in animals in groups of the blastula migrate inwards creating germ of different in species layers. Loss of function mutation. Segmentation Genetic change inctiveaties that the Formation of discrete repeating parts or function of a gene. of Gain segments in developing body many animals. of function mutation Oocyte Mutation in which a gene is expressed unfertilized egq cell in animals produced by female in the wrong place or wrong time - parent Cis-Regulatory Element Maternal Effect genes Short DNA sequence adjacent to a gene. Expressed by mother that effects the phenotypes'end. of the offspring