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Chapter I: Introduction to Biology - Can only produce 10 amino acids : Alanine, Aspartic Acid, Cysteine, Cystine, Glutamic Acid, Glycine, Chapter II: The Ba...

Chapter I: Introduction to Biology - Can only produce 10 amino acids : Alanine, Aspartic Acid, Cysteine, Cystine, Glutamic Acid, Glycine, Chapter II: The Basic Unit of Life Hydroxyproline, Proline, Serine, Tyrosine Prokaryotes - Stem cells can be converted to other - Bacteria and Cynobacteria types of cells - Does not have a nuclear - When increases in numbers, it also membrane/Nucleus increases in size - The loop of the DNA is in the cytoplasm - Most animals can exhibit movement - RNA and Protein are both synthesized - Have cell membrane instead of cell wall in the same compartment : Cell membrane – a barrier that keep - Has a cytoplasm but does not contain the constituents of the cell in and cytoskeleton unwanted substances out. Act as a gate - Very few organelles are present that allows waste waste materials to be - Unicellular moved out of the cell and the essential nutrients to be transported into it. - Golgi bodies is single highly elaborate Eukaryotes - In terms of Centrioles, it serves as a - Protists (algae, amoeba), Fungi cytoskeleton and has this cylindrical (yeasts, molds), plants and animals structures for the organization of - Contains Nucleus microtubules in cell division. - Nuclear membrane is present - Cilia is present; it is actually - Thin, very long DNA into the microtubules for cellular locomotion chromosomes in the nucleus - Vacuole: Small - RNA is synthesized in the nucleus while - Cytokinesis: cleavage furrow is formed protein is synthesized in the cytoplasm that divides the cell into two - Cytoskeleton is present - Lysosomes: has enzymes that digest - Many organelles are present cellular macromolecules - Mainly sexual (Mitosis and meiosis) - Must obtain energy for them to grow and develop. Plant Cell - Also use the energy acquired by means - Larger than animal cells (10-100 of cellular respiration to perform micrometers in lengths) various cellular functions to maintain - Similar Sizes homeostasis in the body. - Rectangular tube Very common multicellular organisms are - Can produce its own food by plants and animals. photosynthesis (photosynthesis produces Water and Oxygen) - Stores energy as Starch Animal Cell - Can synthesize all 20 amino acids : Alanine, Arginine, Asparagine, - Smaller than plant cells (10-30 Aspartic Acid, Cysteine, Glutamic micrometers in length) acid, Glutamine, Glycine, Histidine, - Various sizes Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, - Round and Irregular Methionine, Phenylalanine, Proline, - Cannot produce their own food Serine, Threonine, Tryptophan, (heterotrophs); dependent only in Tyrosine, Valine plants - Capable of differentiation - Stores energy in glycogen in the form of carbohydrates  - Grows if more water is absorbed by the c. Red Blood Cells vacuole - Carries oxygen to the tissues of the - Do not exhibit movement body - Has a cell wall made up of cellulose d. Fat Cells : Cell Wall – Permeable, mahina, it - Stored fat for energy serves as the protection - Produce hormones that influence : Cellulose- most essential structural metabolism component of plant cell walls. It is made e. Epithelial Cells up of tough carbohydrate fiber that has - Protect underlying structure such as the a polysaccharide structure. lining in your mouth - In terms of Golgi Bodies, plant cells f. Skin Cells have many simpler units called - Protection of the body against damage dictyosomes - Acts as 1st line of defense against - Vacuole is large bacteria - Cytokinesis: cell plate is formed that - Prevent dehydrations divides the cell - Can store fats - Lysosomes: rarely contain lysosomes g. Sex Cells for digestion of large molecules. - Unite during fertilization for - Contain Plasmodesmata and reproduction Glyoxysomes h. Stem Cells - Plasmodesmata: an opening to the - Have the ability to develop into other cell specialized cells for organs/tissues - Glyoxysomes: Convert fatty acids to - Can be generated for the treatment of carbohydrates diseases and tissue repair i. Endothelial Cells - Creation of new blood vessels Cell types in Plants - Gases, macromolecule and fluid regulation a. Parenchyma Cells - Blood pressure regulation - Synthesize and storage of food b. Collenchyma Cells Chapter III: Inside the Cell: Parts - Provide mainly the support and Functions - Thicker primary cell walls c. Sclerenchyma Cells Cell Structure - Provide the support and protection 1. Cell membrane - Thicker secondary cell walls - Outer layer of the cell d. Cork Cells - Composed of a double layer of - Protection and prevent water loss phospholipids in which proteins are e. Tracheids embedded - Transport of water - Gives form to the cell Cell Types in Animals - Controls or regulates the passage of substances in and out of the cell a. Nephron Cells 2. Cytoplasm - Smaller units in kidneys - The living matter within the cell - Aid in the filtering of blood and - Fluid and jelly-like substance called extraction of wastes hyaloplasm b. Nerve Cells 3. Nucleus - Send electrical signals among the - Separated by a porous nuclear brain, spinal cord, and other organs of membrane within the hyaloplasm the body.  - Has liquid portion called karyolymph, 3. Golgi Apparatus where chromatin materials and - Cluster of flattened membranous sacs nucleolus are found. that are continuous with the channels of the SER. - For storage, modification and Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) packing of materials produced for secretory export. - Controls the passage of enzymes in the - Involved in the formation of lysosomes cell. and other transport vesicles of the cell. - Genetic make-up of human II. Energy Processing Nucleolus 4. Mitochondria - Double walled membranous sacs with - An aggregate of granules made of folded inner partitions called cristae. ribonucleic acid. Contains its own DNA and ribosomes. Ribonucleic Acid - It can independently replicate itself and appear to control the synthesis of its - Responsible for making amino acid to membrane. protein. - Release energy from food molecules Cell Membrane and transform it into usable Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) which happens - Outermost layer of an animal cell and in during cellular respiration. plants, cell wall is the outermost layer. 5. Chloroplast Cytoplasm - Double membrane organelles with inner folds called thylakoids and has - is grouped into four types based on similar characteristics with their function mitochondria. I. Cell Manufacturer - Responsible for the conversion of light 1. Ribosomes energy to chemical energy of sugars in - Occur as free particles suspended the photo synthetic process in plants. within the cytoplasm if attached to the - A stack of thylakoids is called granum, membranous wall of the Endoplasmic s., grana, p. Reticulum granular particles composed III. Breakdown of Materials of protein and RNA. 6. Lysosomes - Synthesize protein molecules that - Single walled membranous sacs maybe used to build cell structures or to - Responsible for digestion of nutrients, function as enzymes. bacteria and damaged cells or 2. Endoplasmic Reticulum programmed cell death during - Series of membranous channels that embryonic development. forms continuous network extending 7. Peroxisomes from the cell membrane to the nucleus. - Spherical membranous vesicles that - Some are attached to the ER that give contain enzymes. them a rough appearance. - Detoxify harmful molecules and the a. Rough ER enzymes produced are involved in the - Associated with active protein oxidative deamination of amino acids synthesis process. and breakdown of hydrogen peroxide. b. Smooth ER 8. Vacuoles - Does not contain ribosomes and - Membranous sacs involved in the synthesis and transport - Store and release various substances of lipids or detoxification of a variety of within the cytoplasm. poisons in the cell. - Responsible for cell enlargement and water balance.  IV. Support and Movement Anton Van Leeuwenhoek 9. Cytoskeletons - The one who invented the optical - Includes the centrosomes, cilia, microscope. flagella, fibrils, and microtubules found either in plant or animal cells. Ernest Ruska - Used in the maintenance of cell shape. a. Centrosomes - Electron Microscope - Found only in animal cells which help Albert Crewe to organize spindle fibers and distribute chromosomes during mitotic cell - The one who further developed the division. electron microscope. b. Cilia and flagella - 7.5 million times - For locomotion Optical Microscope - Minute cytoplasmic projections found in animal cells. - Classified into three: simple, c. Fibrils and microtubules compound, and optical microscope - Thin hollow tubes that support the - Just like a magnifying glass that cytoplasm and transport materials consists of double convex lens and within the cytoplasm having a short focal length. - 2000 times Nucleus Compound Microscope - Bounded by a membrane - Controls or regulates all chemical - Made up of system of lenses that can reactions within the cell invert images. Plastids Parts of a Compound Microscope - Inside the chloroplast I. Mechanical Parts (Framework of - Found only in plants and serve as sites the Microscope) of photosynthesis and storage of starch 1. Stand/Base a. Chloroplastids - Horse-shoe shaped iron portion that - Contain chlorophyll (green pigments) supports the entire microscope b. Xanthophylls 2. Pillar - Yellow pigments - Short connection between the base c. Carotenes and the microscope - Orange pigments 3. Inclination Joint d. Leucoplastids - Located between the pillar and the arm - Colorless pigments for tilting the upper part of the microscope to a desired postion. Cell wall 4. Substage - Outermost layer in plant cells that - Located immediately below the stage contain cellulose that provides support containing the iris diaphragm and to the plant body. condenser 5. Stage Chapter IV: Viewing the Cell: The use of - Platform with an opening to let the light microscope pass and where the slied with the specimen is placed. Microscope 6. Arm or Handle - One of the important tools used by - Connects the base with the body tube biologists in their experimental 7. Stage Clips analysis. - Keep the glass slide in place  8. Fine Adjustment Knob special oil is placed to an object being - Smaller wheel to see the finer detail of studied. the object for precise focusing. The difference between HPO and LPO, and 9. Coarse adjustment Knob OIO is that the first one uses water, while - Large wheel used along with LPO for the latter one uses oil. rough focus of the specimen 10. Revolving Nosepiece Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) - Below the draw tube for attachment - Offers very high magnification (ability and shifting of objectives to make an object appear larger) and 11. Dust shield resolution (capacity to distinguish - Black metallic disk above the revolving various objects which are close to one nosepiece to prevent dust entering the another) objectives - The beam of electrons are passed 12. Body Tube through a specimen and form an - Supports the objectives and the ocular image on a piece of fil (photographic 13. Draw Tube plate) however, it does not give - A place where the eyepiece or an information of the three dimensional ocular is inserted. shape of the specimen because the II. Illuminating Parts (Regulation of specimen needs to be sliced first. Light) 1. Mirror Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) - Used to focus the rays of the light source from the sun toward the object. - Used to see the surface of the 2. Light Bulb specimen. The specimen is not sliced. - Used as artificial source of rays of light - Electrons bounced off the surface toward the object. forming an image to be displayed on a 3. Abbe Condenser video screen. - Used to further control or concentrate Scanning Tunnelling Microscope (STM) the light from the source 4. Iris Diaphragm - The latest advancement in electron - Regulates the amount of light passing microscope. through the condenser - Uses an ultrafine electron-emitting III. Magnifying Parts (Enlargement if probe. Objects) - Used to view the living cells. 1. Eyepiece - The movements made (up and down - Fits into the draw tube; has MAGI to see the contours of the object) are - Microscope-assisted guided used by computer to reconstruct an intervention image of the surface of the object. 2. Objectives (Magnifying Lenses) - Small tubes containing lenses attached to the nosepiece which magnify the object or the specimen; - Lower Power Objective (LPO)- shorter tube; marked 10X which is the lowest ocular magnification - High Power Objective (HPO) – marked 45X or 43X or 40X sometimes - Oil Immersion Objective – same length as the HPO; marked 97 or 100X; a  Chapter V: The Reproduction of Cells - Cell Cleavage in animal cell, and Cell plate in plant cell. Eukaryotic cell reproduces by mitosis, Cell Cycle the process of nuclear division, and cytokinesis, the process of cytoplasm - The ability to grow and reproduce division. through a complex sequence events Cell division in Prokaryotes occur by Reproduction binary fission. 1. Prokaryotes cell copies DNA - A cellular process by which an 2. Cell begins to divide organism produces others of the same 3. 2 identical haploid cell are kind. produced that contain identical Cell Division DNA. Eukaryotic cell division is much more - In unicellular organisms, it produces complex. two new individuals to increase their 1. Mitosis numbers while in multicellular - Results in new cell with genetic organisms, cell division is not just part material that is identical to the original of the growth of the organism but also cell. it is responsible for the repair of - Body Cells damaged cell. - Somatic Cells Cells go through a life cycle that includes: 2. Meiosis Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis. - Reduces the chromosome number by half in the new cells. Ex: sex cells. Cells grow until they reach their size - Sex cells limit, then they either stop growing or - Gametes divide. - It stops growing because of consuming too much nutrients. Cell Cycle Phases Events - Maximum limits – to not consume Gap1 Growing, more nutrients, they divide or stop Interphase carrying out growing. normal cell Cell division prevents the cell from functions, becoming too large preparing to The cell reproduces so that you can replicate grow and heal certain injuries DNA. S phase, Copies DNA synthesis for cell Interphase division. Gap2 Preparation - Cell grows, carries out cellular for mitosis. functions, replicate. Division of nucleus. Mitosis - Cell’s nucleus and nuclear material divide Cytokinesis - Division of the cytoplasm to form two separate cells.  Prophase - Formation of visible threads of chromosomes with each strand called, chromatid, chromatids will become visible in pairs. - The nucleolus and nuclear membrane begin to disappear. - Centrosomes and centrioles begin to appear and start to move to the opposite ends of the cell. - As the centrosomes separate, spindle fibers begin to form and create a structure known as mitotic spindle. - Mitotic Spindle helps to divide the chromatids into equal halves. - 2 types of fibers; Kinetochore and Polar Metaphase - Sister chromatids are pulled along the spindle apparatus toward the center. - They line up in the middle of the cell. Mitosis - Chromosomes pulled toward the center. - Easiest way to see chromosomes. Anaphase - The microtubules of the spindle apparatus begin to shorten. - Sister chromatids separate. - Chromosomes move toward the poles/opposite poles of the cell. Telophase - Chromosomes arrived at the poles and begin to relax. - 2 new nuclear membrane begin to form and the nuclear reappear. - Spindle apparatus disassemble - New chromatid inside the nucleus.