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BIOLOGY 9 REVIEWER BIOLOGY | QUARTER 1 | 2024-2025 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Trachea system that takes up oxygen from the ★ extends from the larynx a...

BIOLOGY 9 REVIEWER BIOLOGY | QUARTER 1 | 2024-2025 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Trachea system that takes up oxygen from the ★ extends from the larynx and divides into ★ air as we breathe, and expels the two main bronchi unwanted carbon dioxide ★ secretes mucus to moisten inhaled air ★ a tube-like system that carries air into Respiration the bronchi ★ exchange of gasses (carbon dioxide and ★ has rings of cartilage that support it oxygen) in the body ★ 4 inches long ★ internal - the exchange of gasses between the blood and the body Bronchi ★ external - exchange of gasses between ★ two air tubes that are connected from the atmosphere and the blood. (occurs the trachea in the lungs) ★ carries air to the left and right lungs Bronchioles ★ thousands of tinier tubes that also serve PARTS AND ORGANS as air passages into the lungs Alveoli (Alveolus for singular term) ★ air sacs that are located throughout the lungs ★ where gas exchange occurs ★ made of thin wall cells and have a lot of surface area. ★ the surfactant is essential as it makes it easier for alveoli to deflate; or in other words, lowers surface tension. Nostrils Lungs ★ separates into two parts ★ two holes in front of your nose where ★ both sides are covered in a protective air passes through tissue called pleura ★ cilia filters the air that you breathe in ★ the left lung is generally smaller than ★ opening to the nasal cavity the right lung, because it consists of a Septum cardiac notch. ★ made of bone and firm cartilage ★ acts like a wall that separates your two nostrils GAS EXCHANGE PROCESS Nasal Cavity ★ where the oxygen passes through when you breathe ★ has cells that release mucus that can help filter out dust and dirt Pharynx (Throat) ★ carries food and fluid down the nose and mouth ★ consists of the epiglottis that serves as a “lid” in order for food and fluids to not go down to your windpipe. ★ connects the nasal cavity to the larynx Larynx Medulla Oblongata ★ the area containing the voice box ★ part of our brain that controls our ★ passageway for air between the breathing pharynx and the trachea Intercostal Muscles ★ muscles that contract and relax so we can breathe Contact [email protected] if there are concerns with the reviewer. “Good Luck, Babe!” – Chappell Roan  BIOLOGY 9 REVIEWER BIOLOGY | QUARTER 1 | 2024-2025 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) ★ the body’s transport system of oxygen ★ small, round, elastic, disc-shaped cells and nutrients so your organs can do that are thinned out in the center their jobs ★ forms in the bone marrow ★ where oxygen attaches ABOUT THE HEART ★ pumps blood around two circuits of White Blood Cells (Leukocytes) blood vessels ★ large, purplish-staining nucleus ★ located in the mediastinum in the center ★ protects the body from foreign invading of the chest cavity substances ★ beats an average of 60-100 bpm. ★ soldiers of the body LAYERS OF THE HEART Platelets NAME LOCATION ★ irregularly-shaped colorless bodies present in the blood EPICARDIUM ○ outer layer ★ contain and release a substance called ○ lines in the pericardial thromboplastin (a type of protein cavity needed for blood clotting) ★ prevents bleeding ENDOCARDIUM ○ inner layer ○ lines heart chambers and valves BLOOD VESSELS MYOCARDIUM ○ thick, muscular middle circulates blood throughout your body layer ★ helps deliver oxygen to vital organs ○ responsible for the ★ beating of the heart ★ includes veins, arteries, and capillaries. Arteries CIRCUITS OF THE BODY ★ muscular blood vessels that carry oxygen-rich blood from your heart to Systemic or the Main Circuit your body ★ carries blood that contains oxygen, vital nutrients, and hormones to every cell. ★ handle a large amount of force and ★ through the arteries, capillaries, in the pressure from your blood flow but don't tissues of the body carry a large volume of blood. ★ where the aorta, superior vena cava, and the inferior vena cava are located. Veins ★ carry large volumes of deoxygenated Pulmonary Circuit blood back to your heart ★ shunts de-oxygenated blood from the ★ thin, less elastic walls help them handle heart to the lungs high volumes and low pressure. ★ through the tricuspid valve, into the right ventricle, then it flows to the pulmonary valve, into the pulmonary artery. ★ where the main pulmonary artery and the pulmonary veins are located. Lymphatic System ★ considered part of the circulatory and immune system ★ manages the fluid vessels in the body ABOUT THE BLOOD Blood ★ responsible for making most of the functions happen. ★ connective tissue consisting of cells suspended in a liquid matrix called plasma. Contact [email protected] if there are concerns with the reviewer. “Good Luck, Babe!” – Chappell Roan  BIOLOGY 9 REVIEWER BIOLOGY | QUARTER 1 | 2024-2025 ★ located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery PARTS OF THE HEART Mitral Valve (bicuspid valve) ★ located between the left atrium and the HEART CHAMBERS left ventricle Right Atrium ★ has two leaflets, they allow blood to ★ takes in all the deoxygenated blood flow from your left atrium to your left from your body ventricle ★ blood enters through two large veins called your superior vena cava and Aortic Valve (semilunar valve) inferior vena cava ★ actively pumps blood through the aortic valve so it can travel throughout the Right Ventricle body. ★ blood from your right atrium passes ★ located between the left ventricle and through your tricuspid valve into your the aorta. right ventricle ★ blood flow from your heart’s left ★ forcefully pumps this blood through ventricle to aorta. your pulmonary valve into your pulmonary arteries and out into your lungs VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF THE HEART VALVES Left Atrium ★ oxygen-rich blood is held here ★ sends blood through the mitral valve and into the left ventricle. Left Ventricle ★ actively pumps blood through the aortic valve so it can travel throughout the body. VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF THE HEART CHAMBERS GREAT VESSELS Aorta ★ carries oxygen-rich blood directly out of your heart’s left ventricle ★ has many branches to nourish the rest of your body Superior Vena Cava ★ large vein that delivers oxygen-poor blood from your upper body into your heart’s right atrium Inferior Vena Cava VALVES ★ delivers oxygen-poor blood from your lower body into your heart’s right Tricuspid Valve (atrioventricular valve) atrium. ★ this valve has three leaflets, they allow blood to flow from the right atrium to Main Pulmonary Artery the right ventricle. ★ carries oxygen-poor blood from your ★ also prevents blood from flowing backward from the right ventricle to the heart’s right ventricle into your left and right atrium right pulmonary arteries ★ carries the blood to your lungs ★ located between the right atrium and right ventricle Pulmonary Veins ★ oxygen-rich blood from your lungs to Pulmonary Valve (semilunar valve) your heart ★ also has three leaflets, they allow blood ★ all of your pulmonary veins directly to pump from the right ventricle to the empty into your heart’s left atrium. pulmonary artery. ★ prevents blood from going backward from the pulmonary artery to the right ventricle Contact [email protected] if there are concerns with the reviewer. “Good Luck, Babe!” – Chappell Roan  BIOLOGY 9 REVIEWER BIOLOGY | QUARTER 1 | 2024-2025 VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF THE DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) GREAT HEART VESSELS ★ ★ found in the nucleus and mitochondria carries genetic information ★ a double helix structure Genes ★ inherited instructions that are passed from parent to offspring exist in the form of a chemical code ★ small segment of DNA that codes for the synthesis of a specific protein which plays a structural or functional role in the body Nucleotide ★ a building that is the basic building block of the nucleic acids RNA and RNA BLOOD FLOW IN THE HEART CHEMICAL COMPONENTS OF DNA NUCLEOTIDE Phosphate Group ★ phosphorus atom bound to four oxygen atoms ★ along with sugars and bases, it makes up nucleic acids 5-carbon Sugar (pentose) ★ deoxyribose is a five-carbon sugar found in DNA ★ nucleotide’s central molecule. Nitrogenous Base ★ Pyrimidines (single ring structure): Thymine, Cytosine Purines (double ring structure): Adenine, Guanine ★ Adenine to Thymine, Guanine to Cytosine ★ the order of nitrogenous bases makes us unique from one another. Contact [email protected] if there are concerns with the reviewer. “Good Luck, Babe!” – Chappell Roan  BIOLOGY 9 REVIEWER BIOLOGY | QUARTER 1 | 2024-2025 Antiparallel Strands ★ this arrangement enables the CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE nitrogenous bases on both strands to PART LOCATION & FUNCTION come into contact at the center of the molecule CENTROMERE ○ narrow divides region that the James Watson and Francis Crick chromosome into a ★ the clues in Franklin’s X-ray pattern long arm and a short enabled Watson and Crick to build a arm model that explained the specific KINETOCHORE ○ a structure of proteins structure and properties of DNA. attached to the ★ model of DNA was a double helix centromere according to their breakthrough. ○ links each sister chromatid to the mitotic Erwin Chargaff spindle ★ the base composition of DNA varies from one species to another. TELOMERE ○ the tandemly repetitive ★ he created the rule of base pairing (TTAGGG) DNA at the end of a known as the “Chargaff’s Rule of Base eukaryotic Pairing” (Adenine to Thymine, Guanine chromosome’s DNA to Cytosine) molecule ○ protect the organism’s genes from being CHROMOSOMES AND GENES eroded during successive rounds of Gene replication. ★ section of DNA that oversee different functions like making proteins ★ carriers of hereditary information ★ humans have an estimated number of protein genes of about 20,000 - 25,000 Chromosomes ★ thread-like structures composed of proteins called histones and DNA molecule ★ carries of gene, the unit determiners of hereditary characteristics. Chromatid CHROMOSOME NUMBER IN HUMANS ★ each of the two thread-like strands into which a chromosome divides Somatic Chromosome Number (2n) longitudinally during cell division ★ any chromosome that is not a sex ★ each contains a double-helix of DNA chromosome ★ appear in pairs in body cells (46) Chromatin Gametic Chromosome Number (n) ★ the material of which the chromosomes of organisms other than bacteria are ★ any of the chromosomes contained in a composed, consisting of proteins, RNA haploid cell, specifically a and DNA spermatozoon or an ovum. (23) Autosome ★ one of the 22 numbered pairs of chromosomes that most of us carry in almost all of the cells of our body Sex Chromosome ★ a type of chromosome involved in sex determination ★ Female: XX Male: XY ★ chromosome Y determines the sex Contact [email protected] if there are concerns with the reviewer. “Good Luck, Babe!” – Chappell Roan  BIOLOGY 9 REVIEWER BIOLOGY | QUARTER 1 | 2024-2025 Chromosome 17 Polygenic Traits ★ contains over 1600 genes ★ are controlled by more than one gene ★ BRCA1 is a gene that produces proteins ★ Pleiotropy - situation in which a gene that help repair damaged DNA affects more than one phenotypic trait ★ Epistasis - where the expression of one Chromosome X gene is masks the effect of the other ★ contains over 1400 genes gene ★ Hemophilia A is a disease associated with this chromosome PHOTOSYNTHESIS ★ can be found on the long arm ★ “photo” means light, “synthesis” means to build something ★ a biological process convert light NON-MENDELIAN GENETICS energy into chemical energy necessary ★ patterns that do not follow Mendel’s to fuel their metabolism laws Incomplete Dominance Chloroplasts ★ an organelle that contains the ★ the dominant allele is not completely photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll that dominant to the recessive allele captures sunlight and converts it into ★ becomes an intermediate phenotype in useful energy heterozygous who inherit both alleles Codominance STRUCTURE OF THE CHLOROPLAST ★ two alleles for a gene are expressed equally in the phenotype of heterozygous or heterozygotes Sex-Linked Traits ★ refers to characteristics (or traits) that are influenced by genes carried on the sex chromosomes. ★ in humans, the term often refers to the traits or disorders influenced by genes on the X chromosome (hence why males are much more affected) BIOcabulary NADP+ (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) ★ accepts and holds 2 high-energy electrons, along with hydrogen ion (H+) ★ can be reduced to NADPH NADPH ★ can carry the high-energy that were produced by light absorption in chlorophyll to chemical reactions elsewhere in the cell G3P (Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate) ★ a three-carbon molecule which is a Multiple Alleles primary product of the Calvin cycle that ★ traits controlled by a single gene with will be converted into glucose. more than two alleles RuBP - Ribulose Biphosphate ★ a five-carbon sugar that is combined with carbon dioxide to form two-three carbon (PGA) Contact [email protected] if there are concerns with the reviewer. “Good Luck, Babe!” – Chappell Roan  BIOLOGY 9 REVIEWER BIOLOGY | QUARTER 1 | 2024-2025 Rubisco (Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase-Oxygenase) ★ most abundant protein in the biosphere ★ first step of the Calvin cycle ★ catalyzes the first step of carbon fixation TWO STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS Light-Dependent CELLULAR RESPIRATION ★ convert solar energy to chemical energy ★ the process which cells convert the ★ water is split, providing a source of energy stored in glucose into useable electrons and protons and giving off energy in the form of ATP oxygen as a by-product ★ light absorbed by chlorophyll drives a BREAKDOWN OF CELLULAR transfer of the electrons and hydrogen RESPIRATION ions from a water to an acceptor called PROCESS WHAT HAPPENS NADP+ GLYCOLYSIS ○ occurs in the cytoplasm (NET: 2 ATP) ○ glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate ○ this process produces a small amount of ATP and NADPH ○ no oxygen required KREBS CYCLE ○ occurs in the (NET: 2 ATP) mitochondria ○ pyruvate is converted Light-Independent (Calvin Cycle) into acetyl-CoA, which ★ carbon dioxide from air binds into organic molecules already present in enters the Krebs cycle the chloroplast, this is known as carbon (also called the Citric Acid Cycle) fixation. ○ carbon dioxide is ★ reduces the fixed carbon to produced, and energy carbohydrates by the addition of carriers (NADH and electrons. (NADPH) FADH2) are generated along with a small ★ needs the chemical energy form of ATP to convert carbon dioxide to amount of ATP ○ needs oxygen carbohydrate ELECTRON ○ occurs in the TRANSPORT mitochondria TRAIN (32-34 ○ NADH and FADH2 pass ATP) their electrons to a series of proteins in the inner mitochondrial membrane ○ the energy drives ATP synthase, which produces a large amount of ATP ○ oxygen is the final acceptor Contact [email protected] if there are concerns with the reviewer. “Good Luck, Babe!” – Chappell Roan