BIOCHEMISTRY REVIEWER .pdf

BIOCHEMISTRY REVIEWER Rudolf Virchow - Stated “Omnis cellula e cellula” means all Biochemistry cells only arise from pre-existing cells. study of c...

BIOCHEMISTRY REVIEWER Rudolf Virchow - Stated “Omnis cellula e cellula” means all Biochemistry cells only arise from pre-existing cells. study of chemical processes and substances - Modern cell theory: The cell is the that occur within living organisms. fundamental unit of structure and Combines principles of both biology and function in living things. chemistry to explore molecular mechanism. - All organisms are made up of one or THE 4 MAJOR CLASSES OF BIOMOLECULES more cells. Carbohydrates - Cells arise from other cells through Proteins cellular division. Lipids TYPES OF CELLS Nucleic acids PROKARYOTIC CELL - no nucleus, but it called nucleoid BRIEF HISTORY - all are single-celled microorganisms Wohler (1828) – synthesized the first organic - 0.1 to 0.5 um in dm compound – UREA from inorganic - Hereditary material can either be DNA or compound RNA Schleiden and Schwann (1838) – enunciated - Also known to use conjugation the cell theory CELL STRUCTURE Louis Pasteur (1854-64) – Proved that - Capsule – an outer protective covering microorganisms cause fermentation - Cell wall – the outermost layer of the cell Mendel (1866) – reported the principles of which gives shape to the cell segregation and independent assortment - Cytoplasm - mainly composed of genes. enzymes, salts, cell organelles, etc. Miesher (1869) – discovered DNA - Cell membrane – surround the Buchner (1897) – discovered alcoholic cytoplasm and regulates the entry and fermentation in cell-free yeast extract exit of substances in the cells Neuberg (1903) – first used the term - Pili – hair-like growths that attach to the ‘biochemistry’ surface of other bacterial cells. - Flagella – long structures in the form of Neuberg (1912) – proposed chemical a whip. pathway of fermentation - Ribosomes – involved in protein Michaelis and Menten (1913) – developed synthesis kinetic theory of enzyme action - Plasmids – non-chromosomal DNA BIOCHEMISTRY - Chemistry of living organisms structures. Not involved in reproduction. - Chemical reactions can be studied at the - Nucleoid region – region in the molecular level of organisms cytoplasm where the genetic material is Cell present. the basic unit of life EUKARYOTIC CELL structural, functional, and biological units of - True nucleus all living beings - Between 10-100um in dm. - Category involves plants, fungi, known as the building blocks of life protozoans and animals provide structure to the body and convert the - Plasma membrane is responsible for nutrients taken from the food into energy monitoring the transport of nutrients and DISCOVERY OF CELL electrolytes in and out of the cells. Also Robert Hooke responsible for cell-to-cell - first Biologists who discovered the cell in communication. 1665. CELL STRUCTURES - Observing cork in microscope and - Cell Membrane – supports and protects reminded him of small rooms, he named the cell. Also known as plasma these “rooms” as a cells membrane. Separates the interior of the Anton Van Leeuwenhoek cell from the external environment. - Observed cells under another compound Animal Cells. microscope with higher magnification 10x - Cell wall – most prominent part of the - Cells exhibited some form of movement plants cell structure. The outermost layer (motility) of plant cells. A rigid and stiff structure - These microscopic entities were “alive” surrounding the cell membrane. Provides and named as animalcules. shape and support to the cells and Robert Brown protects them from injuries. Made up of - Able to describe the nucleus present in cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin the cells of orchid in 1883 - Cytoplasm – thick, clear, jelly-like Matthias Schleiden & Theodor Schwann substance present inside the cell Proposed the unified cell theory membrane. Most of the chemical - All living things are composed of one or reactions within a cell take place in this more cells cytoplasm. - The cell is the basic unit of life - Nucleus -contains hereditary material of - New cells arise from existing cells the cell, the DNA. Sends signal to the cells  to grow, mature, divide and die. 2. Found in all disaccharides & Surrounded by the nuclear envelope that polysaccharides separates the DNA from the rest of the cell. - Fructose – fruit sugar CELL ORGANELLES & FUNCTIONS 1. Found in fruit, honey, syrup - Nucleolus – the site of ribosome 2. Converts to glucose in the body synthesis. Also, involved in controlling - Galactose – part of lactose cellular activities and cellular 1. Found in milk reproduction. 2. Converts to glucose in the body DISACCHARIDES - Nuclear membrane - protects the nucleus by forming boundary between Two joined monosaccharides bound together the nucleus and other cell organelles by a covalent bond known as a glycosidic - Chromosomes – play a crucial role in linkage determining the sex of an individual. 23 - Sucrose – table sugar pairs of chromosomes 1. Glucose + Fructose - Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – has 2. Refined from sugar beets & cane - Lactose – milk sugar ribosomes, which are small, round 1. Glucose + Galactose organelles whose function it is to make 2. Lactose intolerance – missing those proteins digestive enzyme needed to split into - Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – two disaccharide parts to absorb it. many metabolic processes. It - Maltose – malt sugar synthesizes lipids, phospholipids as in 1. Glucose + Glucose plasma membranes, and steroids. 2. Found in germinating seeds and used - Golgi Apparatus – the cell’s post office in fermentation to produce malted as it is involved in the transportation of beverages (beer, whiskey) materials within the cell. CONDENSATION - Mitochondria – the powerhouse of the - The process of joining two cell. Because it produces ATP – the cell’s monosaccharides, releasing a molecule energy currency. water - Lysosomes – protects the cell by HYDROLYSIS engulfing the foreign bodies entering the - Splitting a disaccharide into two cell and help in cell renewal. Therefore, monosaccharides by adding water. they are known as the cell’s suicide bags. POLYSACCHARIDES - Ribosome – in-charge of protein- - Glycogen – long chains of glucose found synthesis in the cell in animals - Vacuoles – store food, water, and other 1. Stored in liver and muscles waste material in the cell 2. Helps maintain blood glucose and - Chloroplast – the primary organelles for important source of “quick energy” photosynthesis. It contains the pigment - Starch – long chains of glucose found in called chlorophyll plants 1. Cereal grains (wheat, rice, corn), CARBOHYRATES legumes (beans & peas), and root - Most abundant of all organic compounds vegetables (potatoes, yams) in nature. - Fiber – mostly indigestible CHO - Primarily composed of the elements 1. Component of plant cell walls CHO (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen) (1:2:1 2. Classified according to solubiity in ratio) water - Defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or 3. Abundant in whole grains, legumes, ketones and their derivates or fruits, and vegetables substances INSOLUBLE – nonviscous; cellulose, - Name carbohydrate means hydrogen of lignins (brown rice, fruits, seeds, carbon. vegetables, wheat bran, whole grain). - Monomer (building block): Extracted and used as food addictive monosaccharide (C6H12O6) SOLUBLE – viscous & fermentable; - Polymer: polysaccharides (starch, pectins, gums, mucilages (whole-grains, glycogen, cellulose, chitin) fruits, seeds and husks, vege). Extracted - -ose indicates sugar and used as food addictive. SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATES Monosaccharides major source of fuel for DIGESTION – main function of carbohydrates is to metabolism provide your body with energy to support muscular 1. The placement of its carbonyl group, work, brain activity, breathing and other important 2. The number of carbon atoms it contains, activities. 3. The chiral handedness - Mouth – salivary amylase - Esophagus – Bolus MONOSACCHARIDES - Stomach (chyme) – Fibers and satiety - Simple carbohydrates or simple sugar - Small Intestine - Maltase, Sucrase, - Glucose – dextrose or blood sugar Lactase (enzymes) 1. Primarily fuel for the body - Liver – converts into glucose  - Pancreas – pancreatic amylase 2. Causes tooth decay - Large intestine- fermentation of viscous 3. Does not cause, but can contribute to fibers, water, gas, short chain fatty acid obesity, diabetes, heart disease, and production. (waste from our body) behavioral problems Peristhalisis- pressure to go down in the ACCUSATIONS AGAINST SUGARS stomach - Causes obesity - Causes heart disease ABSORPTION - Causes misbehavior in children and - Monosaccharides produced by the criminal behavior in adults digestion of carbohydrates are glucose, - Causes cravings and addictions fructose, and galactose - Serotonin - Only monosaccharides are absorbed by REECOMMENDED INTAKES OF SUGAR the intestine - Daily Recommended Intake METABOLISM – glucose in the body - No more than 25% of total daily energy - Used for energy – fuels most of the intake body’s cells - Limit added sugars to