BES 3144 Experimental Psychology Finals PDF

BES 3144 – EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY FIRST TERM – FINALS Module 6: Fundamentals of Research o The research methods include observations, doing a survey or Goals of Psycholo...

BES 3144 – EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY FIRST TERM – FINALS Module 6: Fundamentals of Research o The research methods include observations, doing a survey or Goals of Psychology designing an experiment Description Psychologists are always asked to say d. Design study to collect data something about an individual. Traits, the type of o Experimental character, his capabilities etc. Describing the o Descriptive behavior in a scientific way. Ex. Administration of e. Analyze data to arrive at conclusions psychological test. o Drawing conclusions Explanation/ Understanding A psychologist gives § Once you know the results of an elucidation of the determinants of behavior so your hypothesis testing, you will that people may understand the ‘why’ of the find that either your H is behavior. Ex. Psychologist being invited as a supported (experiment worked) resource person to shed light. or weren’t supported Prediction gives the outcome or the o Use statistical procedures consequences Ex. Entrance exam as a predictor f. Report results of GPA, employee/ SEAFARER’S exam. o You have come to some conclusions Control prevent or give solutions behavior and about your investigation’s success or mental processes Ex. How to control chain failure and you want to let other smoking, substance abuse, gambling. researchers know what you have found Psychotherapy, psychoeducation, etc. o Publication o Replication Psychology: The Scientific Methodology Psychology is about trying to determine the facts Theory and reduce uncertainty. A theory = a potential explanation (for an Researchers want to see only what is really there observation or phenomenon). and not their biases might lead them to see. Potential because theories often change as we Therefore, psychology should be factual, gain more knowledge around a given unbiased, objective as well as reliable. phenomenon. Scientific Method a system for reducing bias and Not a fact, not the truth but one possible error in the measurement of data. A way to explanation among many possible explanations. accomplish the goals of psychology. Good theories are supported by further investigations and new knowledge often Scientific Method uncovered through research. We can strengthen a. Formulate testable questions the theory (or weaken) depending on the quality o Derived from the goal of description of a theory. The use of scientific explanations, we b. Develop hypothesis can test those explanations or theories using o Form a tentative answer or explanation hypothesis. for the behavior you have seen. c. Test the hypothesis Hypothesis o The method you use for this depend on A verifiable prediction intended to test theories what kind of answer you think you might An educated guess about the explanation for get your observation putting it into the form of o Testing the hypothesis is all about the statement goal of explanation for behavior Verifiable scientific hypotheses need to be verifiable or testable meaning we can observe and measure them Non-Experimental/Descriptive Approaches Observational Methods Case Study The act of recognizing and noting facts or It is a descriptive record of an individual’s occurrences. experiences and/or behaviors kept by an outside Direct Observation observe behavior “present” observer. while it occurs. Used in a variety of ways: 2 Types: o to make inferences about the o Observation Without Intervention developmental processes (Naturalistic) o the impact of life events o Observation With Intervention o a person’s level of functioning § Participant Observation o the origin of disorders (mostly in clinical § Structured Observation cases) § Field Experiment No manipulation of antecedent conditions. Intervention refers to change or create a context for observation. Phenomenology Involves a close examination of the experiences Naturalistic Observation and meaning-making activities Is the technique of observing behaviors as they Rather than looking at behaviors and events that occur spontaneously in natural settings. are external to us, it begins with our own Usually, participants are not aware that their experience as a source of data. behavior is being observed. This is important to Qualitative data from research participants using get data as genuine and as truly reflective of their techniques such as interview, diaries, or focus nature. group. Descriptive method that involves no Asking open-ended questions allowing the manipulation of antecedent conditions. experiences of respondents to emerge. Ex. An educational psychologist maybe involve a close examination of the experiences interested in the behavior of the pupils once the and meaning-making activities teacher leaves the classroom Data analysis recording, transcribing, coding, During the naturalistic observation, the observer looking for themes remains unobtrusive so that the behaviors Themes are recurring patterns of meaning (ideas, observed are not altered by the presence of the thoughts, feelings) throughout the text. Themes observer. are likely to identify both something that matters Controlled Observation (structured observation) to the participants (i.e. an object of concern, topic are likely to be carried out in a psychology of some import) and also convey something of laboratory. the meaning of that thing, for the participants The researcher decides where the observation will take place, at what time, with which Field Study participants, in what circumstances and uses a Is a non-experimental approach used in the field standardized procedure. Participants are or in real life settings randomly allocated to each independent variable Combine various types of data gathering to group. capitalize on the richness and range of behavior found outside the laboratory. Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Capture behavior in real life setting and natural Mary Ainsworth used a behavior schedule to environment. study how infants responded to brief periods of Participants may behave more naturally separation from their mothers. During the Often difficult to exert control over situation and Strange Situation procedure infant's interaction environment behaviors directed toward the mother were Low (Cause and Effect) because EV’s inevitable. measured, e.g. Proximity and contacting seeking Contact maintaining Avoidance of proximity and contact  Resistance to contact and comforting 10 minutes every hour, 1 hour per day) The observer noted down the behavior displayed and records the occurrence of the during 15-second intervals and scored the specified behavior during that period behavior for intensity on a scale of 1 to 7. only. Naturalistic observation is a research method c. Instantaneous (target time) sampling the commonly used by psychologists and other social observer decides in advance the pre- scientists. selected moments when observation will Observing involves studying the spontaneous take place and records what is behavior of participants in natural surroundings. happening at that instant. Everything The researcher simply records what they see in happening before or after is ignored. whatever way they can. Advantages Ex. Margaret Mead used this method to research a. Can be useful for generating hypotheses. the way of life of different tribes living on islands b. Provides information about behavior in in the South Pacific. Kathy Sylva used it to study the natural environment. children at play by observing their behavior in a c. Like survey but questions are not asked. playgroup in Oxfordshire. d. High ecological validity. Participant Observation a variant of the above e. More insights gained. (natural observations) but here the researcher Disadvantages joins in and becomes part of the group they are a. Sometimes yields biased results. studying to get a deeper insight into their lives. b. Maybe difficult to do unobtrusively. Participant observations can be either cover or c. Doesn’t allow conclusions about cause- overt. Covert is where the study is carried out and-effect rel. 'undercover'. The researcher's real identity and d. Risks involved. purpose are kept concealed from the group e. People may behave unnaturally as they being studied. know that we are observing them. The researcher takes a false identity and role, f. Not possible to observe all types of usually posing as a genuine member of the behavior in a natural setting group. On the other hand, overt is where the researcher Survey reveals his or her identity and purpose to the Techniques of interviews and questionnaires are group and asks permission to observe. used in field settings. Ex. Leon Festinger in a famous study into a Used to investigate characteristics, behaviors, or religious cult who believed that the end of the opinions. world was about to occur. He joined the cult and Example: demography, experiences, opinions, studied how they reacted when the prophecy did and hypothetical scenarios not come true. Techniques: o Mail an example might include an alumni Recording of Data survey distributed via direct mail by your With controlled / structured observation studies alma mater. an important decision the researcher must make o Telephone an example would be a is how to classify and record the data. Usually this market research call about experiences will involve a method of sampling. The three main with a certain consumer product. sampling methods are: o Online might focus on your experience a. Event sampling the observer decides in with a particular retailer, product, or advance what types of behavior (events) website. she is interested in and records all o At home interviews Government aided occurrences. All other types of behavior interviews are ignored. Advantages b. Time sampling the observer decides in o Allows researchers to collect a large advance that observation will take place amount of data in a relatively short only during specified time periods (e.g. period.  o Surveys can be created quickly and Direction of Correlation administered easily. o Positive (Direct Relationship) Ex. College o Surveys are less expensive than many Exam score & GPA, Height and weight, other data collection techniques. education, and income o Surveys can be used to collect o Negative (Inverse Relationship) Ex. information on a broad range of things, Education and prejudice including personal facts, attitudes, past o Zero (No Correlation) behaviors, and opinions. Sensitive Form (Shape) of a Relationship information can be gathered as well. Linear a straight relationship is called linear Disadvantages because it approximates a straight line. o Poor survey construction and Curvilinear Correlation one variable increases as administration can undermine well- the other increases until the relationship between designed studies. X and Y that begins as positive becomes o The answer choices provided in a survey negative. may not be an accurate reflection of how Ex. TV viewing tends to decrease with age, until the participants feel. 30’s after which viewing tends to increase with o While random sampling is generally used age to select participants, response rates can bias the results of a survey. Degree (Strength) of a Relationship o The social desirability bias can lead Correlation coefficient measures the degree people to respond in a way that makes (strength) of the relationship between two them look better than they really are. For variables. The measures we discuss only measure example, a respondent might report that the strength of the linear relationship between they engage in more healthy behaviors two variables. Numerically express both the than they do in real life. strength and direction of a straight-line correlation. Correlational Research o -1.00 Perfect Negative Correlation Is one that is designed to determine the degree o -0.60 Strong Negative Correlation of relationship between two or more traits, o -0.30 Moderate Negative Correlation behaviors, or events. o -0.10 Weak Negative Correlation Can be used with both laboratory and field data. o.00 No Correlation Variable is any observable behavior, o +0.10 Weak Positive Correlation characteristic or event that can vary or have o +0.30 Moderate Positive Correlation different values. o +0.60 Strong Positive Correlation Process: o +1.00 Perfect Positive Correlation o The traits or behaviors of interest and measured first. Where and Why We Use Correlational o Numbers are recorded. Prediction correlations can be used to help make o The correlation or degree of relationship predictions. If two variables have been known in is determined through statistical the past to correlate, then we can assume they procedures. will continue to correlate in the future. We can Scatterplot visual representation of the data. use the value of one variable that is known now researcher’s first step toward analyzing to predict the value that the other variable will correlational data. take on in the future. For example, we require Regression Line / Line of Best Fit the line drawn high school students to take the SAT exam on the scatterplots because we know that in the past SAT scores Relationships between pairs of scores from each correlated well with the GPA scores that the subject are known as simple correlations. The students get when they are in college. Thus, we Pearson product moment correlation coefficient predict high SAT scores will lead to high GPA (r) is the most used procedure for calculating scores, and conversely. simple correlations.  Validity suppose we have developed a new test Sampling: should be representative of the of intelligence. We can determine if it is really population being studied. Example: predicting a measuring intelligence by correlating the new political cand. to win even if the respondents are test's scores with, for example, the scores that the from the region where he resides. same people get on standardized IQ tests, or Disadvantage does not guarantee that the their scores on problem solving ability tests, or respondents will be honest because of social their performance on learning tasks, etc. This is a desirability - tendency of participants to put them process for validating the new test of intelligence. on a positive light. Ex. Whether you smoke, drink, The process is based on correlation. or practice safe sex Reliability correlations can be used to determine the reliability of some measurement process. For Longitudinal Study example, we could administer our new IQ test on Involves study, over time, of a group of people, two different occasions to the same group of or of samples from the same population, using people and see what the correlation is. If the records, interviews, or both. Studies which correlation is high, the test is reliable. If it is low, extend over a long period, which are prospective. it is not. because changes in everyone’s responses are Theory Verification many Psychological theories assessed, it’s easier to investigate reasons for make specific predictions about the relationship attitude or behavior changes. between two variables. For example, it is the best survey design when a researcher wishes predicted that parents and children's to assess the effect of some naturally occurring intelligences are positively related. We can test event this prediction by administering IQ tests to the Ways of gathering Data: parents and their children and measuring the o Questionnaire correlation between the two scores. o Interview Ex-post Facto Study Cross Sectional Study Ex post facto means “after the fact”. Sometimes A cross-sectional study involves looking at data known as quasi-experimental research from a population at one specific point in time. The researcher is interested in the effects of traits, The participants in this type of study are selected behaviors or naturally occurring events that based on variables of interest. cannot or should not be manipulated by a his study type is also known as cross-sectional researcher. analysis, transverse study, or prevalence study. The researcher forms treatment groups based on Cross-sectional data on present drinking habits differences that already exist between subjects. among men Ex Trait weight influences self-esteem level The study takes place at a single point in time Event Traumatic experiences It allows researchers to look at numerous characteristics at once (age, income, gender, Survey Method etc.). Designed to investigate opinions, behaviors, or It's often used to look at the prevailing characteristics of a particular group. Usually in characteristics in each population self-report form/ survey questionnaire or an It can provide information about what is interview. happening in a current population Examples: political opinions, sexual attitudes, or product Experimental Method preferences. An experiment is a method of data collection Advantage it allows us to gather data about designed to test hypotheses under controlled experiences, feelings, thoughts, and motives that conditions are hard to observe directly. Instrument: a carefully pretested questionnaire. Experimental Designs in Psychology Easier to administer, more economical and ensuring the anonymity of respondents.  A true experiment attempts to isolate cause and effect and to eliminate alternative explanations of Comparison Groups observed relationships between variables. Control Group (CG) In a true experiment, an independent variable is o Does not received the treatment. Not manipulated, and all other salient variables are exposed to the intervention. controlled inc. random allocation of participants o No treatment groups. to conditions. o It provides a baseline against some variable of interest. Experiments o Group separated from the rest of the Direct way to test a hypothesis about a cause- experiment where the independent effect relationship between factors variable being tested cannot influence Hypothesis tentative statement about the the results. This isolates the independent relationship between variables variable's effects on the experiment and Variables factors that can vary in ways that can be can help rule out alternate explanations observed, measured, and verified of the experimental results Experimental Group (EG) o Independent Variable o Receives the treatment. Exposed to the § Hypothesized to cause an effect intervention. on another variable o Treatment group. § Exogenous Variable / Predictor o Group in a scientific experiment where Variable the experimental procedure is § Hypothesized explanation performed. This group is exposed to § “Cause” the independent variable being tested § Manipulated and the changes observed and recorded. § Must have at least two levels (Categories and Numeric) Null and Alternative Hypothesis § Simples is experimental group Null Hypothesis vs. control group o (Ho) a statement of no difference. that o Dependent Variable the performance of EG is similar with the § The measured facts and other groups. hypothesized to be affected o Ho § Endogenous Variable/ Outcome o equal (=) Variable o Ho = Ha; There is no significant § Behavior being studied difference between the groups being § “Effect” studied. (No relationship bet variables, § Results being measured no cause and effect o Extraneous Variable Alternative Hypothesis § Can also effect change in the o (H1) (Ha) A statement that the results of measure of the dependent experiment from groups are not equal variable o Ho ≠ Ha; Ho less than () Ha; There is a influence the relationship significant difference between the two between the variables that an groups. (There is a relationship bet experimenter is examining variables, there is cause and effect) § These are variables the influence the outcome of an experiment Steps in Conducting Experimental Research § These variables are undesirable 1. Identifying a Research Problem because they add error to an o The process starts by clearly identifying experiment the problem you want to study and Operational Definition precise description of how considering what possible methods will the variables will be manipulated and measures affect a solution. Then you choose the  method you want to test and formulate a Random Assignment every subject in the study hypothesis to predict the outcome of the should have an equal chance of being placed in test. either the experimental group or control group 2. Planning o Devise an experiment to test your Possible Bias hypothesis. In doing so, you must Expectancy Effects change in dependent variable consider several factors. For example, produced by subject’s expectancy that change how generalizable do you want your end should happen results to be? Do you want to generalize Demand Characteristics subtle cues or signals by about the entire population of high the researcher that communicate type of school seniors everywhere, or just the responses that are expected population of seniors at your specific Both controlled through use of double blind school? This will determine how simple procedures or complex the experiment will be. 3. Conducting the Experiment Strength and Weakness o At the start of an experiment, the control Strengths and treatment groups must be selected. o Control over the environment and other Whereas the "hard" sciences have the external variable is possible. luxury of attempting to create truly equal o One can infer causality through the groups, educators often find themselves manipulation of the independent forced to conduct their experiments variable. based on self-selected groups, rather o Prediction is enhanced. than on randomization. o There is greater confidence the study has 4. Analyze the Data integral validity due to the systematic o Collect and analyze the data. This is not subject selection. and equity of groups solely a step where you collect the being compared. papers, read them, and say your o Replication is very possible. methods were a success. You must show Weakness how successful. You must devise a scale o Since subjects of experimental designs by which you will evaluate the data you are not usually representative of general receive; therefore, you must decide what populations, any generalizations are indicators will be, and will not be, problematic. Social scientists typically important. say that experimental designs have low 5. Report the Results external validity or that they have poor o Once you have completed the generalizability. experiment, you will want to share o The artificial settings of experiments may findings by publishing academic paper alter subject behaviors or responses. (or presentations). These papers usually o Experimental designs can be costly if have the following format, but it is not special equipment or facilities are necessary to follow it strictly. Sections needed. can be combined or not included, depending on the structure of the Limitations experiment, and the journal to which you Often criticized for having little to do with actual submit your paper. behavior because of strict laboratory conditions Ethical considerations in creating some more Experimental Design “real life” situations Random Sample every member of the population being studied should have an equal chance of Ethical Guidelines being selected for the study Informed consent and voluntary participation Students as participants Use of deception  Confidentiality of records Information about the study and debriefing __________________________________________________ Notes about Thesis Paper Title: Effect of Academic Stress on the Vaping/Behavior of UST College Students Keywords: Academic stress, smoking behavior, college students, addiction Criteria: 1. Inclusion characteristics they possess to be an eligible research participant 2. Exclusion characteristics they possess that will make them unqualified for the experiment 2 Types of Hypothesis: a. Null Hypothesis o There is no significant effect of academic stress on the smoking behavior of UST College Students b. Alternative Hypothesis o There is a significant effect of AS on the SB of UST College Students Experimental Design 1. Simple Experimental Design a. Experimental Group i. with treatment ii. with IV b. Control Group i. non-treatment ii. no IV Independent Variable: Time spent studying Dependent Variable: Academic Performance Two Definitions a. Conceptual Definition i. Dictionary based ii. APA b. Operational definition i. used in the study application __________________________________________________ Module 7: Facilitating Online Classroom Experiments make sure to listen to everything a person has to say. Experiment Facilitation d. Time Management The ability to conduct an experiment is an § When goals must be met or important skill that future practitioners in the ideas need to be created by a different tracks (e.g. industrial, clinical, deadline, time management is educational, etc.) must possess. necessary to keep everyone Demonstration means that the class will not be focused. A facilitator uses their able to experience the activity due to limitations. time management skills to You will just be the ones to experience and just ensure that progress is being present to the class your experience undergoing made during a group project or the experiment. meeting. Facilitation means that the class will be able to e. Neutrality participate through breakout sessions § Ability to stay unbiased during a team effort. Remaining neutral Facilitation Skills & Characteristics as a facilitator is crucial because Facilitation skills are less about being an it allows you to guide the team outspoken leader and more about allowing without having an agenda. The everyone else to contribute. As a facilitator, you team's success is your priority, bring the team together and create a common no matter what choices they goal that everyone can be a part of. You then make. move the conversation toward the common goal f. Flexibility and provide whatever is needed for your team to § The ability to adapt to change. A successfully reach it. A facilitator's main objective facilitator can do this by is to lead their team without getting directly adapting to the current outlook involved by encouraging participation and and mindset of the team creativity. whenever necessary a. Preparedness g. Effective Communication Skills § Being prepared is a contributing § An excellent facilitator is one factor to making progress and who knows not only how to facilitating a group. A facilitator speak comfortably in front of an who is prepared will be able to audience but can also convey provide the resources that the the meeting process in a simple, team needs to move the concise manner. conversation toward a common § Facilitators are expected to goal paraphrase back individual ideas b. Ability to set guidelines for purposes of getting better § Setting guidelines from the clarity and/or to validate the beginning of a project allows the speaker’s intention. group to share a common goal. § Being able to summarize and Progress is often made more communicate back key themes, quickly when everyone on the trends and/or decisions that the team understands the guidelines group has proposed helps the and knows what the facilitator group to effectively create wants. closure. c. Active Listening h. Keen Observation Skills § This involves giving each § Able to pick up on small member of the team your full gestures, glances and facial attention. People contribute expressions that can all point to more when they feel like they are the individual’s honest reaction being heard. A facilitator should and/or opinion.  § It’s important to get a sense of group. They believe better what is really happening in decisions; better ideas and people’s minds and what they better outcomes can be are feeling by noting mixed achieved when the intelligence messages when they occur to in the room has been bring concerns, differing leveraged. By combining their opinions and resistance to the knowledge, skills, and surface. personality in an effective way a i. Promotes Constructive Feedback top-notch meeting leader will be § To ensure participants are not able to facilitate trust and draw caving into one person’s idea(s), the best out the group. the facilitator will challenge the k. Asks versus Tells group by posing questions to § Facilitators use the art of either help them think more questioning or asking, rather broadly, deeper, or wider. If than telling, to encourage group required, the facilitator members to come up with their encourages the group to stop own ideas. If the group is unable and reflect on their performance to come up with ideas the or ideas for purposes of facilitator will only throw out improvement. suggestions to stimulate further § Feedback is best when it is ideas. The facilitator constructive and is based on understands that if the group real, observable events that comes up with the ideas others can relate to. The themselves, ultimately, buy-in facilitator also demonstrates and follow-through are their willingness to receive increased. feedback by actively listening l. Energetic Personality and incorporating process § A facilitator has to know when to changes where it makes sense. ramp up the energy in the room j. Patient and/or when to bring back the § Staying patient during the focus of the group. Having an facilitation process is crucial for energetic personality can help the meeting to be successful. heighten the excitement for an The facilitator does not show upcoming project or get a their frustration or anger at the brainstorming session off to the participants for not being right start regardless of brilliant in generating ideas or participant’s commitment to the when an individual or the group process. When tensions is not following the process plan. between participants appear, a Instead, the facilitator evaluates good facilitator has the ability to if the problem is due to a content stay calm during disagreements. or a process issue. Once noted, This takes tremendous energy the resolution of the problem and skill and will help diffuse can be as simple as asking tensions and keep dialogue different questions to help the constructive and on-topic. group see the issue more clearly, m. Demonstrates Unwavering Positivity or as difficult as changing the § Whether you are starting a process plan to suit the group’s facilitation, in the middle of a changing needs. facilitation, or at the end of a § A great facilitator values and facilitation, being optimistic and respects the power of the positive will help you facilitate  the meeting smoothly and get of findings across settings (Dandurand, Shultz, & the most engagement from each Onishi, 2008; Logie & Maylor, 2009). member of the group. One way 4. Sample & Population online experiments we do this is by using generally lead to relatively wide differences in ‘appreciative inquiry’ – helping participant demographics, robust random participants to look at issues sampling (as participants self-enrol at their from a strength, or “what’s convenience) and large sample sizes. In contrast, working” perspective rather than lab-based experiments often end up with a “what’s not working”. participant pool comprised of a small n. Authentic convenience sample (e.g., university students § By being your authentic self, you and/or residents) with reduced demographic will find it easier to connect to diversity. Sample size and demographic diversity the participants, which will help conducting experiments online allows access to you guide and understand them vast numbers of participants from a wide variety better, resulting in a successful of cultural, socio-economic, and ethnic group facilitation in which the backgrounds from across the world. Specific members of the group bond and populations can be targeted via online forums, trust each other. Just like a good newsgroups, social media, crowd sourcing and facilitator has keen observations specialized participant recruitment services skills in noting mixed messages, 5. Simplified Replication online experiment the participants also have an platforms that encourage sharing and facilitate amazing ability to pick up on cloning of studies can greatly ease replication by disingenuous comments or fellow researchers. Lab-based experiments can statements which can shut them suffer from homogeneity of both participants down. (i.e., lack of population validity) and setting, because of their highly constrained environment How to improve your facilitation skills? (i.e., lack of ecological validity) leading to a need Practicing facilitation skills and developing your to replicate projects across many labs (van strengths will enable you to become a better Steenbergen & Bocanegra, 2015). facilitator. 6. Voluntary Participation both lab-based and online studies can suffer from a lack of voluntary Advantage of Online Experiments participation due to factors related to situational 1. Cost & Efficiency first and foremost, online demand. Students, for example, may feel experiments free the researcher from the pressure to participate for credit or credibility constraints of the lab, resulting in a reduction in purposes, or for feelings of obligation and staff time and cost, freedom from scheduling of various types of demand characteristics. participants, and even from the need for a lab Participants are less likely to withdraw consent and participant computer equipment altogether. after reading a consent form or to cease 2. Automation via online experiments relieves the participation (thus withdrawing consent) during researcher from the role of interviewer, an experiment where a researcher is present. automates collection of data and delivers high statistical power by allowing recruitment of high Disadvantages of Online Experiments numbers of participants from all over the world. 1. Experimenter’s Lack of Control one potential 3. Ecological Validity online experiments can disadvantage of online data collection is the usually be run on the devices that participants use experimenter’s lack of control over the setting in in their own everyday lives. This means that online which participants provide their responses. This is experiments can better reflect both the important to consider in cases where noise, environmental and the technical conditions in the distraction, lighting, and capability of computing real world than experiments run in the lab. The equipment could affect the experimental higher ecological validity of online experiments outcomes. leads to more confidence in the generalizability 2. Ethical Issues including difficulty in obtaining from participant recruitment services (who are informed consent, providing feedback, and paid per task), are due to the opportunity cost of debriefing need careful consideration, and looking up answers (Clifford & Jerit, 2016). appropriate measures applied to counter Plausibly, the opportunity cost hypothesis could fraudulent behavior, multiple submissions, self- be extended to cover random responses. selection and dropout. Another potential source of random responses is 3. Pre-Screen Lies with the rise in popularity of participation from non-humans, in the form of crowd sourcing and participant recruitment computer programs (aka bots or automated form services, researchers can focus on specific traits, fillers). Non-human participation is becoming sub-populations and experiential factors when more prevalent as the number of online studies prescreening participants. Some participants, offering financial incentives increases (Dennis, however, may deliberately enter false information Goodson, & Pearson, 2018). These programs are in prescreening in order to gain access to a study plentiful, easy to use and freely available to when financial incentives are on offer. Evidence download from the internet (Buchanan & suggests that prescreen lying is not uncommon Scofield, 2018). Even low numbers of random (Jones, House, & Gao, 2015) and the incidence responses – whether from humans or bots – can increases with the rarity of population sought. lead to large distortions in results (Credé, 2010). This increase in fraud is due to the low number of 5. Multiple submissions early studies suggested genuinely eligible participants and therefore low that multiple submissions by the same participant competition where financial reward is offered. in online experiments were rare (e.g., Reips, Even minimal rates of prescreen fraud can have a 2002). However, later research shows that the significant effect on sampling error, particularly problem is of much greater concern than first when fraudulent participants are truthful in the thought. In online experiments the possibility of study proper (Chandler & Paolacci, 2017). eitcher multiple submissions can rise when there is et al. (2015) suggest a number of techniques to entertainment value to participation reduce the incidence of false prescreen (Ruppertsberg, Givaty, Van Veen, & Bülthoff, responses: 2001), when the participant has a bias that is o State that participants will not be exercised by the experiment, or when some form compensated if fraudulent behavior is of incentive is on offer, such as financial gain or detected. entry in a prize draw (Konstan et al., 2005). o Give compensation information only at 6. Cheating without supervision, there's more the end of a study. opportunity for participants to cheat. A o Inform participants of their eligibility for participant might cheat by taking written notes in the study only after completion of a a prospective memory task or use web search to prescreening questionnaire (without look up answers when participating in a revealing eligibility criteria). knowledge-based questionnaire. Some o Provide entry into a prize draw or lottery researchers suggest that cheating might not be a as an incentive instead of paying each major concern in online research (Finley & participant. Penningroth, 2015). However, reality is a little 4. Random Responses online studies, particularly more nuanced, as propensity to cheat appears to questionnaires, are vulnerable to random depend more on factors such as context and responses (Chandler & Paolacci, 2017; Clifford & motivation than simply on whether a study is Jerit, 2014) and the likelihood increases in line conducted online or in the lab. with financial rewards. In a language translation study with participants from a participant Core Competencies of Experiments recruitment service, Callison-Burch (2009) a. Experiment Conceptualization and Design to be discovered that responses from the most achieved in the proposal that you shall submit experienced participant were little better than toward the end of the course chance which they interpreted as a strong b. Experiment Conduct and Facilitation to be indication of random responding. It is speculated assessed in the series of selected experiments to that low rates of cheating amongst participants be implemented in the second half of the term  c. Experiment Analysis and Interpretation to be o Distributing materials demonstrated in the analysis that you shall o Preparing the room set-up engage with in your assigned experiments 3. Modeling (5 Minutes) o Demonstrating the procedures of the As Experiment Facilitators experiment in accordance with the Prepare a lecturette to introduce your experimental activity sheet participants to your topic o Performing part of the procedures, as Ensure complete materials for your experiment necessary, for better understanding of Conduct the experiment yourselves first before the participants actually implementing your study to your o Clarifying if participants understood the participants procedures Demonstrate and run your experiment to the o Types of Manipulation participants § Straightforward Manipulation Check the results or outcomes of the - Can manipulate the experiments among your participants variable by presenting Debrief your participants as part of integrating written, verbal, or visual overall experience material to the participants. Guidelines for Facilitating Experiments - Control variables with 1. Primming (10 Minutes) instructions and stimulus o Delivering the lecturette on the assigned presentations. Stimuli topic may be presented o Giving of Informed Consent verbally, in written form, § Potential participants in research via videotape or with a should be provided with all the computer. information that might influence § Staged Manipulation the decision of whether to - Stage events during the participate in a study. experiment to § Most provided with a written manipulate the IV informed consent form successfully. a. Purpose of the research - The researcher may try b. Procedures to create some c. Risks and benefits psychological state in d. Compensation the participants like e. Confidentiality frustration, anger etc. f. Assurance of voluntary - It may be necessary to participation and simulate some situation permission to withdraw. that occurs in the real g. Contact information for environment. questions - Demands a great deal of o Discussing the experiment objectives creativity, ingenuity, and o Soliciting expectations from the some acting ability. participants - Confederate o Lecturette you usually must supply the (accomplice) is participants with information necessary employed to appear to for them. be another participant 2. Organizing (5 Minutes) but is part of the o Setting-up the materials and/or manipulation to create a equipment particular situation o Ensuring that participants are properly 4. Experiencing (25 Minutes) organized o Giving the go-signal to proceed o Monitoring the time - Electromyogram (EMG) o Signaling the end of the session measures muscle o Actual time depends on the type of tension and used as a experiment measure of tension or o Measuring the Dependent Variable stress. § Self-Report Measures - Electroencephalogram - Self-reports are used to (EEG) measures the measure attitudes, liking electrical activity of brain for someone, judgment cells. Used to record about someone’s general brain arousal as personality a response to different characteristics, situations such as active emotional states etc. parts of the brain when a - Any test, measure, or psychological survey that relies on an phenomenon occurs. individual's own report - Magnetic Resonance of their symptoms, Imaging (MRI) provides behaviors, beliefs, or an image of an attitudes. individual’s brain - Paper and pencil tests structure. It allows are generally scientists to compare inexpensive. brain structure of § Behavioral Measures individuals with a - Are direct observations particular mental health of behaviors. condition - The research may record - Functional MRI allows whether a given researchers to scan behavior occurs Ex. An areas of the brain while a individual responds to a research participant request for help. performs a physical or - The researcher needs to cognitive task. quantify observed o Sensitivity of the Dependent Variable behaviors: § The dependent variable should - Rate of a Behavior how be sensitive enough to detect many times the behavior differences between groups. It is occurs in each time. important when measuring - Reaction Time how human performance. quickly a response § Ceiling Effect a task is so easy occurs after a stimulus. that everyone does well - Duration how long a regardless of the conditions. The behavior persists. IV appears to have no effect on § Physiological Measures the DV only because participants - Are recordings of quickly reach the maximum response of the body. performance level. - Galvanic Skin Response § Floor Effect occurs when a task is (GVR) measures general so difficult that hardly anyone emotional arousal and can perform well. anxiety by electrical 5. Processing (10 Minutes) conductance of the skin o Asking the process questions which changes when o Drawing out the learning insights and sweating occurs. experiences from the participants o Additional Controls – Controlling for caused by the Participant Expectations properties of the drug or § Demand Characteristics by the participants’ experimenters do not wish to expectations about the inform participants about the effect of drug- Placebo specific hypothesis of the expt. Effect. - The concern is that - Participants in the when participants form placebo group receive a expectations about the pill containing an inert & hypothesis of the study, harmless drug (fake they will then do Prozac) whatever is necessary to § Experimenter’s Bias / confirm the hypothesis. Expectancy Effects - To resolve: - Experimenters are - The use of deception – usually aware of the to make participants purpose of the study think that the and thus develop experiment is studying expectations about how one thing when actually participants should it is studying something respond. else. - The experimenter might - Devise elaborate cover unconsciously treat stories to explain the participants differently purpose of the study. in various conditions of - Demand characteristics the study such as may be eliminated when emphasizing certain people are not aware words when reading that an experiment is instructions to one taking place or their group and not the other. behavior is being - Experimenters record observed. behaviors of the § Placebo Group participants which there - A special kind of are subtle differences in participant expectation the way the arises in research on the experimenter interprets effects of drugs. or records the behavior. - Consider an experiment § Solutions to Expectancy Effects on the effectiveness of 1. Experimenters should PROZAC drug on the be well-trained and treatment of should practice depression. behaving consistently - 1st group – depressive with all participants. receives treatment or 2. Run all conditions drug. simultaneously so that - 2nd group – receives the experimenter’s nothing but a fake pill behavior is the same - Suppose Prozac shows for all the participants. improvement on the 3. Make the procedures mood level of the 1st automated or use of group. We do not know computers. if the improvement was  4. Use experimenters Experiment Demo and Facilitation who are unaware of Assign the members of the class to the 8 the hypothesis being experiment topics (number has been adjusted studied: due to the academic break) - Single Blind Experiment All groups to consult with facilitator for details of the participant is the experiment unaware of whether a Refer to the assigned experiment activity sheets placebo or the actual for guidance about the topic drug is being Experiment activity sheets will not be submitted administered. but an improvised experimental report will just - Double-Blind be solicited later (format to be given later) Experiment neither the It is important that you participate actively in all participant nor the demonstrations and keep records experimenter knows whether the placebo or Expectations actual treatment is Prepare visual aids for the assigned experiment being given. Assemble the needed stimulations for the 6. Debriefing (10 Minute) assigned experiment o Occurs after the completion of the study Follow the steps in experiment facilitation when and includes an explanation of the you present or demo your assigned experiment purposes of the res. topic o An opportunity for the researcher to Each demo/facilitation is expected to run for an interact with the participants to discuss average of 30 minutes only (may vary) the ethical and educational implications Considering that all experiments are to be of the study, withholding info, deception conducted online, groups must have adequately and harmful effects of participation. studied ways to assess the best ways to o The participants should leave the “transform” the experiment for online facilitation. experiment without any ill feelings o Key Discussion Points: § Integrating the key learning points from the session § Explaining the relevance of the experiment § Providing a meaningful closure to the experiment § Ask the participants to refrain from discussing the study with others. § May contact participants to inform about the results. o It provides an opportunity to learn more what the participants were thinking during the experiment. o If participants were deceived in any way, the researcher needs to explain why the deception was necessary. If the participant’s emotional state were altered, - produced stress, the researchers make sure that the participant has calmed down and comfortable. Module 8: Basic Tenets of Experimental Method measure the effect of role-playing, labeling, and social expectations on Tenets behavior over a period of two weeks Tenet refers to principle, belief, doctrine. Experimentation Basic principles of Experimental Method o A process undertaken to test a prediction Blueprint (hypothesis) that behavioral events will Foundation/ BASIC Framework occur reliably in certain, specifiable situations. (Myers, 2006). To know if there Basic Tenets of the Experiment is a CAUSE and EFFECT. 1. The experiment can be conducted in different Types of Experiment variations/ways. o Laboratory Experiment o What are the ways/ sub-methods of § Conducted under highly doing experiments in Psychology? controlled conditions where 2. The experiment can be specifically designed getting precise/accurate depending on the objectives of the measures are possible experimenters. § Experimenters are in full control o What is the purpose / are objectives of of the conduct of the study as the researcher? What hypothesis do they they decide in all matters want to experiment on? What data/ pertaining to the conduct of the results are they aiming to get? study 3. The experiment is comprised of/affected by § Example: Contact Comfort certain variables. Experiment by Harry Harlow o Ingredients/ variables/ components of § Strengths the experiment - Easier to replicate 4. The experiment uses topics gleaned from - Precise control of all Psychology and allied branches/disciplines extraneous and o Multidisciplinary approach exogenous 5. The experiment uses statistical analysis and (independent) variables. experiential analysis toward the holistic sense- This allows a cause-and- making of experimental results. effect relationship to be o What statistical analysis? established § Limitations Tenet 1: The experiment can be conducted in different - Artificiality may produce variations/ways unnatural behaviors, Experiment thus ecological validity is o The systematic manipulation of some low. factors in the environment to observe the Ecological effect of this manipulation on behavior validity (mundane (Kantowitz, 2009) (ordinary/ not o Manipulation = control. Introducing exciting realism) change to the experimental group. measures how Changing the condition of each group generalizable and experimental o In the case of the Stanford Prison, findings are to the a social psychology study in which real world, such as college students became prisoners or situations or guards in a settings typical of simulated prison environment. everyday life. It is o The experiment, funded by the U.S. a subtype Office of Naval Research, took place at of external Stanford University. It was intended to validity. If a test  has high o Field Experiment ecological § Conducted as part of the day-to- validity, it can be day life of the participants generalized to § Experimenters are still in control other real-life of the exogenous variable under situations, while study but do not have control of tests with low the other extraneous variables ecological validity § Example: Good Samaritan and cannot. Escalator vs Staircase - Demand characteristics § Strengths or experimenter - More likely to reflect the expectations may real life settings of the confound the outcomes participants within a of the study if not study (ecological managed well validity) Demand - Less likelihood of Characteristics demand characteristics are cues that affecting the study might indicate the § Limitations aim of a study to - Less control over the participants. extraneous variables These cues can which may confound the lead to results of the study participants - Difficulty in terms of changing their replication behaviors or o Natural Experiment responses based § Conducted as part of the day-to- on what they think day life of the participants the research is § Experimenters are not in control about of the exogenous variable (IV) Confounding and other extraneous variables variables § Study is conducted as are factors other participants live their day-to-day than experiences the independent § Example: Imprinting Experiment variable that may § Strengths cause a result. In - More likely to reflect the your caffeine real life settings of the study, for participants within a example, it is study (ecological possible that the validity) students who - Less likelihood of received caffeine demand characteristics also had more affecting the study sleep than the - Applicable to studies control group. Or where it may be the experimental unethical to manipulate group may have certain variables spent more time § Limitations overall preparing - Less control over the for the exam extraneous variables  which may confound the o Factors, or inputs to the process. Factors results of the study can be classified as either controllable or - Difficulty in terms of uncontrollable variables. In this case, the replication controllable factors are the ingredients - More expensive and for the cake and the oven that the cake is time consuming as more baked in. The controllable variables will resources may be be referred to throughout the material as needed until the point factors. Note that the ingredients list was of the study was shortened for this example - there could observed already be many other ingredients that have a significant bearing on the end result (oil, Tenet 2: The experiment can be specifically designed water, flavoring, etc). Likewise, there depending on the objectives of the experimenters could be other types of factors, such as Use of Animal Subjects the mixing method or tools, the o Provide a simpler model of studying sequence of mixing, or even the people processes that operate similarly in involved. People are generally humans considered a Noise Factor (see the o Give researchers far more control over glossary) - an uncontrollable factor that animal subjects causes variability under normal o Allow a wider range of manipulations operating conditions, but we can control o Are easily available and more it during the experiment using blocking economical to use and randomization. Potential factors can o Permit better exploration be categorized using the Fishbone Chart Use of Human Subjects (Cause & Effect Diagram) available from o There are behaviors that can only be the Toolbox. studied on human subjects o Levels, or settings of each factor in the o Allows direct interpretation of results study. Examples include the oven o More realistic since the study manifests temperature setting and the particular actual human reactions and elicitations amounts of sugar, flour, and eggs chosen (Quantitative) Experimental Research Designs for evaluation. o Between-subjects o Response, or output of the experiment. o Static Group In the case of cake baking, the taste, o Within-subjects texture, consistency, and appearance of o Solomon four group the cake are measurable outcomes o Matched-groups potentially influenced by the factors and o Factorial their respective levels. Experimenters o Quasi-Experimental often desire to avoid optimizing the o Completely Randomized process for one response at the expense Objectives of the Experimenters: Cake Baking as of another. For this reason, important a Metaphor outcomes are measured and analyzed to determine the factors and their settings that will provide the best overall outcome for the critical-to-quality characteristics - both measurable variables and assessable attributes. o Purpose of Experimentation § Designed experiments have many potentials uses in improving processes and products, including: o § Comparing Alternatives. In the cake with the simplest recipe case of our cake-baking (least number of ingredients) example, we might want to and shortest baking time?" compare the results from two Experiment Design Guidelines different types of flour. If it o The factors to be tested. turned out that the flour from o The levels of those factors. different vendors was not o The structure and layout of experimental significant, we could select the runs, or conditions. lowest-cost vendor. If flour were o A well-designed experiment is as simple significant, then we would select as possible - obtaining the required the best flour. The experiment(s) information in a cost effective and should allow us to make an reproducible manner. informed decision that evaluates both quality and cost. Tenet 3: The experiment is comprised of and affected by § Identifying the Significant certain variables Inputs (Factors) Affecting an Before conducting any experiment, you need to Output (Response) separating examine previously conducted studies on the the vital few from the trivial subject to see what has already been done (also many. We might ask a question: called “reconnaissance” or review of related "What are the significant factors literature and studies) beyond flour, eggs, sugar and o Primary (journals and research studies) baking?" o Secondary materials (books, magazines, § Achieving an Optimal Process blogs, vlogs, essays, etc.) Output (Response) "What are From this information, you discover what the necessary factors, and what variables have already been studied, related to are the levels of those factors, to your topic of interest achieve the exact taste and And then perhaps it’s time to explore some new consistency of Mom's chocolate ones or find relationships between some of these cake? previously explored ones. § Reducing Variability "Can the The purpose of a literature review is to: recipe be changed so it is more o Provide foundation of knowledge on likely to always come out the topic same?" o Identify areas of prior scholarship to § Minimizing, Maximizing, or prevent duplication and give credit to Targeting an Output (Response) other researchers "How can the cake be made as o Identify inconstancies: gaps in research, moist as possible without conflicts in previous studies, open disintegrating?" questions left from other research § Improving process or product o Identify need for additional research "Robustness" fitness for use (justifying your research) under varying conditions. "Can o Identify the relationship of works in the factors and their levels context of its contribution to the topic (recipe) be modified so the cake and to other works will come out nearly the same no o Place your own research within the matter what type of oven is context of existing literature making a used?" case for why further study is needed. § Balancing Tradeoffs when there Variables are multiple Critical to Quality o Straightforward and specified factors Characteristics (CTQC's) that that are subjected to manipulation, require optimization. "How do variation, and measurement in the you produce the best tasting experiment o Types of Variables the dependent variable to § Organismic Variables are the change must be controlled. internal forces and influences These other variables are called that influence an organism’s extraneous or confounding behavior. These are the types variables. of variables that cause persons § Also called a “nuisance” variable to engage in behavior. is a factor that is, by design, not - Also known as manipulated by the demographic or experimenter, but can have an attribute variable. effect on the dependent variable - Refers to the profile or measures specific characteristics § Example: time of day, possessed by the temperature, noise level, even research respondents intelligence, or order of § An exogenous variable is one presentation of the treatment, whose value is wholly can affect scores obtained by the causally independent from other participants in the study variables in the system. § need to be controlled by the - Also known as experimenter, so as not to cause independent variable confounding - Refers to the § Dependent Variable manipulated or non- - Also known as manipulated factor in endogenous variable the research - Refers to the measured - Prominent in factor in the experimental designs experimental studies and quasi-experimental - Affected or not affected designs by the IV - Manipulated IV (True o Defining Variables Experiments) Basis for § Conceptual Definition differentiating results - Also referred to as the which is Introduced by lexical definition the experimenters - Broad or generic themselves as part of definition inferred from the study being dictionaries