BHM 271 - Intermediate Food Production Course PDF

**'** **Intermediate Course in Food Production (Theory)** **BHM 271** **2^nd^ Year - Semester: 3** **Course Book** **Compiled By:** **SUDHAKAR D. NAYAK** **Assistant Professor** **WGSHA** **Manipal Academy of Higher Education** Name of the Program: Bachelors in Hotel Management Course Title: Intermediate course in Food Production Course Code: BHM 271 Course Instructor: Chef Sudhakar D.Nayak Academic Year: 2022-2023 Semester: Second Year, Semester 3 No of Credits: 3 Prerequisites: Completion of Semester 2 Synopsis: An intermediate food production course which provides the student with the opportunity to achieve competence to develop an insight upon Meat cookery, Fish cookery, Commodities, menu planning. Course Outcomes (COs): On successful completion of this course, students will be able to CO 1: Describe characteristics of kitchen commodities. CO 2: Define basic culinary terminology. CO 3: Demonstrate the ability to plan Menu on basis of given resources. Mapping of COs to POs COs PO 1 PO 2 PO 3 PO 4 PO 5 PO 6 PO 7 PO 8 PO 9 PO 10 CO 1 x x X x CO 2 x x x x CO 3 x x x x Course content and outcomes: Content Competencies No of Hours Unit 1: Meat, Poultry and Game Introduction to Meat and Meat Products, Meat basics, Inspection and Grading. Markets forms of Meat and poultry, Physical and Chemical Characteristics of meats. Identify various types of meats. (C1) Distinguish between different meat products. (C4) List cuts of beef, veal, lamb, pork, chicken, game. (C1) List the factors affecting meat tenderness. (C2) Importance of selection and storage of meat. (C2) Differentiate cooking methods for various cuts of meat. (C4) O8 Unit 2: Rice, Cereals, and pulses Introduction to Rice, Cereals and Pulses, Common Beans, Cereal Products, Cooking with Rice. Identify various types of rice, cereals, and pulses used in kitchen.(C1) Categorise rice, cereals, and pulses based on cooking methods. (C4) 06 Unit 3: Milk & Milk Products Dairy products, Forms of Milk and Cream, Milk products, Types of Cheese. Explain physical and chemical composition of milk. (C2) Enlist the types of milk and milk products. (C1) Describe the manufacture process of cheese, cream and butter.(C1) 06 Unit 4: Potato, pasta and other starches Introduction, Food value, Storage, Types of potato Classical preparation, Varieties, Checking for Quality, Food value, Market forms of various pasta and sauces Other Starches: Different forms of starches used in Kitchen. Describe characteristics of potatoes. (C1) Enlist classical potato preparation. (C2) Identify major kinds and shapes of pasta.(C2) Describe process of manufacturing of fresh and commercial pasta. (C2) Enlist sauces required for pasta preparation.(C1) Enlist starch and thickening agents used in kitchen. (C1) Describe the uses of starch and thickening agents in kitchen. ( C2) 06 Unit 5: Menu Planning Factors affecting menu planning Menu Design, Menu Balancing. Rechaufe cookery Identify various types of factors affecting menu Planning. (C1) Discuss impact of factors affecting menu planning. ( C2) Describe techniques used in menu balancing. (C2) Distinguish major principles of reheating, Precautions to be taken. (C2) 06 Learning strategies, contact hours and student learning time Learning strategy Contact hours Student learning time (Hrs) Lecture 24 Seminar Small Group Discussion (SGD) Self-directed learning (SDL) 18 Problem Based Learning (PBL) Case Based Learning (CBL) Assignments / Tasks, etc. (in class / out of class) 04 Clinic Revision 02 Practical Assessment 06 TOTAL 36 18 Assessment Methods: Formative: Summative: Class tests Midterm examination Assignments/presentations End semester examination Quiz Mapping of assessment with Cos Nature of assessment CO 1 CO 2 CO 3 Midterm examinations x x Class test x x x Assignments/Presentations x x x End semester examination x x x Feedback Process Mid-Semester feedback End-Semester Feedback Reference Material The Professional Chef - The Culinary Institute of America Practical Cookery - Kinton, Ceserani and Foskett Theory of Catering - Kinton, Ceserani and Foskett Food Production Operation - Parvinder S. Bali Professional Cooking - Wayne Gisslen Cookery for the Hospitality Industry - Dodgshun Peters Modern Cookery - Thangam E Phillip Advanced Professional Cooking - Wayne Gisslen +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Assessment** | | +===================================+===================================+ | **Formative:** | **Summative:** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Theory assignments** | **Midterm examinations** | | | | | **Learners are required to | **End semester examination** | | complete Theory assignments. The | | | Assessment Pack which includes | **Internally set question | | specific guidance, information, | papers** | | and instructions provided by | | | Subject Faculty.** | **To achieve the qualification, | | | candidates are required to be | | **Written assignments, Class | successful in the End semester | | tests, Presentation, E-Poster, | examination.** | | Online Course (Coursera)** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **[Unit 1 -- MEAT, POULTRY & GAME]** **[CHAPTER -- 1]** **[Meat, Meat Products and Game]** Meat is muscle tissue. It is the flesh of domestic animals (cattle, hogs, and lambs) and of wild game animals (such as deer). **Meat is broadly classified into the following three types:-** - **Bovines- Ox/Bull, Cow, Buffalo, Bison** - **Ovines- Sheep, Lamb, Goat, Deer** - **Swines- Pig, Wild boar** **[Categories of meat]** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **BEEF** | **Lamb & Mutton** | **Pork** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | - **Bull/Cow** | - **Lamb** | - **Hog** | | | | | | **Male is called | Lamb is a baby sheep | **Castrated male | | bull** | of either sex. | pig** | | | | | | **Female is called | - Ram / Hogget | - **Pork** | | cow after calving** | | | | | Is a male sheep, used | **Meat from the hogs | | - **Steer** | for breeding | that are 5 months or | | | | older** | | **A castrated male | - Ewe | | | bull when young** | | - **Sow pig** | | | Is an adult female | | | - **Stag** | sheep. | **A young female** | | | | | | **Castrated mature | - Wether | - **Boar** | | male** | | | | | A castrated mature | **Male pig** | | - **Veal** | male lamb | | | | | - **Suckling pig** | | **Young cattle 0-3 | - Khasi | | | months age** | | **Baby pigs 6-8 weeks | | | Castrated male goat | old which are still | | - **Calf** | in India | feeding on milk** | | | | | | **3-6 months of age** | - Kid | | | | | | | - **Yearling | 30-60 days old lamb | | | bull/cow** | of either sex | | | | | | | **Bull/cow under 12 | - Mutton | | | months of age** | | | | | Lamb/Goat above 12 | | | | months of age | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **[Composition, Structure, and Basic Quality Factors]** **[Composition]** Muscle tissue consists of three major components: water, protein, and fat. - **Water -** Water is about 75 percent of muscle tissue. With such a high percentage of water, you can see why shrinkage can be a big problem in cooking meat. Too much moisture loss means dry meat, loss of weight, and loss of profit. - **Protein -** Protein is an important nutrient and the most abundant solid material in meat. About 20 percent of muscle tissue is protein. Protein coagulates when it is heated. This means it becomes firmer and loses moisture. Coagulation is related to doneness. When protein has coagulated to the desired degree, the meat is said to be "done." Doneness is discussed later in this chapter. After protein has coagulated, applying higher heat toughens it. - **Fat -** Fat accounts for up to 5 percent of muscle tissue. Of course, more fat may surround the muscles. A beef carcass can be as much as 30 percent fat. Because of health and dietary concerns, many meat animals are being bred and raised with a lower fat content than in past years. Nevertheless, a certain amount of fat is desirable for three reasons: - [Juiciness.] Marbling is fat deposited within the muscle tissue. The juiciness we enjoy in well-marbled beef is due more to fat than to moisture. Surface fat protects the meat---especially roasts---from drying out during cooking as well as in storage. Adding surface fats where they are lacking is called **barding**. - [Tenderness]. Marbling separates muscle fibers, making them easier to chew. - [Flavor.] Fat is perhaps the main source of flavor in meat. A well-marbled Prime (top grade) steak tastes "beefier" than the same cut of a lower grade. - **Carbohydrate -** Meat contains a very small amount of carbohydrate. From the standpoint of nutrition, its quantity is so small that it is insignificant. It is important, however, because it plays a necessary part in the complex reaction, called the **Maillard reaction** that takes place when meats are browned by roasting, broiling, or sautéing. Without these carbohydrates, the desirable flavor and appearance of browned meats would not be achieved. - **Muscle Fibers Lean** meat is composed of long, thin muscle fibers bound together in bundles. These determine the texture or grain of a piece of meat. Fine-grained meat is composed of small fibers bound in small bundles. Coarse-textured meat has large fibers. Feel the cut surface of a tenderloin steak, and compare its smooth texture to the rough cut surface of brisket or bottom round. - **Connective Tissue -** Muscle fibers are bound together in a network of proteins called connective tissue. Each muscle fiber also is covered in a sheath of connective tissue. It is important for the cook to understand connective tissue for one basic reason: Connective tissue is tough. To cook meats successfully, you should know - Which meats are high in connective tissue and which are low. - What are the best ways to make tough meats tender? [Meats are highest in connective tissue if] They come from muscles that are more exercised. Muscles in the legs, for example, have more connective tissue than muscles in the back. They come from older animals. Veal is tenderer than meat from a young steer, which, in turn, is tenderer than meat from an old bull or cow. (Young animals have connective tissue, too, but it becomes harder to break down as the animal ages.) Meats high in connective tissue can be made more tender by using proper cooking techniques. There are two kinds of connective tissue: collagen, which is white in color, and elastin, which is yellow. **Collagen**. Long, slow cooking in the presence of moisture breaks down or dissolves collagen by turning it into gelatin and water. Of course, muscle tissue is about 75 percent water, so moisture is always present when meats are cooked. Except for very large roasts, however, long cooking by a dry-heat method has the danger of evaporating too much moisture and drying out the meat. Therefore, moist-heat cooking methods at low temperatures are most effective for turning a meat high in connective tissue into a tender, juicy finished product. Other factors also help tenderize collagen: Acid helps dissolve collagen. Marinating meat in an acid mixture, or adding an acid such as tomato or wine to the cooking liquid, helps tenderize it. Enzymes are naturally present in meats. They break down some connective tissue and other proteins as meat ages. These enzymes are inactive at freezing temperatures, slow-acting under refrigeration, active at room temperature, and destroyed by heat above 140°F (60°C). Tenderizers are enzymes such as **papain** (extracted from papaya) that are added to meats by the cook or injected into the animal before slaughter. Exercise care when using enzyme tenderizers. Too long an exposure at room temperature can make the meat undesirably mushy. **Elastin.** Older animals have a higher proportion of elastin than younger animals. Elastin is not broken down in cooking. Tenderizing can be accomplished only by removing the elastin (cutting away any tendons) and by mechanically breaking up the fibers, as in - Pounding and cubing (cubed steaks) - Grinding (hamburger) - Slicing the cooked meat very thin against the grain (as in London broil) **[Inspection and Grading]** Cooks and food-service operators in the United States are assisted in their evaluation of meats by a federal inspection and grading system. **Inspection** 1. Inspection is a guarantee of wholesomeness, not of quality or tenderness. It means the animal was not diseased and the meat is clean and fit for human consumption. 2. That the meat passed inspection is indicated by a round stamp. 3. Inspection is required by U.S. federal law. All meat must be inspected. **Quality Grading** 1. Grading is a quality designation. 2. The grade is indicated by a shield stamp. 3. Grading is not required by U.S. law. (Some packers use a private grading system and give different brand names to different grades. Reliability of private grades depends on the integrity of the packer.) Quality grading is based on the texture, firmness, and color of the lean meat, the age or maturity of the animal, and the marbling (the fat within the lean). All these factors must be considered together. For example, old, tough meat can still have marbling, but it would rate a low grade because of the other factors. **Yield Grading** In addition to quality grading, beef and lamb are graded according to how much usable meat in proportion to fat they have. This is called yield grading. - The meatiest grade is Yield Grade 1. - Poorest yield (much exterior fat) is Yield Grade 5. - Pork is yield-graded from 1 to 4, but most pork is sold already cut and trimmed. - Veal, which has little fat, is not yield-graded. **USDA MEAT GRADES:-** +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | CHARACTERIS | BEEF | VEAL | LAMB | PORK | | TICS | | | | | +=============+=============+=============+=============+=============+ | Highest | Prime | Prime | Prime | Pork used | | quality, | | | | in food | | highest | | | | service is | | price, | | | | consistent | | limited | | | | in quality | | supply, | | | | and is not | | | | | | quality | | | | | | graded. It | | | | | | is | | | | | | inspected | | | | | | for | | | | | | wholesomene | | | | | | ss | | | | | | and graded | | | | | | for yield | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | High in | Choice | Choice | Choice | | | quality | | | | | | generally | | | | | | tender and | | | | | | juicy. | | | | | | Abundant | | | | | | supply | | | | | | widely used | | | | | | in food | | | | | | service as | | | | | | well as in | | | | | | retail. | | | | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | Lean meat | Select | Good | Good | | | not as fine | | | | | | or tender | | | | | | economical. | | | | | | Can be | | | | | | tender and | | | | | | flavorful | | | | | | if cooled | | | | | | carefully, | | | | | | used in | | | | | | many | | | | | | institution | | | | | | al | | | | | | food | | | | | | service | | | | | | operations | | | | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | Least | Standard | Standard | Utility | | | frequently | | | | | | used in | Commercial | Utility | Cull | | | food | | | | | | service. | Utility | Cull | | | | Highest of | | | | | | these | Cutter | | | | | grades are | | | | | | sometimes | Canner | | | | | used in | | | | | | institution | | | | | | al | | | | | | food | | | | | | service. | | | | | | Lowest of | | | | | | these | | | | | | grades are | | | | | | used by | | | | | | canners and | | | | | | processors | | | | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ **[Slaughtering]** Two methods - **Stunning** - captive bolt, electric, carbon dioxide, - Penetrating captive bolt - used on cattle, sheep and some pigs. A gun fires a metal bolt into the brain of the animal causing the animal to lose consciousness immediately. - Electrical - used on sheep, calves and pigs. An electrical current is passed through the animal\'s brain via a large pair of tongs, causing temporary loss of consciousness. Some systems also pass the current through the heart, so the animal is not just stunned but also killed. - Gas stunning/killing - of pigs, which involves the use of gas mixtures. Pigs are exposed to high concentrations of gas (currently carbon dioxide). - **Ritual Slaughter** -- Halal , Jatka & Kosher Slaughtering Process: - Slaughtering - Dressing the animal - Inspection **[Understanding the Basic Cuts]** The following discussion of meat cuts focuses on the four primary meat categories in the wholesale and retail markets: beef, lamb, veal, and pork. Keep in mind, however, that game animals, discussed later in the chapter, have the same bone and muscle structure and are generally divided into the same or similar cuts as nongame animals. Meat cuts are based on two factors: 1. The muscle and bone structure of the meat. 2. Uses of and appropriate cooking methods for various parts of the animal. Food-service suppliers in the United States may follow a set of specifications called Institution Meat Purchase Specifications (IMPS). (IMPS, including numbers and names of cuts, are the same as the North American Meat Processors Association, or NAMP, specifications.) All cuts are described in detail and listed by number. This simplifies purchasing, as you can order by number exactly the cut you want. **[CUTS OF BEEF]** - Beef is the most fortifying and the most nourishing meat amongst all the edible meats. - It is bright red in color and very light pleasing Smell. - The tender cuts come from the less exercised part of the animal and the tougher cuts are obtained from leg, shoulder and rump. - The fat of beef is called **"Suet"** and the thymus gland is known as **"Sweetbread".** - The muscular outer covering of the cattle stomach is known as **"Tripe".** **Classification of beef:** +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | Bull/cow | steer | Heifer | veal | Yearling | | | | | | bull/ cow | +=============+=============+=============+=============+=============+ | Male is | Castrated | Cow which | Young | Bull or cow | | called | male bull. | has not | cattle from | under 12 | | bull. | | calved yet. | 0-6 months. | months of | | | | | | age. | | Female is | | | | | | called cow | | | | | | after | | | | | | calving. | | | | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ **[Beef Meat Quality Grades]** - **USDA Prime** is the highest quality beef and comprises only about 3% of beef sold. It is well-marbled with thick coverings of firm fat. - **USDA Choice** is the most common grade served in quality restaurants and sold in retail markets. Choice meat is well-marbled, but has less fat than prime. It produces a tender and juicy product. - **USDA Select** has minimal marbling and it is not as tender or flavorful as higher grades. It is served in value-conscious restaurants and sold in retail markets. Don't let the name "select" confuse you in thinking that this is a choice cut recommended by the USDA. - **USDA Standard** has only traces of marbling and is not as flavorful. The inexpensive cost will be tempting but, the poor quality product will not create a good meal. **[Classification of Cuts:]** - **[B]**eef is the meat of domesticated cattle, specifically steers, raised principally for consumption. - A beef carcass is first divided into **primal cuts**. - Each primal cut is then reduced into **sub primal cuts**. - Individual portions derived from subprimal cuts are referred to as **fabricated cuts** **American Cuts** Beef carcass is divided into parts mainly - Forequarter: Chuck, Brisket, Shank, Rib & plate. - Hindquarter: Loin, Flank, Round. **The primal cuts of beef are:** - Chuck, Brisket, Shank, Rib, Short Plate, Loin, Flank, Round. **[Chuck]** - Consisting of parts of the neck, shoulder blade and upper arm. - The chuck is a tough cut of meat with a good deal of connective tissue. - This makes it a good choice for braising and stewing, particularly for making pot roast. - Because of its fat content, chuck is also excellent for making ground beef **Cuts of chuck of beef:** **Cut** **description** **Usage** ----------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Sticking end or neck piece. This part of the beef is neck part emerging from the shoulder. Ideal for slow cooking as this cut of meat is very fatty and is not tender as some of the other prime cuts of beef. Chunk This is taken from the back of the neck which is the center between the shoulders of the cow. This piece of chuck is sold as roasting joint and if cooked in a slow cooking style, this is one of the incomparable roast joints. Blade This cut is from the shoulder of the cow. This is quite large piece of meat and the muscle is divided into various cuts so as to get the maximum yields for steaks that can be braised. **Fabricated cuts:,** Cross rib pot roast, Chuck short ribs, Stew meat, Ground chuck for hamburgers, Flat-iron steak **Recommended cooking methods:** moist-heat; stewing and braising; grilling or frying (hamburgers and steak) **[Brisket ]** - The brisket (steer's breast) are located beneath the primal chuck on the front half of the animal. - The brisket is very tough and contains a substantial percentage of fat. - It is typically pickled to produce corned beef brisket or cured to make pastrami. Recommended cooking method: moist heat **[Shank]** - Foreshank (arm) ) are located beneath the primal chuck on the front half of the animal - Beef foreshank is very flavorful and high in collagen. Typically, it is used in foodservice for making soups and stocks. **Cuts of shanks of beef** ---------------------------- ------------------------------------------ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Hind shank The back leg of the beef below the knee. It contains a narrow bone called shin bone and since this part of the muscle has loads of connective tissue, it releases lots of juices which reduces to a gelatinous consistency when cooked for longer time. Fore shank The forelegs of the beef. Used for making stocks for soups and sauces and like hind leg can be used for braissing, boiling, and stewing. **[Rib]** - This primal cut consists of the ribs, as well as a portion of the backbone. - The center muscle portion of the rib is quite tender. It also contains large amounts of marbling and produces rich, full-flavored roasts and steaks. Cuts of rib of beef --------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Back rib The entire rib rack is divided into four rib and back rib. Back rib is the piece attached to the shoulder. Used as a roasting joint classically used as pot roasting or braising. Fore rib From the back of the fore rib. Used for grilling braising or roasting. [Fabricated cuts:] Roast prime rib of beef, Boneless ribeye roast, Ribeye steaks, Beef short ribs Recommended cooking method: dry heat. **[Plate]** - The short plate contains rib bones and is located directly below the primal rib. [Fabricated cuts:] Short ribs, Skirt steaks **Recommended cooking methods:** moist and dry heat. Cuts of plates ---------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Short plate This is the middle rib of the rib cage. Used for grilling nd even for poaching. It can be deboned rolled and served as a grill. Short ribs A short section of ribs attached to the plate. The pair of the ribs around the food pipe. Ideal for barbeque and grilling. **[Loin]** - The loin is located behind the primal rib and produces the most prized cuts of meat. [Cuts of loin of beef] ------------------------------------ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Loin The loin is the most prime cut of the animal. This is divided between loin and sirloin. Method of cooking such as roasting, grilling, broiling or pan frying are apt for this cut as these cuts are lean. Sirloin This is the side towards the rump of the animal. Used for grilling pan frying and roasting. Again being one of the prime cut of beef sirloin can be processed into steak or processed as joint for roasting. Tenderloin This is the tenderest muscle available under loin. The most preferred cut of the animal as it is ideal for steak. The entire fillet is divided into various parts. Rib eye steak The steak cut from the loin near the rib cage. One of the tender and expensive cuts used for grilling pan frying and roasting. It is also known by different names such as club steak Delmonico steak and rib steak. T bone steak This is the center part of the loin. It gets its name from the cut on the loin when the T shaped bone of the spinal cord gets trapped in this cut. When these steaks are cut, the part of the tenderloin muscle becomes the part of this steak and that is the reason they are more expensive. Porterhouse steak This is the end of the loin touching the sirloin. The shape is same as that of the T bone steak but it is very different from T steak. **[Fabricated cuts:]** - Tenderloin, Filet mignon, **Strip stake**, **Porterhouse**, **T-Bone**, Sirloin steak, Sirloin butt roast **Recommended cooking method:** dry heat. ![](media/image3.png) - **Tender cut of beef, used for making classical steaks. It consists of four parts:** - **Head: Cubed or ground for hamburgers and sauces.** - **Chateaubriand: Centre of the fillet and weighs 450 -- 500 gm.** - **Tournedos: 60 -- 80 gm slices for steaks cut from fillet after Chateaubriand.** - **Fillet Mignon: 30 gm slices for steaks from the tail end of the fillet.** **[Flank]** - The flank is located directly beneath the loin. The flank contains no bones, is very tough, but very flavourful. **Fabricated cuts:** Flank steak, London broil **Recommended cooking methods:** moist and dry heat. **[Round]** - The primal round is the hind leg of the animal and contains the round, shank, and tail bones. - Further cut into Rump, Tips, Full round, Heel, Hind shank. **Cuts of rump of beef** -------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Rump Rump or is the backside of the animal where the legs begin. This is a tougher joint of meat as it receives lot of exercise and hence does not contain good amount of fat. This cut of meat can be deboned and rolled and served as joint for roast. Topside The part on the top part of the thigh of cow. Used for grilling, braising, o stewing can also be roasted as a joint. silverside The lower part of the thigh. It is a coarser kind of meat and hence is not advisable to use as a roasting joint. [Fabricated cuts:] Round steaks, Round roasts - Recommended cooking methods: moist heat. **[Cuts of clod.]** Clod This is the area below the chuck and above the fore shank Used for boiling, raising and stewing. ------ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------- thin This is the extended part of the rib with soft bones and is also referred to as leg of mutton in beef. Ideal for barbeque and grilling and poaching and pan frying. **[BEEF STEAKS ]** - **Rib eye steak:** The steak cut from the loin near the rib cage. ![](media/image5.png) - **T-bone steak:** Centre part of loin along with T-shaped bone of spinal cord ![](media/image7.png) - **Porterhouse steak:** End of the short loin touching the sirloin. It is the most expensive steak. This steak encompasses the heart of the tenderloin. It is double in size of T-bone steak. ![](media/image7.png) **[Difference in Porterhouse & T-bone ]** ![](media/image10.png) **[Organ Meats of the Beef:]** These products are known as the offal - Heart - Kidney - Tongue - Tripe - Oxtail - Sweetbreads [**COOKING OF BEEF:** ] This is the most important part for the chefs when it comes to cooking of beef. - LARDING: insertion of fat inside the lean meat I called larding. - BARDING: covering of lean meat with a piece of fat. Fat plays a very important role in the texture of meat. When heat is applied to the meat, it is this fat melts and provides the juiciness to the meat. The muscles which do not receive exercise, such as tenderloin, sirloin, etc. will be having adequate amount of fat and hence the cooked product would be moist and tender. The parts which receives exercise tend to have less fat and such as lean cuts of meat needed to b larded or barded to cook them to a juicy texture. The beef is cooked various degree of doneness as shown in the table. [English] [French] [description] [Approximate cooking time] ----------------------- ---------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Blue Au bleu Just seared on the hot plate. When cut open the blood will flow out. 15 to 20 seconds on each side. rare Saignant The meat will still be underdone but blood will be much less. 2 min on each side. When the droplets of blood appear on the surface turn the meat again. Medium A point The meat is juicy and cooked, when pressed the pink juices comes out. Roughly around 4 min on each side. When the juice is rise on top they are pink in colour. When the steak is cut it is also pinkish in colour. Well done Bien cut Mat is firm to touch and the juices are clear. 7 to 8 min on each side. **[Chapter 2: CUTS OF PORK]** **PORK** Pork is referred to as the meat from the domesticated pig. Domesticated means the pig that is specifically reared for the production of meat for human consumption. Pigs feed on garbage and sewage and hence they are the biggest carriers of diseases causing germs and insects. Tapeworm is one of the insects associated with pigs and hence animal husbandries that rear pigs for meat always take care while rearing them. In spite of all this it is one of the widely consumed meats around the world barring the places, where eating pork is a taboo. Pork meat is eaten in various forms including cooked, smoked, cured salted, etc. it is one of the versatile meats that find place in the canning industries as well. An English breakfast is probably incomplete if bacon, ham or sausages are not served with egg preparation. It is one of the meats that can be eaten in breakfast lunch and dinner and even during afternoon teas as snacks or filled in sandwiches. **Charcuterie** is a French word that forms a category of smoked and cured meats particularly from pig. Pigs have very sensitive noses and this art of their helps the man to dig up a fungus called truffle, which holds a very special place on the gastronomic table. Pork is classified as a lean meat. Traditionally pigs were slaughtered and consumed during autumn. The growing of the pigs in the spring and letting then fatten in the summer yield pump plump pigs for additional flavor. **[CUTS OF PORK]** ![](media/image12.png) **[Primal Cuts of Pork]** - Jowl - Shoulder - Loin - Leg - Belly **[Cuts of Jowl]** **Cut** **Description** **Usage** ---------------- -------------------------------------------------- --------------------------- **Jowl** **Chin of the pig** **Slow cooking, stewing** **Jowl bacon** **Bacon is prepared from the cheeks of the pig** **Cold jowl bacon** **[Cuts of Shoulder]** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Cuts** | **Description** | **Usage** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **Shoulder chop** | **Top portion of the | **Chops for grilling, | | | shoulder attached to | roast, stewing, | | **(Boston butt)** | the fore leg** | curry** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Neck end** | **Part of the | **Stew, ideal for | | | shoulder closest to | sausage making** | | | the neck** | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Picnic shoulder** | **Lower portion of | **Forced meat for | | | the shoulder attached | sausage** | | | to the fore leg** | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **[Cuts of Loin]** **Cuts** **Description** **Usage** ----------------- ------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------- **Blade end** **Loin closest to the shoulder** **Roast, braised, steaks** **Center rib** **Center rib part attached with loin** **Roast, braised, steaks** **Center loin** **Middle part of the loin** **Roast, braised, steaks** **Sirloin end** **Cut from the end of the loin** **Roasting and grilling** **Pork chop** **Comes from the blade end or center loin with ribs** **Barbeque, grill** **[Cuts of Leg]** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Cuts** | **Description** | **Usage** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **Ham** | **The fresh ham is | **It is usually cured | | | the hog's hind leg** | and smoked and | | | | consists of 24% of | | | | the total weight of a | | | | pig. The leg if not | | | | smoked, can be cooked | | | | by roasting or air | | | | dried. E.g., Parma | | | | Ham from Italy, | | | | Pancetta Ham from | | | | Italy, Serrano Ham | | | | from Spain.** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Gammon** | **Hind leg of a pig** | **The difference from | | | | the above is that in | | | | case of ham, the leg | | | | is removed from the | | | | carcass and processed | | | | to make ham. For | | | | gammon, the whole | | | | animal is cured, | | | | processed along with | | | | the loin and then | | | | separated.** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Hock** | **Shank portion of | **Used in flavouring | | | leg.** | soups and | | | | casseroles.** | | | | | | | | **Front leg shank | | | | called shoulder hock, | | | | hind leg called ham | | | | hock.** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **[Cuts of Belly]** **Cuts** **Description** **Usage** ---------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Spare ribs** **These are removed from the belly that may include the cartilage** **Barbeque, smoking, grilling** **Pork belly** **Part located below the loin** **Braising and stewing** **Bacon** **Belly of pork with fatty streaks and smoked** **Only the cured and smoked belly is called bacon. Bacon which is not cured and smoked is known as "green bacon". But there is an exception with Canadian Bacon, which comes from loin.** **Selection criteria of pork:** - The pork should be received with the skin. This should be free from hair should feel moist and elastic to mouth. - Always receive pork that has light pink flesh which gives a fresh look. This means that the meat should appear moist but not damp or oily looking. - Select meat where the cut bone appears red in color. The whiteness of the cut side of the bone indicates the old age of the animal and hence the meat would be less tender. - When receiving pork always make slashes with the knife on the legs to see if there are any tapeworms. **[BACON]** - Bacon is a meat product prepared from a pig and usually cured. - It is first cured using large quantities of salt, either in a brine or in a dry packing; the result is fresh bacon (also known as green bacon). - Bacon may then be further dried for weeks or months in cold air, or it may be boiled or smoked. - Bacon is a meat product prepared from a pig and usually cured. - It is first cured using large quantities of salt, either in a brine or in a dry packing; the result is fresh bacon (also known as green bacon). - Bacon may then be further dried for weeks or months in cold air, or it may be boiled or smoked. **TYPES OF BACON** - **Jowl bacon** is cured and smoked cheeks of pork. - **Slab bacon** is side bacon that is not sliced. - **Picnic bacon** is from the picnic cut, which includes the shoulder beneath the blade - **Maple cured bacon or Candied bacon**: Slabs of bacon are caramelized with a smoky, sugary cure created from brown sugar and maple syrup. - **PANCETTA**: Pancetta is Italian back bacon, available smoked or unsmoked. It is typically salt cured and seasoned with spices (fennel, garlic, nutmeg, peppercorns, even hot chili flakes) and then dried. - **RASHER: A** slice (or a portion of three to four slices) of bacon. **[HAM]** - Ham is a processed pork foodstuff, which undergoes preservation through curing, smoking, or salting. Ham was traditionally made only from the hind leg of swine, and referred to that specific cut of pork. **TYPES** - **Aged Hams:** These are heavily cured, smoked hams that have been hung to age from one to seven years. They are covered in a mould which must be scraped and washed off prior to eating. - **Culatello**: This Italian ham is cured and soaked in wine during aging. It is lean and rosy red, with a clean, delicate flavor. A popular component of antipasto platters. - **Serrano Ham** - Spanish ham. - **Picnic Ham:** Meat from the upper part of the foreleg of the hog, including a portion of the shoulder. It is not a true ham. - **Prosciutto:** Italian ham. The meat is seasoned, salt-cured, and air-dried. It is not smoked. The meat is pressed into a dense, firm texure. Parma ham is true prosciutto. **[GAMMON]** - Gammon is hind leg of pork, cut from a side of bacon after curing (either dry-salting or curing in brine). - It may or may not be smoked. Like bacon, it needs to be cooked before it can be eaten.It may be sold on-the-bone or boned and rolled **[Chapter 3: LAMB & CUTS OF LAMB]** LAMB comes from a fairy young animal, it is natural that it would not be marbled with fat and hence, it becomes very tricky for chefs to cook the lamb to utmost tenderness and juiciness. **[Classification of lamb]** +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ | **Ram/hogge | **whether** | **Kid | **spring** | **mutton** | | t/ewe** | | lamb** | | | +=============+=============+=============+=============+=============+ | Male lamb | Castrated | Male or | I UK and | Lamb above | | under 1 | male lamb | female of a | USA , a | 12 months | | year is | is called | sheep that | lamb | | | called ram | weather. | is 30-60 | between 2-6 | | | or hogget. | | days old | months is | | | | | | called | | | Female lamb | | | spring | | | under 1 | | | | | | year is | | | | | | called ewe/ | | | | | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ 641-004-9A81AA2F.gif **[CUTS OF LAMB]** - **Shoulder Cuts** **Cuts** **Description** **Usage** -------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------- **Shoulder chops** **Part of the shoulder that begins from the arm with a round bone in centre.** **Grilled steaks, good for Biryani and Indian curries.** **Blade chops** **Curved from the shoulder towards the neck part** **Grilling, boiling, stewing** **Shoulder roast** **Consist of the whole shoulder** **Roast shoulder, often deboned and made boneless rolled shoulder** **Lamb neck** **The sticking piece from the shoulder** **Often used for stewing and braising, also used for kebabs.** - **Cuts of best end of the neck** **Cuts** **Description** **Usage** ----------------- ----------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------ **Lamb rack** **The entire rack of lamb consists 8 ribs** **Roast rack of lamb** **Lamb chop** **Single piece of chop from the rack** **Grilling, pan frying** **lamb cutlet** **When the bone from single chop is removed** **Pan-fried, grilled, crumbed and deep fried** - **[CUTS OF LOIN]** **Cuts** **Description** **Usage** -------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------------------------------- **Saddle of lamb** **Back of the lamb, amongst the tender and expensive cuts** **Roasted, grilled, pan-fried.** **Loin chops** **One of the tenderest cuts of lamb, it is a slice from the saddle of lamb** **Grilled, pan-fried** **Sirloin chop** **The end of the saddle touching the rump where the legs are starting** **Roast** **Loin roast** **Saddle of lamb not including sirloin** **Roast** - **[CUTS OF LAMB LEG]** **[Cuts]** **[Description]** **[Usage]** ------------------------ ---------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------- **Lamb leg** **Whole leg** **Roast, stew, curry, kebabs, Biryani** **Leg chop** **Slice of the leg on the bone** **Grilling, stewing** **Lamb shank** **Lower part of the leg below the knee** **Braised lamb shank** **Top side** **Bone less meat from the thigh of the leg** **Grilled, stewed** **Silver side** **Meat from the lower part of leg** **Grilled, pan-fried, stewed** - **[CUTS OF LAMB RIB]** **[Cuts]** **[Description]** **[Usage]** ------------------------ -------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- **Lamb ribs** **Front of the rib cage, first 8 ribs.** **Barbeque, grilled, pan-fried** **Spare ribs** **Ribs cut with cartilage bones** **Grilling and barbequeing** **Riblets** **Individual ribs cut into single pieces** **Deep-fried, grilled** - **[OTHER LAMB PARTS:]** Tongue**[,]** Kidney**[,]** Liver**[,]** Heart**[,]** Lungs**[,]** Tripe**[,]** Brains, Sweetbread. **[Available Forms of Meat: Carcasses, Partial Carcasses, Primal, and Fabricated Cuts]** Beef, lamb, veal, and pork may be purchased in some or all of these forms. Mutton and goat are also given NAMP classification numbers, as indicated in Table 10.2, but they have minimal importance in North American food service and are not covered here. **Carcasses** The carcass is the whole animal, minus the entrails, head, feet, and hide (except pork, from which only the entrails and head are removed). Whole carcasses are rarely purchased by food-service operators because of the skill and labor required in cutting and because of the problem of total utilization. **Sides, Quarters, Fore saddles, Hind saddles** Thes e represent the first step in breaking down a carcass. Again, these larger cuts are no longer frequently used in food service. Fewer establishments cut their own meats. 1. Beef is split first through the backbone into sides. Sides are divided between the 12th and 13th ribs into forequarter and hindquarter. 2. Veal and lamb are not split into sides but are divided in half into fore saddle and hind saddle. For veal, the cut is made between the 11th and 12th ribs. Lamb, on the other hand, is split either between the 12th and 13th rib or after the 13th rib, depending on the cutting style. 3. Pork carcasses are not divided in this way. They are cut directly into primal cuts **Primal or Wholesale Cuts** These are the primary divisions of quarters, foresaddles, hindsaddles, and carcasses. These cuts, called primal cuts, are still used, to some extent, in food service, because they - Are small enough to be manageable in many food-service kitchens. - Are still large enough to allow a variety of cuts for different uses or needs. - Are easier to utilize completely than quarters or halves. Each primal may be fabricated, or cut up and trimmed, in several ways. Primal cuts are always the starting point for smaller cuts. For this reason, it will benefit you to be able to identify each one. **Fabricated Cuts** Primal cuts are fabricated into smaller cuts for roasts, steaks, chops, cutlets, stewing meat, ground meat, and so forth, according to individual customer requirements and, if applicable, IMPS/NAMP specifications. The amount of trim and exact specifications can have many variations. For example, a beef primal rib can be trimmed and prepared for roasting at least nine ways. Portion-controlled cuts are ready-to-cook meats cut according to customer's specifications. Steaks and chops are ordered either by weight per steak or by thickness. Portion controlled cuts require the least work for the cook of all meat cuts. They are also the most expensive per pound of all categories of cuts. **Organ Meats (Offal)** - Tripe, oxtail, heart, tongue, and kidney **[Bone Structure]** Knowing the bone structure of meat animals is essential for: 1. Identifying meat cuts. The distinctive shapes of the bones are often the best clue to the identification of a cut. 2. Boning and cutting meats. Bones are often surrounded by flesh. You need to know where they are even if you can't see them. 3. Carving cooked meats. **[Aging]** [**Green Meat** ] Soon after slaughter, an animal's muscles stiffen due to chemical changes in the flesh. This stiffness, called rigor mortis, gradually disappears. Softening takes three to four days for beef, less time for smaller carcasses like veal, lamb, and pork. This softening is caused by enzymes in the flesh. - Green meat is meat that has not had enough time to soften. It is tough and relatively flavorless. Because it takes several days for meats to reach the kitchen from the slaughterhouse, green meat is seldom a problem with commercially available meats, except when meat is frozen while still green. The problem is sometimes encountered with game killed for home consumption, if the hunter cuts and freezes the meat when it is too fresh. Aged Meat Enzyme action continues in muscle tissue even after meat is no longer green. This tenderizes the flesh even more and develops more flavor. Holding meats in coolers under controlled conditions to provide time for this natural tenderizing is called aging. Beef and lamb can be aged because high-quality carcasses have enough fat cover to protect them from bacteria and from drying. Veal has no fat cover, so it is not aged. Pork does not require aging. Aging does not mean just storing meat in the refrigerator. There is a difference between aged meat and old meat.Conditions must be carefully controlled so the meat becomes naturally tender without spoiling. There are two primary methods used for aging. 1. **Wet aging**. Today, most wholesale meat carcasses are broken down into smaller cuts and enclosed in plastic vacuum packs. These packs are usually known by the trade name Cryovac®. The air- and moisture proof packaging protects the meat from bacteria and mold, and it prevents weight loss due to drying. (However, Cryovac-aged meats often lose more weight in cooking than do dry-aged meats.) Vacuum-pack meats must be refrigerated. 2. **Dry aging**. Dry agingis the process of storing meats, usually large cuts, under carefully controlled conditions. The meat is not packaged or wrapped, and it is exposed to air on all sides. Temperature, humidity, and air circulation are precisely controlled to prevent spoilage. Ultraviolet lights are sometimes used in aging coolers to kill bacteria. Dry-aged meat can lose up to 20 percent of its weight through moisture loss, depending on the size of the cut and how long it is aged. Consequently, dry aging is a more expensive process than wet aging. Dry-aged meats are usually available from specialty purveyors only, and at a higher price than wet-aged meats. Many customers are willing to pay a premium for fine dry-aged steaks because they are considered the best for flavor and texture. Aging increases tenderness and flavor. An off taste is not characteristic of aged meat. If a meat smells or tastes spoiled, it probably is. Sometimes meats in vacuum packs have a musty aroma when first opened, but this disappears quickly. Aging costs money. Storage costs, weight loss due to drying, and heavier trimming due to dried and discolored surfaces all add to the price of aged meat (although wet aging costs less than dry aging). As a meat purchaser, you must decide how much quality is worth how much cost for your particular establishment. **[Rigor mortis]** Soon after slaughter, an animal's muscles stiffen due to chemical changes in the flesh. This stiffness, called rigor mortis, gradually disappears. Rigor mortis normally appears about 10 hours after the death of the animal and disappears after 24 hours. The Ph of freshly killed animal is 7 and its drops to 5.6 due to the conversion of glycogen (carbohydrate present in muscle fiber) in to lactic acid in absence of oxygen. The low Ph is a desirable factor for keeping quality of meat. **[Selecting Meats for Your Operation]** **Deciding Which Forms to Purchase** Whether you buy whole carcasses, fabricated cuts, or anything in between depends on four factors: 1. How much meat-cutting skill you or your staff has. 2. How much work and storage space you have. 3. Whether or not you can use all cuts and lean trim on your menu. 4. Which form gives you the best cost per portion after figuring in labor costs? Meat purveyors can usually cut meat more economically than food-service operators can because they deal in large volume. Carcasses or primal cuts cost less per pound than fabricated cuts, but they have more waste (fat and bone) and require more labor (which costs money). However, some operators still do some of their own cutting, depending on how they answer the four questions above. They feel cutting their own meat gives them greater control over quality. Some compromises are available. If you want the quality of freshly cut steaks, for example, you might buy boneless strip loins and cut your own steaks to order. You need not buy primal loins. **Specifications** When buying meat, you must indicate the following specifications: - **Item name.** Include IMPS/NAMPS number, if applicable. Example: 173 Beef Short Loin, Regular - **Grade**. Example: U.S. Choice (You may also want to specify division of grade, such as the upper half or lower half of U.S. Choice.) - **Weight range for roasts and large cuts**. Portion weight or thickness (not both) for steaks and chops. - **State of refrigeration**. Chilled or frozen. - **Fat limitations, or average thickness of surface fat.** Example: 3⁄4 inch average, 1 inch maximum. (This does not apply to veal.) Meat purchasers may also have to choose whether or not to purchase irradiated meat. Irradiation is the process of exposing foods to radiation in order to kill bacteria, parasites, and other potentially harmful organisms. Irradiation does not harm the meat, make it radioactive, or change its structure, flavor, or nutritional value. Foods treated with radiation must be labeled as such. In the United States, for example, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires that irradiated foods include labeling with either the statement "treated with radiation" or "treated by irradiation" and the international symbol for irradiation, the radura. Some operators refuse to purchase irradiated foods because they or their customers have concerns about their health effects. The procedure has generated much controversy for other reasons as well. **[Storage of Meats]** The quality of a finished meat product depends not only on proper selection and cooking of the meat but also on its proper storage. Fresh meat is highly perishable. The high cost of meat makes it essential to avoid spoilage. 1. **[Fresh Meats ]** - Check purchases on arrival to ensure the purchased meat is of good quality. - Do not wrap tightly. Bacteria and mold thrive in moist, stagnant places. Air circulation inhibits their growth. Store meat loosely arranged on pans or racks to allow air circulation between pieces, but cover cut surfaces to prevent excessive drying. - Do not open vacuum-packed meats until ready to use. - Store at 32° to 36°F (0° to 2°C). Meat does not freeze until about 28°F (--2°C). - Keep meats separated in the cooler (or, even better, in separate coolers) and on the worktable to avoid cross-contamination. - Use as soon as possible. Fresh meats keep well only two to four days. Ground meats keep even less well because so much surface area is exposed to bacteria. Cured and smoked products may keep up to one week. For these reasons, frequent deliveries are better than long storage. - Do not try to rescue meats that are going bad by freezing them. Freezing will not improve the quality of spoiling meat. - Keep coolers clean. 2. **[Frozen Meats ]** - Wrap frozen meats well to prevent freezer burn. - Store at 0°F (--18°C) or colder. - Rotate stock---first in, first out. Frozen meats do not keep indefinitely. Recommended shelf life at 0°F (--18°C) for beef, veal, and lamb: 6 months; for pork: 4 months (pork fat turns rancid easily in the freezer). - Defrost carefully. Tempering in the refrigerator is best. Defrosting at room temperature encourages bacterial growth. - Do not refreeze thawed meats. Refreezing increases loss of quality. - Keep freezers clean **[Chapter 4: Game and Specialty Meats]** The term gameis used to refer to poultry and meat animals normally found in the wild. However, most of the "wild" game that has become so popular on restaurant menus is actually from farm-raised animals. Venison farms, in particular, have become numerous and productive, supplying a growing demand. Farm-raised game birds are discussed along with other poultry. This section is concerned with **furred game**. Although a great variety of game, large and small, can be found on hunters' tables, the supply of game for the restaurant and retail markets is more limited. Venison, the most popular game item, is the main subject of this section. Other products, such as boar and hare, are occasionally available as well. In addition, domestic rabbit is considered here, although its meat has little in common with true game. Note that the term venison is sometimes used in a broader sense to mean meat from deer, elk, moose, caribou, antelope, and pronghorn. However, when any of these meats is offered for sale, the name of the animal must appear on the packaging. The French terms for game meats are often used on menus and in cooking manuals and references. To clarify these terms, a list of those most commonly used follows: - **Chevreuil:** often translated as "venison" but refers specifically to the roe deer, the most prized European variety - **Cerf:** red deer; often farm raised - **Daim:** fallow deer; often farm raised - **Marcassin:** young boar, especially under six months of age - **Sanglier**: boar - **Lapin:** rabbit - **Lapereau:** young rabbit - **Lièvre**: hare - **Levraut:** young hare - **Venaison**: usually translated as "venison," the term in fact refers to the meat of any game animal **[BONE STRUCTURE OF GAME]** The bone and muscle structure of furred game such as venison and elk is the same as that of familiar meats such as beef and lamb. The carcasses are also broken down and fabricated in the same ways. Unlike those larger game animals, however, rabbit is cut differently. **[Venison ]** Several varieties of deer are raised on farms for use as meat, including the red deer and the smaller fallow deer. Deer meat is typically called venison. An important advantage of farmraised venison, besides its year-round availability, is that the cook can be assured it is from young, tender animals. In the wild, young animals less than two years old are likely to have tender meat, but the meat rapidly becomes tough as the animal matures and ages. The tradition of marinating game for several days in strong wine marinades originates, in large part, from efforts to tenderize hunted game enough to make it palatable. [MARINATION, FLAVOR, AND TENDERNESS ] The first thing to be said about farm-raised venison is that it is milder in flavor than venison hunted in the wild. It has little, if any, of the strong, gamy flavor usually associated with wild game. In fact, a farm-raised venison steak tastes rather like an especially flavorful lean cut of beef. Those who enjoy strong, gamy flavors may even find farmed venison a little bland. Although it does have some tenderizing effect, marination is not necessary for commercially raised venison because the meat is already tender. Nevertheless, marinating is widely used as a flavoring technique. Much of the flavor traditionally associated with venison, in fact, is due less to its gaminess than to the red wine marinades that were invariably used. To retain more of the natural flavor of the meat, cook it without marination, or let it marinate for only a short period (30 minutes to 3 or 4 hours) with the desired seasonings and flavoring ingredients. Modern quick marinades are often simple and may contain only a few ingredients. [FAT CONTENT] Venison, like other game, is very low in fat. This makes it especially popular with health conscious diners. The meat is likely to become dry unless the cook takes great care. The loin and leg, being tender, are best cooked by dry-heat methods and served rare or medium done. If cooked longer, they will dry out. Roast these cuts whole, either bone-in or deboned, or cut them into steaks, cutlets, and medallions, and sauté, pan-fry, or broil them, taking care not to overcook. Whole leg of venison, completely boned, seamed, and vacuum packed, is available. Weights range from 5 to 10 pounds (2 to 4.5 kg). Whole bone-in saddle weighs 5 to 20 pounds (2.3 to 9 kg), while the loin muscle weighs about half that after boning and trimming. Tougher cuts, chiefly the shoulder, neck, and breast, are braised, stewed, or made into ground meat or sausage. These cuts are also lean, but because they are higher in connective tissue and gelatin, they take more readily to stewing and braising. To generalize, farm-raised venison can be treated like very lean beef. Take care not to cook it to the point of dryness. **[Boar ]** Boar is a type of wild pig. Its meat is somewhat similar to pork, except it is leaner and its flavor fuller and richer. Boar is now raised commercially on a few farms and is available in limited quantities. Boar is somewhat more difficult to cook than venison and other game because, like pork, it must be cooked until well done. At the same time, it is leaner and less tender than domestic pork, so it tends to be somewhat dry and chewy. Special care must be taken to cook it adequately without overcooking. Because boar is usually tougher than farm-raised venison, its legs or hams are better suited for braising or slow roasting, while the loins can be used for roasts or cut into medallions and sautéed. Traditionally, boar is handled much like venison, and typical recipes call for red wine marinades. Although marinating a white meat in red wine may seem strange at first, this treatment actually works very well with boar. The red wine accentuates the more pronounced flavor of boar (as compared to pork) and makes it taste more like game. **[HANGING GAME]** Much of the strong flavor associated with game comes from the practice of hanging. Hunters, processing game for their own use, often allow a dressed carcass to hang much longer than necessary to soften the meat or long enough for it to become high, or actually near spoilage. The farm-raised game discussed here and used in commercial kitchens is not hung. Thus, its flavor is milder. **[Other Large Game ]** Other meats are sometimes found in food service kitchens. Elk, caribou, moose, and antelope are all similar to venison and are handled in much the same way. The first three of these, especially moose, are larger than deer, so it may be necessary to allow for longer cooking times when using venison recipes for them. Buffalo, or American bison, is raised on ranches in the western United States and Canada and handled like beef. Flavor and cooking characteristics are similar to those of beef, but the meat is somewhat richer in flavor and has less fat and cholesterol than beef. - **Rabbit** Domestic rabbit is a versatile meat that can be cooked in most of the same ways as chicken. In fact, in some countries it is classified as poultry. In addition, many recipes for veal or pork are adaptable to rabbit. Rabbit's light, delicate meat is often compared to chicken, but there are differences. It is somewhat more flavorful than chicken, with a mild but distinctive taste that is not exactly like that of other poultry or meat. Also, it is very lean (more like chicken or turkey breast than legs) and can become dry if overcooked. Rabbit takes well to marination; it can also be cooked without prior marination. Either way, it can be cooked by long, slow simmering, braising, or stewing, or it can be quickly cooked by sautéing, grilling, or roasting. The structure of rabbit, of course, is like that of other land mammals rather than like that of poultry. Cutting methods divide the meaty hind legs, the bonier forelegs, and the choice saddle or back section (râble in French). The whole carcass, cut up, is used for stews and sautés, while the saddle alone is often roasted. It may be boned or bone-in Small rabbits, 3 pounds (1.5 kg) or less, are the best for cooking. Mature rabbits, weighing 4 to 5 pounds (about 2 kg), tend to be tougher and drier. - **Hare** Hare is a wild cousin of the rabbit. (Please note that rabbits and hares are different animals. The American jackrabbit, for example, is actually a hare, not a rabbit.) Unlike domestic rabbit, with its light-colored, delicate meat, hare has flesh that is dark reddish-brown and gamy. Hares 7 to 8 months old and weighing about 6 pounds (2.7 kg) make the best eating. Larger ones, over 8 pounds (3.6 kg), are likely to be tough and stringy. Because its structure is the same, hare is cut the same way as rabbit. **[Cooking and Handling Meats]** Tenderness and Appropriate Cooking Methods The heat of cooking affects tenderness in two ways: 1\. It tenderizes connective tissue if moisture is present and cooking is slow. 2\. It toughens protein. Even meats low in connective tissue can be tough and dry if cooked at excessively high heats for too long. **[Tenderizing Meat]** Various methods are: - Cold room storage- results in tenderization of meat by the help of the natural enzymes present in the carcass. - Mechanical method- includes pounding, cutting, grinding, needling, or pinning and the use of ultrasonic vibrations. - Using tenderizing agents- enzymes used are papin from papaya, bromelin from pineapple, ficin from figs, and fungal enzymes. - Change of Ph- soaking meat in acidic medium like vinegar or wine. - Salt --meat may be tenderize by the uses of low levels of salt. Salt increases the water body capacity of muscle fiber resulting in tenderness. Salt used NaCl, Na Phosphate, K Phosphate **The Principles of Low-Heat Cooking** 1. High heat toughens and shrinks protein and results in excessive moisture loss. Therefore, low-heat cooking should be the general practice for most meat cooking methods. 2. Broiling seems to be a contradiction to this rule. The reason carefully broiled meat stays tender is that it is done quickly. It takes time for the heat to be conducted to the interior of the meat, so the inside never gets very hot. Meat broiled to the point of being well done, however, is likely to be dry. 3. Roasts cooked at low temperatures have better yields than those roasted at high heat---that is, they shrink less and lose less moisture. 4. Because both liquid and steam are better conductors of heat than air, moist heat penetrates meat quickly. Therefore, to avoid overcooking, meat should be simmered, never boiled. **Breaking down Connective Tissue** Remember that connective tissue is highest in muscles that are frequently exercised and in mature animals. Look again at the primary cooking methods in the table of meat cuts. You should detect a pattern of tender cuts, cooked primarily by dry heat; slightly less tender cuts, cooked sometimes by dry and sometimes by moist heat; and least tender cuts, cooked almost always by moist heat. The concept of moist-heat cooking needs further explanation as it applies to breaking down connective tissue in meat. The usual explanation of the effect of moist heat on connective tissue is that heat breaks down collagen in the presence of moisture. But meat is about 75 percent water, so moisture is always present. Collagen breaks down because of long, slow cooking, no matter what cooking method is used. The catch is that, for small cuts of meat, dry-heat cooking methods are usually short, quick methods. Cooking must be short, in part because too long an exposure to dry heat results in excessive moisture loss from the product. The terms moist-heat cooking method and dry-heat cooking method refer to the way in which heat is transferred from the heat source to the food, whether by dry means, like hot air or radiation, or moist means, like steam or simmering liquid. Because the product is surrounded by moisture when it is simmered, steamed, or braised, moist-heat cooking methods promote moisture retention, not moisture loss, so cooking time can be as long as desired. A tough steak on the grill or in the oven doesn't have enough time to become tender before it is dried out. On the other hand, large cuts of less tender meat can be roasted successfully because they are too large to dry out during a long roasting time. A 40-pound (18-kg) roast steamship round of beef can be tender because it takes hours to cook even to the rare stage. A grilled steak cut from the same round, however, is likely to be tough. To summarize: Long, slow cooking tenderizes collagen. Moist-heat methods are most suitable for long, slow cooking. Dry-heat methods usually are short, quick cooking methods, suitable only for tender cuts, except when larger items are roasted for a relatively long time. The following list summarizes the cooking characteristics of the major cuts. **Other Factors Influencing Choice of Cooking Methods** **1. Fat content.** Meats high in fat, such as Prime beef or lamb, are generally cooked without added fat, such as by roasting or broiling. Meats low in fat, such as veal, are often cooked with added fat to prevent dryness. Sautéing, pan-frying, or braising is generally preferable to broiling for veal chops that are cooked well done. Fat can be added to lean meats in two ways: - **Barding**. Tying slices of fat, such as pork fatback, over meats with no natural fat cover to protect them while roasting. - **Larding**. Inserting strips of fat with a larding needle into meats low in marbling. These two techniques were developed in Europe when meats were much leaner and not as tender. They are not often used with today's tender, grain-fed meats. These techniques are useful, however, when cooking lean game, such as venison. **2. Developing tenderness is not the only goal of cooking.** Other goals are - Developing flavor. - Preventing excessive shrinkage and nutrient loss. - Developing appearance. You must often compromise to get a balanced result. For example, preliminary browning of a roast at high heat increases shrinkage but may be desirable for some roasts to develop flavor and appearance. **[Searing and "Sealing"]** **SEARING** Searing meats at high heat creates desirable flavor and color by browning the surfaces. It was long believed that searing the surface of meat "seals the pores," keeping in juices. This does not actually happen. Meat does not have pores but rather an open network of fibers. Think of the surface of a steak as resembling the cut end of a thick rope. There are no pores to seal. It is true that heavy browning creates a kind of crust on the surface of the meat, but this crust is no more waterproof than a UN browned surface.. Everyone who has cooked a steak has seen this demonstration that searing doesn't seal. Roasts cooked from the start at a low temperature retain more juices than roasts that are seared at high heat first. Steaks, chops, and cutlets cooked quickly at high heat retain more moisture at first because the intense heat instantly evaporates the juices from the surface of the meat and forces internal juices further into the meat. This permits browning, because moisture creates steam and inhibits browning. However, overcooked steaks are dry whether or not they were seared. **BLANCHING AND "SEALING"** Dropping meat into boiling water doesn't seal the pores either. What actually happens is this: Many proteins dissolve in cold water. When heated, these proteins coagulate and become froth or scum on the surface of the water. When meat is placed into boiling water, some of the protein coagulates inside that meat, and not as much is carried out of the meat with the lost moisture. Prolonged cooking shrinks meat as much if started in boiling water as if started in cold water. **[Cooking Frozen Meats ]** Some sources recommend cooking some meats from the frozen state, without thawing, in order to eliminate drip loss that occurs during defrosting. However, it is usually better to thaw before cooking because of the following reasons: 1. Frozen meats lose no moisture from defrosting but lose more during cooking. The total loss is about the same as for thawed meats. Besides, the perception of juiciness depends as much or more on fat content than on moisture content. 2. Cooking frozen meats complicates the cooking process and requires adjustments in procedure. It is possible for roasts to be cooked on the outside but still frozen in the center. Frozen steaks, too, are more difficult to cook evenly than thawed steaks. Thawed meats, on the other hand, are handled like fresh meats. 3. Cooking frozen meats requires extra energy, and energy is expensive. A hard-frozen roast may take 3 times as long to cook as a thawed roast. **[Doneness]** The meaning of the term doneness depends on whether the cooking method uses dry heat or moist heat. 1. **Dry heat**. Meat is "done" when the proteins have reached the desired degree of coagulation, as indicated by internal temperature. 2. **Moist heat.** Meat is "done" when connective tissues have broken down enough for the meat to be palatable. With a few exceptions, meat cooked by moist heat is always well done. **Dry-Heat Cooking** The object of dry-heat cooking is to achieve the desired degree of doneness (protein coagulation) while preserving natural tenderness and juiciness. **DEGREE OF DONENESS** As meat cooks, its pigments change color. These color changes indicate degrees of doneness. - Red meat (beef and lamb) changes from red to pink to gray or gray-brown. - Rare: browned surface; thin layer of cooked (gray) meat; red interior - Medium: thicker layer of gray; pink interior - Well done: gray throughout - (Of course, there are stages in between.) - White meat (veal and pork) changes from pink or gray-pink to white or off-white. It is generally cooked well done, although many cuts of veal may be considered done when still slightly pink in the center. Trichinosis is a disease caused by a parasite that lives in the muscle tissue of hogs and some wild animals. In countries in which this disease is a problem, pork must be cooked long enough to eliminate this danger. This parasite is killed at 137°F (58°C), but, to be safe, pork should be cooked to at least 150° to 155°F (66° to 68°C). At this stage, pork is only medium to medium-well done. Some people are happy to eat pork that is still pink in the center, but most people prefer it to be cooked slightly more than this. On the other hand, it is not necessary to cook pork to 185°F (85°C), as older guidelines said. At this temperature, pork is overcooked and dry. For diners who avoid any trace of pink in pork, perhaps the best doneness range is 160° to 170°F (71° to 77°C). **TESTING DONENESS** Determining doneness is one of the most difficult and critical aspects of meat cooking. Anyone can put a steak on the grill or a roast in the oven. But it takes experience and skill to take it off the fire at the right time. Color change cannot be used to test doneness because it would be necessary to cut the meat. Piercing the meat and examining the color of the juices is not a reliable method. **INTERNAL TEMPERATURE** Testing the interior of meat with a meat thermometer is the most accurate method of testing doneness. - Thermometers are of two types: standard, which are inserted before roasting and left in the roast; and instant-read, which are inserted at any time, read as soon as the needle stops moving, and pulled out. - Whatever thermometer you use, make sure it is clean and sanitary before inserting it in the meat. - The tip of the thermometer should be inserted into the center of the thickest part of the flesh, not touching fat or bone. Gives internal temperatures of meats at various degrees of doneness. In general, regional traditions of eating well-done or overcooked meats are decreasing, and more people are eating meat cooked rare. For decades, meats cooked to an internal temperature of 140°F (60°C) were called rare, but by today's standards, this is more like medium. It should be stated that the USDA and other agencies caution that meats may contain harmful bacteria and parasites. Although studies are still being done, these agencies suggest meats be cooked to at least 145°F (63°C) in order to be completely safe. The USDA requires that beef precooked for foodservice sale (such as precooked roast beef for sandwiches) be heated to an internal temperature of at least 145°F (63°C) when it is processed. You may recall from Chapter 2 that cooking foods to lower temperatures can make them safe. The lower the final internal temperature, the longer the product must be held at that temperature. Thus, for example, a roast may be brought to an internal temperature of only 130°F (54°C), but it can be considered safe only if it is held at that temperature at least 112 minutes. Clearly, it is not possible to keep a rare steak at its final temperature for 112 minutes before serving it. According to safety standards, then, rare steaks are not considered safe. Those who prefer their steaks rare, however, are not likely to be swayed by this argument and will continue to request meat done to their liking. Each food-service operator must decide whether to please these customers or to follow food safety guidelines. In any case, whether or not 145°F (63°C) is the lowest safe temperature for cooking most meats, it is not really accurate to call it rare. ![](media/image14.png) **CARRYOVER COOKING** Internal temperature continues to rise even after the meat is removed from the oven. This is because the outside of roasting meat is hotter than the inside. This heat continues to be conducted into the meat until the heat is equalized throughout the roast. Carryover cooking can raise internal temperatures from 5°F (3°C) for small cuts to as much as 25°F (14°C) for very large roasts, such as a steamship round. The usual range is 10° to 15°F (6° to 8°C) for average roasts. Exact temperature change depends on the size of the cut and on the oven temperature. Remove roasts from the oven when internal temperature is 10° to 15°F (6° to 8°C) below the desired reading. Let the roast stand 15 to 30 minutes before slicing. For example, a beef rib roast cooked rare should be removed from the oven when the thermometer reads 115° to 120°F (46° to 49°C). Carryover cooking will bring the temperature to 130°F (54°C) after the roast has stood for 30 minutes. **TOUCH** The small size of steaks and chops makes using a thermometer impractical. The cook must depend on his or her sense of touch. Meat gets firmer as it cooks. Pressing it lightly with the finger indicates its doneness. Press the center of the lean part, not the fat. - Rare. Feels soft, gives to pressure, though not as soft and jellylike as raw meat. - Medium. Feels moderately firm and resilient, springs back readily when pressed. - Well done. Feels firm, does not give to pressure. **TIME-WEIGHT RATIO** Many charts give roasting times per pound of meat. However, these can be approximate only and should be used in estimating and planning cooking times, not in determining doneness. Many factors other than weight and oven temperature determine cooking time: 1. Temperature of the meat before roasting. 2. Amount of fat cover (fat acts as an insulator). 3. Bones (bones conduct heat faster than flesh, so boneless roasts cook more slowly than bone-in roasts of the same weight). 4. Size, type, and contents of the oven. 5. Number of times the oven door is opened. 6. Shape of the cut (a flat or a long, thin cut cooks more quickly per pound than a round, compact cut). You can see why roasting requires experience and judgment. To be really accurate and useful, a complete roasting chart that took all variables into consideration, including all meat cuts, sizes, oven temperatures, and so on, would be the size of a small book. Point 6 above is a key point. It is the thickness of a cut, not its weight that determines cooking time---the time needed for the heat to penetrate to the center. Half a pork loin roasts in about the same time as a whole pork loin, even though it weighs half as much. The thickness is the same. Perhaps the most useful roasting time charts are those you make yourself. When you regularly roast the same cuts in the same way with the same equipment and find they always take the same length of time, you may use those times as indicators of doneness. Many foodservice operators have developed charts based on their own practices, and the correct times are indicated on their individual recipe cards. **[Moist-Heat Cooking ]** Meat cooked by moist heat is cooked well done and actually beyond well done. Doneness is indicated by tenderness, not by temperature. Piercing with a meat fork is the usual test for doneness. When the prongs of the fork go in and slide out easily, the meat is done. Low temperatures---no higher than simmering---are essential to avoid toughening protein in moist-cooked meats. Oven temperatures of 250° to 300°F (120° to 150°C) are usually sufficient to maintain a simmer. **Juiciness** Three main factors determine the juiciness---or, more accurately, the perception of juiciness--- in cooked meat. Despite the myths about basting with stock and about searing meat to "seal in the juices," the following are the only factors that have any significant effect on juiciness. 1. **Internal fat**. Fat makes meat taste juicy. This is why well-marbled meats taste juicier than lean meats. We understand the health effects of too much fat in the diet, but there is no getting around the fact that high fat content makes meat taste juicier. When lean meats are cooked, other measures (such as using sauces and, especially, avoiding overcooking) are used to increase palatability. 2. **Gelatin.** This factor is most important in braised meats. Gelatin, converted from connective tissue, helps bind water molecules and hold them in the meat. Also, the texture of the gelatin improves the texture of the meat in the mouth. This is why braised beef shank tastes so much juicier than braised outside round. 3. **Protein coagulation.** As you know, as protein coagulates or is cooked, it breaks down and begins to lose water. The more it is cooked, the more it contracts and forces out moisture. No matter how much you try to sear to "seal in the juices," this moisture will be lost. The only way to minimize the loss is to avoid overcooking. **[Cooking Variety Meats]** Variety meats, also known as offal, include the organs, glands, and other meats that don't form a part of the dressed carcass of the animal. For cooking purposes, we can divide the most popular variety meats into two groups: - **Glandular Meats** Liver Kidneys Sweetbreads Brains - **Muscle Meats** Heart Tongue Tripe Oxtails Glandular meats do not consist of muscle tissue like regular meats but instead are internal organs or glands. This fact is important for two reasons. - First, because they do not consist of bundles of muscle fibers, the texture of glandular meats is unlike that of regular meats. Because they are not muscle tissue, they are naturally tender and do not need long, slow cooking like muscular variety meats do. If organ meats are dry and tough, it is usually because they have been overcooked. - Second, glandular meats are much more perishable than muscle meats. While some muscle meats, especially beef, benefit from aging, organ meats must be very fresh to be of the best quality. Liver, sweetbreads, and brains must be used within a day or two after purchase. If brains or sweetbreads must be kept longer, they should be blanched as described below so they will keep another day or two. Heart, tongue, oxtails, and tripe are made of muscle tissue, just like other meats from the carcass. They are all tough, however, and must be cooked for a long time by simmering or braising in order to be made tender. 1. **Liver** Calf's liver is the most prized because it is tender and delicate in flavor. It is easily recognized by its pale, pinkish color. Most calf's liver is served pan-fried, sautéed, or broiled. Beef liver is darker in color, stronger in flavor, and tougher than calf's liver. It is also pan-fried or broiled, and it is frequently braised. Pork liver is also available, but it is used mostly in pâtés and sausages. **PREPARATION** - Remove outer skin. - Slice on the bias about 1/4 inch (0.5 cm) thick. Slicing is easier if the liver is partially frozen. - Remove tough membranes. **COOKING** Cook to order. Do not cook ahead. - To broil: Brush with (or dip in) oil or melted butter. Broil according to basic procedure for meats. - To pan-fry, griddle, or sauté: Dredge in seasoned flour. Cook in desired fat over moderately high heat. Do not overcook, unless customer requests well done. To be moist, liver must be slightly pink inside. Liver cooked well done is very dry. - Serve with bacon, French-fried or smothered onions, or seasoned butter. 2. **Kidneys** Veal and lamb kidneys are the most popular, especially in the more upscale restaurants. They are usually prepared by sautéing and broiling. Beef kidneys are tougher and more strongly flavored. They are often cooked by braising and served in specialty items, like steak and kidney pie. Pork livers are not often used. Veal kidneys weigh 8 to 12 oz (225 to 350 g) each. Lamb kidneys are very small, 11⁄2 to 3 oz (40 to 85 g) each. If you purchase whole lamb or veal carcasses, you will find a pair of kidneys inside the cavity, attached to the small of the back in the region of the tenderloin and surrounded by a heavy layer of fat or suet. **PREPARATION** - If the kidney is encased in fat, pull the fat away with your hands and use a knife to cut it away from the core area where the ducts emerge from inside the kidney. - Lamb kidneys are usually broiled and served two or three per portion, or as part of a mixed grill. - Butterfly them by splitting them almost in half, starting at the curved or convex side. Spread them open and skewer them to hold them open during cooking. Veal kidneys can be broiled like lamb kidneys, but they are most often cut up, sautéed, and served in a sauce. - To prepare them for sautéing, first split them in half. Remove the white ducts from the center. Then cut into large dice or thick slices. **COOKING** There are two main pitfalls to cooking kidneys. First, they become tough and rubbery if overcooked. Properly cooked, they are pink in the middle and still tender and juicy. Cooking time is very short. Second, they have a high moisture content, which can interfere with proper sautéing. Make sure the pan is very hot before adding the kidneys, and do not overcrowd the pan. Failure to do this results in kidneys that are boiled in their juices rather than sautéed. To avoid overcooking when sautéing over high heat, do not try to brown the kidneys too heavily. Brown them only lightly and remove them from the pan when they are still somewhat rare. Set them aside while you deglaze the pan and prepare the sauce. During this time, some juices will be released from the kidneys. Drain this juice and add it to the sauce if desired, or discard it if you feel the flavor is too strong. Finally, add the kidneys to the sauce and warm them gently. Do not let them simmer long. Serve at once. 3. **Sweetbreads** Sweetbreads are the thymus glands of calves and young beef animals. (The gland gradually disappears as the animal matures.) They are considered a delicacy and are often expensive. Sweetbreads are mild in flavor and delicate in texture. They are usually braised or breaded and sautéed in butter. Before cooking, sweetbreads should be prepared according to the following procedure - Soak in several changes of cold water for several hours or overnight. This removes blood, which would darken the meat when cooked. - Blanch in simmering salted water for 10 minutes. Some chefs like to add a little lemon juice or vinegar to the water to preserve whiteness and make the meat firmer. - Refresh under cold water and peel off membranes and connective tissue. - Press between two trays, with a light weight on top, and refrigerate for several hours. If desired, wrap in cheesecloth before pressing, as shown in Figure 10.20. - Prepare for cooking: For braising, leave whole or cut into large dice. For breading and sautéing, split in half horizontally. Pass through Standard Breading Procedure or dredge in flour. 4. **Brains** Brains are not a popular item, but they are delicate in both flavor and texture. Calf's brains are the most frequently used. Brains are very perishable and should be cooked as soon as possible. They are also fragile and must be handled carefully. Brains must be pre-prepared according to the following procedure. They may then be served hot with black butter or cooled and then dipped in batter, deep-fried, and served with tomato sauce. - Soak in fresh water, as for sweetbreads. - Peel off outer membrane (this may be done before or after poaching). - Poach 20 minutes in court bouillon made of 1 oz. (2

BHM 271 - Intermediate Food Production Course PDF

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