BEGS 185 Block-1 PDF

BEGS-185 English Language Indira Gandhi National Open University School of Humanities Teaching Block 1 KNOWING THE LEARNER Block Introduction UNIT 1 The Language Learner 5...

BEGS-185 English Language Indira Gandhi National Open University School of Humanities Teaching Block 1 KNOWING THE LEARNER Block Introduction UNIT 1 The Language Learner 5 UNIT 2 The Unreached Learner 22 UNIT 3 The Learner with Special Needs 41 UNIT 4 Helping the Learner to be Autonomous 65 EXPERT COMMITTEE Prof. Malati Mathur (Director) SOH Dr Vandita Gautam Dr Chhaya Sawheny Prof Ameena Kazi Ansari Gargi College Motilal Nehru College Jamia Millia Islamia University of Delhi University of Delhi New Delhi Mr Ramesh Menon Dr Nupur Samuel Symbiosis Institute of Management IGNOU Faculty Ambedkar University and Communication, Pune, Delhi Maharashtra Prof. Neera Singh Prof. Malati Mathur Dr Ipshita Hajra Sasmal Dr Ruchi kaushik Ambedkar University Shri Ram College of Commerce Prof. Nandini Sahu Delhi University of Delhi Prof. Parmod Kumar Dr Anand Prakash (Retd.) Dr Cheryl R Jacob Dr. Pema Eden Samdup Formerly at Hansraj College Ambedkar University Ms. Mridula Rashmi Kindo University of Delhi Delhi Dr. Malathy A Dr Chinganbam Anupama Dr Hema Raghavan (Retd.) Kalindi College Formerly at Gargi College University of Delhi University of Delhi COURSE PREPARATION BLOCK 1: KNOWING THE LEARNER Prof Jacob Tharu: Unit 1, Retired, Department of Evaluation, EFLU (formerly EIEFL), Hyderabad Ms Shefali Ray: Unit 2 & 3, ELT Consultant and Author, Formerly SCERT, Delhi Prof Prema Dheram: Unit 4, EFLU (Formerly CIEFL), Hyderabad BLOCK 2: METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH LANGUAGE Dr Jyoti Kholi: Unit 1, Sr. Lecturer, M V College of Education, Delhi Dr Monishita Hajra Pande: Unit 2, Assistant Professor, Ambedkar University, Delhi Prof R Megnathan: Unit 3, NCERT, Delhi Prof Rama Mathew: Unit 4, Professor Central Institute of Education, University of Delhi, Delhi (Formerly EFLU) BLOCK 3: MATERIAL AND RESOURCES FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING Dr Meera Balachandaran: Unit 1 &2, Former Principal, Ramjas School, Director-Education, Quality Foundation of India, Delhi Ms Vandana Lunyal: Unit 3, Associate Professor, Regional Institute of English, Chandigarh Dr Lina Mukhopadhyay: Unit 4, Associate Professor, Department of Training and Development, The English and Foreign Language University, Hyderabad COURSE COORDINATION & BLOCK EDITING Ms Mridula Rashmi Kindo, IGNOU (Course Coordination) and (Content & Language Editing) Prof Anju Sahgal Gupta, Former Professor of IGNOU (Content & Language Editing) SECRETARIAL ASSISTANCE Mrs. Munni Naudiyal Assistant Executive (Data Processing), New Delhi PRINT PRODUCTION Mr. Y. N. Sharma Assistant Registrar MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi June, 2021 ©Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021 ISBN:- All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University. Further information about the School of Social Sciences and the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068, India or the Official Website of IGNOU: www.ignou.ac.in Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, by Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi Lasertypeset by Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, Shaheen Bagh, Jamia Nagar, New Delhi-25 Printed at: COURSE INTRODUCTION English Language Teaching English Language Teaching is a 4-credit, Skill Enhancement Course, which has 3 blocks consisting of 12 units. This course will help you get an understanding of the learners, the learning process, and the teaching-learning of English in terms of new and more effective methodologies of classroom management, materials selection and evaluation. This course will help students who are interested in teaching or in understanding the teaching-learning process to: i) gain insights about different types of language learners, for example the socially and geographically unprivileged, learners with special needs, and so on. ii) reflect on classroom discourse and innovative teaching-learning strategies so that the teacher-learner may more effectively teach the four skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing. At the same time to integrate all the skills so that the learner may use these skills for better communication. iii) make the teacher-learner aware of new theories that are prevalent in terms of the learners, the learning process, classroom management, material selection and creation, evaluation and methodology of teaching. The use of technology is also emphasised. The crucial factor in the language learning process is, of course, the learner, so the programme begins with the attempt to understand the learner, and specifically the learner factors which affect second language acquisition. The classroom is the space where teaching-learning takes place. We discuss the strategies within this space to make learning more effective. Some of the questions which teachers are generally confronted with are: i) What will be the effect on my class if I use textbook X rather than textbook Y? ii) What are the best procedures of correcting mistakes, and evaluating with a human face? iii) What are the effective methods and strategies used in teaching-learning the different skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing? iv) Are there more interesting and effective ways of classroom organisation and management? These questions have been dealt with in this Course. The blocks are as follows: Block 1:Knowing The Learner Block 2:Methods of Teaching English Language Block 3:Materials and Resources for Language Teaching Knowing the Learner BLOCK INTRODUCTION Block 1: Knowing the Learner The main focus of this block is to help you understand that the learner is an individual who brings with him/her preferred learning styles, degree of intelligence, aptitude for language learning, attitude, motivation, and so on. In the first Unit of this block (Units 1), we give you a general description of the learners in terms of their capabilities and learning resources (personal and social). In Units 2 and 3 we focus on the disadvantaged learners and learners with minor disabilities. This is in keeping with the government policy of integration of all groups within the mainstream of education. Unit 4 deals with learner autonomy. This provides learners with more efficient learning strategies, assists them to identify their own preferred ways of learning, encourages them to set their own objectives and adopt realistic time frames to achieve them, develops the learners’ skill in self-evaluation, and so on. The units are as follows: Unit 1: The Language Learner Unit 2: The Unreached Learner Unit 3: The Learner with special needs Unit4: Helping the Learner to be Autonomous 4  The Language Learner UNIT 1 THE LANGUAGE LEARNER Structure 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction: Learner Factors that Affect Learning in School 1.2 The Personal and Unique Quality of Learning 1.3 The Student’s Readiness to Engage with a New Topic 1.4 Interest and Motivation for Schoolwork or Studies 1.5 Learner Characteristics that Influence Learning at School 1.5.1 Characteristics Lying More in the Cognitive Domain 1.5.2 Learning Styles and Preferences 1.5.3 Multiple Intelligences 1.6 Flexibility in the Curriculum: Valuing Diversity and Promoting Autonomy 1.7 Let Us Sum Up 1.8 Hints to Check Your Progress 1.9 Suggested Reading 1.0 OBJECTIVES This unit aims to help extend your understanding and appreciation of the various ways in which children (as whole persons) differ from one another; the distinction between capacity to learn and alternative styles or modes of learning; how some of these characteristics influence children’s engagement with the curriculum; and special aptitudes that nearly all children have which can make them contributors to the curriculum. 1.1 INTRODUCTION: LEARNER FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING IN SCHOOL Learning occurs both through natural process of socialization in everyday life and through planned formal instruction in school. Both are important for the development of the child into an adult who is well integrated with society. In this unit we will focus on child related factors that influence learning in school, which is our primary (but of course not only) concern. What are some of the personal characteristics of learners that we need to keep in mind when developing the curriculum and planning classroom activities? Some of the points we discuss relate to school-based learning in general, and some are more directly related to learning language. 5 Knowing the Learner 1.2 THE PERSONAL AND UNIQUE QUALITY OF LEARNING Learning is an individual process. Even if there is a class of thirty, receiving the same lessons based on the same textbook and monitored by the same tests, each child’s learning is a unique process. Schools and classes within them may be large, but it is the progress of the individual – shown in the report card—that children (and parents) are interested in. Even in our mass education system with several lakhs appearing for a Board examination, each answer script is evaluated separately. Thus what each child learns from common instruction is our focus of interest. Earlier we tended to think that the new knowledge in a lesson simply got added to a store in the learner’s mind. This was called the “jug and mug model” of teaching. Knowledge from the teacher’s jug is poured like milk or water into each child’s mug. We know now that children’s minds are not ‘mugs’ of the same type and little packets of (new) knowledge are not simply received as they are. Even more important is the idea that learners are not only receiving additional packets of knowledge. It is useful to think of each child’s development over time as a journey on which many things are experienced, including of course what comes from school lessons. The learning from all these prior experiences is what each child brings to class on any day. The new input from the lesson has to be integrated with the knowledge that is already there. So, the new learning is not a simple matter of adding little bits. Various personal qualities of the child will affect this process of learning or ‘uptake’ from a lesson. A recognition of this uniqueness – which means diversity in the class – is central to the approach to curriculum and learning. One of the major challenges facing the teacher is to adapt the standard or common material in the text book to suit the qualities or needs of varied learners. In this unit we take up two themes that might help us understand more about individual differences among learners that we hope common instruction will respond to. One is the notion of readiness for learning - the link between prior learning and what is new in a lesson. The other is the variation in children’s ways of learning - which is related to how they engage with and take in the new knowledge that is presented to them in school lessons. Our focus will be on language learning. 1.3 THE STUDENT’S READINESS TO ENGAGE WITH A NEW TOPIC All of us have had the experience as students in school of finding certain topics taken up in class ‘difficult’. The basic ideas did not make sense, the explanations did not help and we could not handle the practice exercises or problems. In some cases, a sensitive and resourceful teacher has provided special help in various ways to help learners overcome such difficulties fairly quickly, so that they could keep up with the others. In other less happy cases, the difficulty and lack of understanding was overcome only much later - in remedial lessons, but sometimes never at all. This happens over and over again to many students at all levels. This is because there is a mismatch between what the teaching plan for the topic assumes as available prior knowledge and what individual students actually have. This is a problem that always comes up when a standard syllabus is covered 6 according to a fixed calendar. Many learners are not ready for the given lesson. If they do not learn as expected, it is because of this inadequate preparation, and The Language Learner not because of low learning capacity The standard syllabus for any subject is based on certain logical and reasonable assumptions. The syllabus for Class V builds on the Class IV syllabus, and the Class VI syllabus builds on what is in the Class V syllabus, and so on. The problem in the classroom arises because every child has not properly learnt or mastered everything covered earlier. Teachers often do some revision before taking up a new topic. This is of course useful, but may not be enough. The important concepts that the new lesson or unit will build on need to be identified carefully and revision should target these points. This will enable those who are less prepared or behind others to follow the new material and keep up with the others in class. The important idea about readiness is that it is not a fixed characteristic of the child, but a highly variable factor closely linked to particular topics. A child might be unclear about certain point of grammar (e.g., She lives in X /She is living in X/ She lived in X). But the same child might know most of the words in a story or poem that comes in the same textbook unit. In other subjects too we will find children having difficulties with ideas related to one topic but at the same time learning quite happily in another area. Thus, the factor of low readiness which may come in different lessons and subjects is not related to any basic ability or capacity to learn. It is not a fixed characteristic of the child. A student who shows lack of relevant knowledge in any area, needs to be given specifically planned help. As mentioned earlier this will allow her/him to catch up with others. If sufficient help is provided in the initial weeks of a term, a student’s readiness problem might slowly disappear. This is one of the most challenging areas in pedagogy. Check Your Progress 1 1) What is ‘readiness’? What are the ways in which this factor can be used effectively by the teacher in the learning process?................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2) ‘Readiness’ is not a fixed characteristic of a child. Discuss the statement in the light of what you have read in the unit and understood from your own experience........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 Knowing the Learner 1.4 INTEREST AND MOTIVATION FOR SCHOOLWORK OR STUDIES All of us must have had the experience ourselves or of those we know well losing interest in studies and wanting to give up - and even drop out - at some time or the other. Fortunately, these negative moods change after some time in many cases. When these students get back to studies, they usually have a large backlog to deal with or may have lost a year. We need to note the distinction between this general loss of interest and motivation, and negative attitude students sometimes develop to a particular subject or topic or teacher. This will affect learning in that subject, but the student might be doing quite well in other subjects, and on the whole be happy at school. The general problem of interest and motivation is not linked to a particular subject or teacher. The negative attitude seems to apply to practically all school activities, which can also lead to getting more isolated and unhappy. There are two possible causes of this condition. One is the feeling that everything is too difficult and that there is no real help from teachers or students (friends). It could be that the student started the term with many gaps in prior learning (readiness), but no diagnosis leading to appropriate action was taken up. She/he would have found lessons difficult to follow from the beginning. Sometimes other children may make fun of such students. Unit tests reinforce the fact of being far behind others, and usually no help to improve is provided. All this can lead to feeling unable to do anything successfully and a sense of worthlessness. (We will discuss this idea again under self –esteem). Such loss of confidence often makes a child unwilling even to try, and interest and motivation are slowly lost. Such occurrences are not the individual teacher’s fault: the problem lie in the larger system. The already overburdened teacher cannot provide intensive individual attention to each student. However, the teacher can try and adapt the syllabus and materials to some extent. The important point here is that teachers need to convey to ‘weak’ students that they (teachers) are aware of students’ difficulties and are trying to help them. Encouragement can be shown in small ways. The feeling of being cared for matters greatly to such children. Children need to feel they are welcome in school and class, and also that they are respected. The gentle pressure they feel should be to try and keep trying, and not necessarily to succeed. Low motivation is nearly always a temporary condition initially. It can become more pronounced if there is no support. But helping a student to overcome loss of motivation and interest even in one subject area can have positive effect in other areas as well. Thus, we can see the value of creating and maintaining a supportive social climate in classrooms. Check Your Progress 2 1) Why do students lose interest in school work in general? What can the teacher do to help them renew their interest in their studies?............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8  The Language Learner 1.5 LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS THAT INFLUENCE LEARNING AT SCHOOL The two factors we considered above –readiness and motivation-are strongly influenced by what happens to the child, in other words, by external events. By changing the environment, a student’s readiness and motivation can be changed. There are also factors which influence learning that lie within the child and seem to be fairly stable. When we describe a person we usually focus on such qualities. As students of literature at high school, we have all written ‘character sketches’ of individuals who appear as characters in plays or stories. The qualities focused on are ones that lie within and do not change. Certain qualities of individuals that are related to their general nature or personality are of interest to us in the context of learning at school. We now look at some of these qualities that differentiate different types of learners among children. We must remember that these characteristics especially of school age children are not altogether fixed. Though relatively stable they can change gradually —and teachers and peers can contribute to this process. Some qualities appear to be more related to the capacity to learn and solve problems especially in the context of studies at school. A second category is more related to preferences and habitual ways of doing things, i.e. what a person is comfortable with. Feelings and social relationships are covered here. 1.5.1 Characteristics Lying More in the Cognitive Domain a) General Scholastic Ability One of the very commonly used words when teachers and parents talk about children in school is ‘bright’. Parents sometimes compare one child with a brother or sister and describe one as ‘bright’ and the other as less so. Teachers also know who the ‘bright’ ones in their classes are. The term is associated with ability to understand and remember what is taught in various subjects, learning quickly and doing well in tests. It is unfortunately often used carelessly as we shall see later in this section. The basis of the term is the notion of intelligence - which is well known (but not well understood.) It is true that some individuals consistently perform better in school tests, and are good at solving puzzles and riddles and are adept at memory-based games. They do relatively well on mental ability (or intelligence) tests which have items on reasoning, pattern recognition, problem solving. The mental quality or ability that such tests measure is also called scholastic aptitude since this seems to help students to do well in their studies which are related to school subjects. We need to remember that the label ‘studies’ does not include learning in many areas which are seen as important for the holistic or well-rounded development of the child: art, music, dance, sports, drama, team work, caring for others, leadership, and so on. Obviously, students with a higher level of scholastic ability will perform better in many class activities and tests related to them than others, especially when knowing and remembering what is in prescribed texts and writing long answers are involved. But curriculum transaction today also includes more open-ended activities (not linked to a single ‘correct answer’): dialogues, dramatization of 9 Knowing the Learner themes, situations from stories and poems, creating displays/charts, sharing experiences outside school and so on. In this wider context of activities where written answers (to test questions) are only one component, those students with high scholastic aptitude will not automatically have any big advantage. So, we can state that the general level of scholastic ability of students does not influence their language learning in class in a strong and consistent way. This is especially true now, when communication skills are being emphasized rather than knowledge about language. Therefore, teachers should not simply assume that learners who get high or low grades in other subjects will perform similarly in the language class. The earlier discussion about prior learning and readiness is relevant here. Students who have not learnt what is needed as background for new learning will of course face difficulties. This is related to lack of opportunity to learn, not to low capacity to learn. While we should be happy about students who are doing well in studies, we must be very careful not to judge others as low in scholastic ability without proper evidence. We should expect so called scholastically weak students also to do well—especially in the language area. b) Language Learning Aptitude We often come across people who have learnt a number of languages both at school and college and when they have travelled abroad. So, there is a popular idea that some people have a knack for languages, just like having a feel for music or dancing or being good with one’s hands. In the second half of the last century the study of languages, especially foreign languages, began to increase— covering more languages and more students. Linguists and psychologists took up research on language aptitude, and two well known tests were developed: the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) of Carroll and Sapon (1959), and the Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB) of Pimsleur (1966). These tests have sections dealing with specific sub-skills like phonetic coding, grammatical sensitivity, sound discrimination, sound symbol association, short term memory after rote learning. They do not look like language tests at all, as they focus on some of the ‘hidden’ cognitive processes that underly the speaking or listening we normally do while using a language. The theory is that if a person gets high scores on these sections, s/he has basic abilities which are a big advantage when learning a new language. These tests were found to be fairly useful in identifying potentially good students of language(s) and those who found language study difficult. They were widely used especially in the USA for several years. We are interested here in the nature of a basic aptitude for learning language, languages actually, which has implications for pedagogy. Here we find that the two tests have limitations. One is that they contain tasks (items) which look complicated and only someone who has been educated in formal school for about eight years would understand the instructions. The tests are meant for older learners, and so they do not give us any useful data about the ‘language aptitude’ of primary school children. Secondly, they were developed more than half a century ago. The approach to language instruction then emphasized drills and pattern practice, learning about the system (rules of grammar and pronunciation). Now, with much greater focus on meaning and participation in communicative activities, the processes and sub-skills involved in learning would be different. New aptitude tests need to be developed. If we go back to what we noted about children’s learning and learning capacity, we find there is a basic problem with the idea of aptitude. All children learn to 10 speak their home languages long before they start formal school. There is no The Language Learner indication of different levels (low, average, high) of aptitude among children: everyone learns successfully. It is true that when the learning of reading and writing starts in school, there are always different success levels. This is the challenge we face. How can we make the teaching-learning of the written form of language more like the success story of learning to speak the home language? There is no scientific evidence that differences in aptitude for language are a factor in early learning at school. Anyway, our education policy commits us to help children learn languages — three in most cases. Aptitude is not a relevant or helpful idea for us. Later when, college level optional and advanced language courses come up, language aptitude test scores can help in choosing to study or not study languages as special subjects. It is in such a setting that the MLAT and LAB were most helpful. Check your progress 3 1) What is intelligence? Do children with scholastic ability/intelligence do well in all subjects?................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2) What are the implications of aptitude research for classroom teacher?................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.5.2 Learning Styles and Preferences c) Learning Styles Educational psychologists studying the processes of learning have found that individuals seem to have different styles of learning. These are not linked to higher or lower levels of the capacity to learn. They are rather equally natural and effective ways of engaging cognitively with new experiences and ideas. The alternative styles are rather like being left-handed or right-handed, but they are not so sharply different or fixed. A student’s typical learning style in class is an orientation or preference for how information and ideas are taken in and processed. But even these styles can and often do change over time, though only slowly. Also, students can have different styles for different types of subject matter or curricular activities. Learning styles are of relevance to us because they influence learning. If there is a match between the teaching style and the student’s style, learning will be more comfortable and effective. A mismatch could result in obstacles to effective learning. 11 Knowing the Learner Several different ways of describing and categorizing styles have been proposed by various scholars. One survey found there were about 70 such models! Obviously, there is a lot of overlap, because many different words are used to talk about the same thing. We will look here only at a few interesting styles sets of differences that might be relevant when planning for teaching. This overview only provides a general background. Some of the interesting areas in which style differences have been identified are: i) Sensory preference The word teaching is associated primarily with something the teacher provides or does - usually telling or presenting. Some input (received through the senses – listening, seeing and feeling) is central to teaching-learning experiences especially in relation to subject matter in the syllabus. Remember that the same message can be conveyed or presented in different ways. For instance, when we have to give someone directions for reaching a house from the station or bus stand, this can be done in different ways - using words mainly, or words and gestures or a diagram/map. Similarly, when teaching a lesson, the presentation could use different types of sensory input. One difference among learners is in the way of ‘taking in’ information, i.e., which one suits them best. These are orientations or preferences for the mode of sensory input. The possibilities or options are: visual, auditory, tactile and kinesthetic. Visual is based on seeing. Students with this orientation learn best from written statements (on the board or worksheets) and pictures, diagrams, models they can see. Auditory is based on hearing. Spoken messages (like teacher talk) seem best for some students to learn. Tactile (relating to touch) and kinesthetic (sense of moving body parts) are taken together. Some students learn best when they can touch and feel objects (especially models) or are themselves moving (as in demonstrations and role play). Most teachers would say that they use all these ‘methods’ at different times during their lessons. And they would be right. The point here is that specific ways of presenting information can be chosen and used in a more planned manner after the teacher comes to know about individual students’ styles. This is especially useful when giving individual attention to students or organizing activity in pairs or small groups. Students also differ in the way they engage with or cognitively process the ‘inputs’ they receive. We now look at these differences in the way children learn. ii) Whole or part focused learning Some learners tend to focus more on general ideas or the ‘big picture’, while others pay much more attention to the small details. This has also been described as the global versus sequential style of processing information. Some students learn better when the teacher presents and discusses general ideas and assigns related tasks; they may have a tendency to ‘switch off’ when a lot of time is spent on small details. But others may respond well to specifics and details, and feel somewhat lost when the focus is on abstract ideas. 12 This orientation is related to a broader factor called field dependence – field The Language Learner independence. Field dependent individuals are influenced by the context. For example, in a group where most people favour one opinion in a set of possibilities they are more likely to agree with others. Those who are more field independent are better able to see basic facts or arguments by themselves. This does not mean that they are independent thinkers or misfits. Their style of thinking is more analytical, that is all. iii) Inductive vs. deductive learning Inductive learning occurs when a body of specific facts or data is given and effort is directed to finding pattern(s) or inferring a general principle. Tasks involving trying out possible explanations – exploring without knowing beforehand what is the best thing to do—involves such learning. Grammar is often taught inductively in deductive learning, usually a rule or principle is given to begin with, and the discussion is on its implications and applications. Many problems in mathematics and science involve sets of deductions. Here too it is found that some students are more comfortable and learn better with the first of these approaches. They seem to enjoy finding things out for themselves – learning by discovery. Other students are more comfortable when principles and rules are stated, and the challenge is to understand and apply them. iv) Convergent thinking vs. divergent thinking This dimension is related to the distinction sometimes made between ‘intelligence’ and ‘creativity’. Psychologists who have studied the way people deal with problems that require thinking and analysis have found two broad approaches. The more common one is to analyze the problem logically using relevant knowledge from mathematics or biology or economics, and then proceed systematically—step by step towards the solution. There is a gradual progress of narrowing down —or converging — to the solution. This is rather similar to the deductive approach mentioned above. Some people do not go directly to the problem as given. They will look at it from different angles and sometimes even try to change or reformulate it. This can lead to unusual or creative suggestions. The process here is one of opening up or widening the discussion. That is why the term divergent is used. Many innovations or discoveries in science and new theories have come from people who were divergent in their thinking. However, both approaches are useful and important. Having convergent and divergent thinking students in the same class is a great resource. The problems introduced in class should allow both types to try their approaches and share their experiences. These learning styles were mentioned here mainly to illustrate what they are. There are many others. Note, that there are no ‘good’ or ‘bad’ styles. What we have seen are equally useful and effective alternative ways of learning. If teachers can organize some aspects of their teaching to match the styles of different students, this could facilitate better learning. To enhance the chances of such matching of styles, teachers need to add more variety to their teaching styles— by including more types of presentations and activities in their lesson plans. They need not know all the names and definitions of several learning styles. Once they have the basic concept, as they interact with successive batches of learners, they will recognize different learning styles. This knowledge can guide them when planning their teaching. 13 Knowing the Learner d) Personality dispositions –feelings, emotions and social interactions The term personality is a familiar one. When we talk about and describe individuals, we always say something about their personality - their typical ways of behaving in their daily lives and especially when relating to others. This is something in addition to and different from their abilities and skills, achievements, status and so on. When students write about ‘my favourite teacher’, ‘my hero’ these personal qualities are emphasized. These are fairly stable qualities or characteristics of a person (referred to as traits), and can be seen even in children. The study of personality is one of the major sub-fields of psychology, and involves many different theories and models. Several personality dimensions have been proposed. We will look at a few of them here to get a sense of what personality factors are. They are of interest because they seem to influence learning, but in a different manner than the more cognitive factors we just looked at. One widely mentioned list of personality dimensions (called the big five) - aspects on which individuals differ - are the following Extraversion - Introversion A person near the extraversion end is generally active, energetic, outgoing, talkative and friendly. Openness – Closed Mindedness A person high on openness is likely to be curious, imaginative, original and has wide interests. Conscientiousness – Undirectedness A person high on conscientiousness behaves in an organized, efficient manner and is thorough and reliable in getting things done. Agreeableness – Antagonism An agreeable person is generally good natured, kind, trusting, generous, modest and appreciative Neuroticism – Stability A person high on neuroticism is often anxious and insecure, gets upset easily and shows signs of self-pity. This is only an outline. The descriptions above are not at all complete. They give us a general sense of what psychologists treat as aspects of personality. We must note carefully that we cannot put people (especially children) into such categories. Even psychologists who conduct elaborate tests are careful about this. What is important here is that these personality dispositions are fairly stable –almost natural qualities of a person. They are not expressions of conscious and deliberate decisions to act in particular ways—they are like all established habits one does not think about. Some dispositions of children (see examples below) seem to be positive for classroom participation and others less so. The teacher must remember that a child with a certain disposition is not doing anything deliberately. Let us consider personality related differences among children. Look at the examples below of different types of learners we might see in a class: an extroverted child who is active and talkative and likes to be interacting 14 with others  a child who is more introverted and does not participate actively in group The Language Learner work, a child who is anxious and gets easily discouraged, a child who seems inattentive and careless about work and does not complete assignments, a child who seems keenly interested in new ideas and activities and enjoys engaging with them We should recognize that no such ‘type’ is good or bad in itself. Also, as noted already, these ways of behaving are not conscious choices made by individuals. Teachers should appreciate that they represent children’s habitual styles or pre- dispositions, and accept them without judging them. It is true that in the conventional classroom, some types seem not well adjusted. Scolding or putting pressure on a child whose behaviour seems ‘negative’ will not help. As far as possible they should be involved in other activities. There are spaces within the curriculum where a shy and withdrawn child or even the child who seems careless is not a ‘problem’. Remember that a high-pressure competitive classroom is not the ideal, though it is commonly found. The classroom climate can be changed. As teachers understand such predispositions of children and work sensitively with them, these children too can learn successfully; they may also contribute to others’ learning in small ways. And to repeat an earlier point, changes in aspects of personality can occur, but only slowly and based on a lot of supportive interaction. Some further dimensions of personality Another aspect of personality which is fairly easy to see is self–esteem. This is related to confidence and a capacity to accept challenges, take risks and risk failure without much anxiety. A person with high self-esteem is able to accept criticism, and is not worried about being unpopular at times. Teachers and peers are fortunate when there are such students in class. There will also be others low on self esteem. We can be sure that they were not born that way. They must have been through many negative experiences in the past both in and out of school. Using the many types of situations and activities of the total curriculum to provide such children positive experiences is not very difficult for teachers using the support of peers. Some people have a marked tendency to be strongly influenced by the opinions of those around them. This disposition is called social conformity. While all members of society are expected to generally follow group norms and obey rules and so on, a certain degree of independence and thinking for oneself is also treated as normal and healthy. A child who seems always to watch what others do and say, and tries to follow them and ‘not be different’ would be high on the social conformity dimension. This is not the same as low ability and confidence. Such a student might be getting quite good grades, but may not participate in group activities where each child has to contribute his/her own ideas and opinions, and may try to avoid tasks calling for innovation. We have reviewed various dimensions on which there are individual differences among students covering both the cognitive and social – emotional dimensions. We will now look at a model which brings many of these and certain other qualities into a comprehensive picture. 15 Knowing the Learner Check Your Progress 4 1) List the categories of cognitive styles mentioned. According to your experience in the classroom, what are the cognitive styles which best bring about second language learning? You may take up case histories of particular students in answering this question.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2) Have you ever thought of your students’ personality dispositions? Go through the register and mark them according to the categories mentioned. Then make an analysis of these categories and the language learning ability of each student.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.5.3 Multiple Intelligences A very interesting new discussion about differences among children with implications for their progress as learners started about thirty years ago, when the psychologist Howard Gardner presented his Theory of Multiple Intelligences (in 1983). In this scheme there are seven intelligences, and later on he added two more: Logico-mathematical, linguistic, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, spatial, inter- personal and intra-personal. Later an eighth one - naturalistic - was added. Still later he added the nineth one-Existential. Traditionally we thought of ‘intelligence’ as related only to logical thinking and problem solving. Gardner says that having a feel for words (images, rhymes, striking expressions, multiple meanings) is also a form of intelligence. Similarly, the powerful sense of one’s own body (which dancers and gymnasts have) is related to intelligence. The basic capacity which allows some persons to become good painters, sculptors, designers of visuals is spatial intelligence. It is easy to see what the names musical and inter-personal point to. Intra-personal intelligence is what allows people (even children) to be happy in themselves (accept their strengths and weaknesses, preserve a high self-concept). Some persons seem to have a feel for the many things in the natural world - living things, water, minerals. They not only enjoy nature but can participate with understanding and sensitivity in activities linked to the environment. Existential intelligence refers to the sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence, such as the meaning of life, our 16 place in the universe and questions of life and death. We will not go into more details about multiple intelligences. The significant The Language Learner idea here is that scholastic aptitude is only one among the special aptitudes’ individuals have. In fact, other psychologists had suggested even before Gardner that ‘social intelligence’ and ‘emotional intelligence’ should also be recognized as special aptitudes some persons might have. The principle that there are different types of aptitudes can be linked to what we noted about the potential for learning that all children have. We see now that often there could also be some special aptitude, which means that knowledge and skill can develop to a level of excellence. Children in schools and classrooms will have different profiles of strengths and interests. We need as teachers to be aware of this diversity and develop the capacity to recognize special aptitudes. But we must be careful not to hastily brand children as strong in one or two areas and weak in all others. We need to nurture their special potentials within our basic commitment to promote the all-round development of each child. No learning opportunity should be held back from any child. Check Your Progress 5 1) “Knowing individual Learner’s learning style can help the language teacher devise learning strategies to enhance their performance...” State what the teacher should do to exploit multiple intelligences of the students in the classroom to an optimum extent.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.6 FLEXIBILITY IN THE CURRICULUM: VALUING DIVERSITY AND PROMOTING AUTONOMY In the sections above we have looked at some of the ways in which individuals differ. The focus has been on individuals as persons - who have their own thoughts, feelings, hopes, needs and so on. The focus has been on these psychological aspects, which lie beyond the more obvious physical ones such as sex, age, physical development, health. The survey has been brief and has covered only some of the many possible dimensions of individual differences. Even so we have gained a sense of how vast and rich human diversity can be. A class of 35 or even a small group of 10 has children whose unique personalities will lead to different patterns of learning. This diversity can be seen as a resource now, and we need to try and adapt the ‘standard curriculum’ to suit individual needs. This is a big challenge of course, but the new approach to the curriculum also has a source of support. This is the principle that the child relates ideas coming as inputs in lessons to her/his life outside the school and thus becomes an active co- creator of new knowledge. This knowledge will be personal and therefore different for different children. In other words, we do not have to try to make every child in a class learn exactly the same things, in the same manner at the same rate which was the underlying principle of the traditional curriculum. In a traditional 17 Knowing the Learner classroom, the given syllabus was covered following the required or recommended method. Individual teachers tried to give so called weak students some special help. Those who could not meet the requirements ‘failed’ and dropped out of the system and were forgotten. The RTE made drastic change in this process. Every child had the “right to education of quality” through the elementary stage (till Class VIII), which meant no failures, no dropouts. Obviously, the education in this framework has to be flexible in many ways. It is necessary in a public education system to have an official syllabus and a prescribed textbook. These can have some elements of flexibility, but the real flexibility and adaptation occurs in the day to day transactions in class. This too is not something the teacher does following a detailed lesson plan with many parallel segments – but rather a process based on the joint activity of the teacher and the learners. Flexible classroom transaction as described above involves learners’ active participation. Active participation is not only doing what is asked for in exercises and tasks which is typically the same for all students. It means importantly that learners contribute their ideas and suggestions, ask questions to keep the activity going—and not only give answers to questions already raised by the teacher or in the textbook. This points to initiative and independence on the part of students who are members of a team working together (with their different skills and styles) for the benefit of all. Such cooperative activity is an opportunity both to know about others’ talents, styles and needs and to respect them. Learner independence and autonomy These two terms are often used interchangeably. Both point to the capacity to learn on one’s own – without relying heavily on the teacher’s inputs and guidance. Such a capacity is seen as an asset in the broad setting of a learner centred education. It is especially desirable for students of a second or foreign language who do not normally use this language for social communication outside class. Developing communication skills in a second or foreign language will be greatly aided by the learners’ own efforts to extend contact with the language by using or practicing it outside class. The typical five sessions a week of classroom contact can only provide a base. Much more effort by the learner is needed for effective skill development. Even intensive courses of 100 or 150 hours spread over about 6 weeks cannot in any way be complete. So, the learner’s own efforts are important. Another perspective on learner independence has come from the distance and open learning sectors. For courses in this mode there are no time tabled ‘teaching sessions. Well designed course material is provided –- in print and audio-visual media. The student has to find a suitable place and time to ‘study’ –keeping to a schedule of 15 (for example) hours a week. Such courses are thus based on self- managed or self-directed learning. The effort and discipline have to come from within. We can see here that the personal quality of independence or autonomy is important – for all areas of study, not only language. It is also true that the use of modern technology (ICT) in education is linked to modes of learning which are different from students and live-teacher interaction. This is not to say that the classroom has no importance any more, but rather that classroom-based instruction has to be complemented as well as supplemented. Here again the learner’s initiative is called upon. 18 Check Your Progress 6 The Language Learner 1) What was the difference between the traditional curriculum and the present- day curriculum? What is learner autonomy?................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2) How do you make your students more independent in acquiring the second language?................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.7 LET US SUM UP In this unit we have made a survey of the various ways in which individuals differ, focusing on those characteristics that might influence how they learn. We saw that two negative factors the teacher often encounters – low readiness to deal with subject matter and low interest and motivation—are caused largely by what happens to a student in terms of external conditions. They are not fixed characteristics of the individual and so can be changed by providing appropriate stimulation and support. We saw that there are differences among children in scholastic aptitude and language learning aptitude, but we also realized that the impact of these factors on learning –especially communication skills development - is not very large. So even in a large class with an apparent gap between strong and weak learners (high marks and low marks in previous tests), there would be many activities that all can participate in and benefit from. We also looked more closely at a few selected aspects of personality: the typical (in a sense habitual) way in which individuals think, feel, behave. These qualities have nothing to do with the capacity to learn, but they can influence the ways in which learners participate in curriculum transaction. This influence covers both what they take in from inputs and what they contribute. The interesting aspects of diversity lie in these personal characteristics. The well-known model of multiple intelligences brings the cognitive and social, emotional and bodily aspects of personality together as possible areas of special aptitudes. It is important to recognize these qualities, and make instruction flexible. Including a variety of techniques and activities will ensure that more learning styles have a match in the curriculum. Finally, we noted the relevance of learner autonomy in education and especially for communication skills. 19 Knowing the Learner 1.8 HINTS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Check Your Progress 1 1) Readiness refers to the receptivity of a learner (in terms of ability, attitude and interest) to learn new items. All of us have had experience of some students finding a particular topic ‘difficult’. This is because there is a mismatch between the teaching plan for a particular topic and the students’ ability to assimilate and understand it. In other words, some students lack readiness for a particular topic not because of low learning capacity but because of inadequate understanding/knowledge required for the topic. A student who shows lack of relevant knowledge in any subject must be given specific planned help. This will allow her/him to catch up with the others. If sufficient help is provided, before a topic is taught, a student’s readiness problem might slowly disappear. 2) Read Section 1.3 for the answer. Check Your Progress 2 1) Here are some clues: Subject is too difficult There is no real help from teachers or friends Sometimes other students make fun of such students, leading to low self-esteem. Teachers can: provide intensive individual attention to those students. adapt the syllabus and materials to some extent. be sympathetic and sensitive to these students. Check Your Progress 3 1) Intelligence is primarily concerned with reasoning, pattern recognition and problem solving. Students with higher level of scholastic ability perform better in many class activities. However, they may not perform as well in more open-ended activities such as - dialogues, dramatization of themes, situations from stories and poems, creating displays/charts, sharing experiences from outside school and so on. 2) There is no scientific evidence to suggest that aptitude is a factor in early learning at school. Aptitude is not a relevant or helpful idea for teachers at the school level. Check Your Progress 4 1) A List of categories of cognitive style mentioned: Whole or part focus learning (field dependence – field independence) Inductive vs. Deductive learning Convergent thinking vs. Divergent thinking 20 2) Do it according to your own experience. The Language Learner Check Your Progress 5 1) Here are some hints: Teacher should be aware of the diversity of the children, their strengths and interests. Teacher should recognize special aptitude of the children and nurture their special potential. Check Your Progress 6 1) The traditional concept of curriculum was the standard curriculum which was constructed by so-called experts. The new approach to the curriculum involves the child as well. The child thus becomes an active co-creator of new knowledge. In a traditional curriculum the given syllabus is covered by following a recommended method to be used by the teacher. Learner autonomy refers to a student’s ability to set appropriate learning goals and take charge of his or her own learning. However, autonomous learners are dependent upon teachers to create and maintain learning environments that support the development of learner autonomy. 2) Develop communication skills in the second language so that students can use it for social communication outside the classroom as well as independent academic activities. Encourage online learning using ICT. 1.9 SUGGESTED READING Gass, Susan, M. Input, Interaction, and the Second Language Learner. Routledge, UK, 2017 21 Knowing the Learner UNIT 2 THE UNREACHED LEARNER Structure 2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Underprivileged Learners 2.2.1 Who are the Underprivileged Learners? 2.2.2 What Makes Them Underprivileged? 2.2.3 Characteristics of Underprivileged Learners 2.3 Underprivileged Learners and the System of Education 2.3.1 A Brief History of the Education of the Underprivileged 2.3.2 Some Interventions 2.4 Teaching English to the Underprivileged Learners 2.4.1 The Need for English Amongst the Underprivileged 2.4.2 Problems Faced by Underprivileged Learners in Learning English 2.4.3 How to Help the Underprivileged Learners 2.5 Let Us Sum Up 2.6 Hints to Check Your Progress 2.7 Suggested Readings 2.0 OBJECTIVES This Unit will enable you to: Understand the underprivileged and unreached learners and their problems in learning language, especially English. Appreciate the government interventions in providing quality education to the underprivileged. Bring about the required reinforcement in the curriculum, teaching methods and socialization techniques in the classroom for them. Employ strategies that make learning effective and meaningful for these learners. Develop a positive attitude towards them. 2.1 INTRODUCTION In any learning situation one comes across differences in the students’ cultures, socio-economic strata, home backgrounds, learning abilities and pre-school exposure to the school languages. Addressing this variety of capabilities, attitudinal biases, self-esteem quotients, experiential knowledge is the system of education that hopes to bring changes not only in the amount of knowledge gained by the learners but also the ability to do so. It also aims to develop in the learners the capacity to think, acquire habits, skills and attitudes that would help them to be socially productive, socially accepted and adjusted. Education has an empowering effect for it enables people to develop a critical questioning attitude towards society, government, gender and cultural stereotypes. 22 These critical thinking skills are well developed amongst the middle-class learners The Unreached Learner or learners from affluent homes for they are provided ample opportunities in the school to address these skills. Amongst the wide spectrum of learners are certain learners who are at a disadvantage because of poverty, health status, appropriate experiences and background. They may be economically weak, culturally deprived, living in remote areas or on the fringes of society having barely any means to obtain a good education. In such a situation, learning English or even the regional language becomes a difficult task for them as they have little or no previous experience, limited communication ability, less exposure to the languages and very little means to do so. This unit will address the needs of these learners whom we shall term ‘unreached’, ‘disadvantaged learners’ or ‘underprivileged learners. These terms have been used interchangeably. 2.2 THE UNDERPRIVILEGED LEARNERS Before you begin reading the Unit, here are a few questions for you to answer. 1) Have you met learners who are disadvantaged? 2) What problems do they face in learning? 3) Are they treated differently from other learners? 2.2.1 Who are the Underprivileged Learners? The term ‘underprivileged’ or ‘unreached’ is used to refer to the disadvantaged section of people who are economically, socially or geographically backward. They are in an unfavourable position compared to other sections of society since they do not have access to proper nutrition, proper health care, good education facilities and skill development. This may be due to poverty, cultural disadvantage because they are an ethnic minority or being in inaccessible areas where facilities of schooling are not adequate. They have been referred to as ‘deprived’, ‘psycho-socially deprived’, ‘culturally deprived’, ‘locationally deprived’ or ‘socio-economically deprived’. Due to a variety of reasons they do not have the experiences to gain knowledge, have a stunted communication system as they have not been exposed to fluent adult language users or have had a very limited interaction with the others in society which keeps them at the fringes. 2.2.2 What Makes Them Underprivileged? The causes of the backwardness of such learners can be many as we have mentioned above. i) Poverty Poverty is a major cause of disadvantage and backwardness. Due to lack of means such learners are deprived of many experiences and opportunities. They may have working parents who have very little time to interact or talk to them. Moreover, the language repertoire of the parents can be very limited. Hence the 23 Knowing the Learner experiences that a pre-school child requires to become a good communicator, reader or writer are missing. Emergent experiences such as conversation with parents and those around, letter knowledge, sound knowledge, access to books and toys, stories and rhymes and songs, numerical knowledge, which are a part of any middle class child’s life, are missing in the lives of these children. We can say that they are under-stimulated. In addition to this, there is a major problem caused by malnutrition. Their poor health status does not allow them to make full use of their intelligence. In addition, differential treatment is meted out to them at school where the teachers believe that they would not be able to understand or handle the content meant for the common learner. Hence, they get a diluted exposure in the classroom too. This further hampers their growth. ii) Discrimination and exploitation The exploitation of the less privileged by the more privileged and powerful classes of society has its roots in history. Similarly, the biases against these sections reduce the availability of opportunities, and increase the likelihood of their being exploited. In fact, the education system in any culture is largely targeted at the middle class and hence is based on the privileged culture. The underprivileged learners’ culture does not form part of the content of textbooks. The teaching methods work on assumptions of certain pre-knowledge and skills which the marginalised lack. Hence the gap in the learning situation keeps on growing. This inability to handle content or learning situations as well as the behaviour of their peers in the classroom creates in them a poor self –image. This further creates a negative attitude towards school, ultimately leading to a drop in their achievement and being pushed out of school. iii) Geographical or locational disadvantage The underprivileged often live in remote rural areas which are inaccessible, beyond the reach of schools. In urban areas they live in slums which in themselves are islands cut off from the facilities, advantages and opportunities that the city offers. The electronic media has reduced this alienation to a large degree, for these people are now aware of many things that form the lifestyle of the middle class. iv) Culturally disadvantaged The ‘culturally disadvantaged’ may belong to ethnic minorities, certain demographic groups like the slum dwellers or tribes untouched by education. They have poor stimulus for learning and their exposure to even the regional language is negligible. 2.2.3 Characteristics of Underprivileged Learners Psychologists and educationists have stressed the need for the right environment for the cognitive, social and emotional development of a child in its early years. It has also been proved that intelligence is developed with the help of interaction with society. If the environment is rich with varied stimuli, the child is better able to observe, imitate, experiment and generalize. Language and mental development occur simultaneously. But the home environment is often deprived of stimuli that might lead to language or cognitive growth. There is deprivation caused by poverty; poor communication skills due to limited language use or 24 limited interaction with parents, who are battling with the basic problems of The Unreached Learner living. But at the same time life provides them many experiences that make them emotionally mature, hardworking and responsible. These are their hallmarks. Some of the characteristics common amongst underprivileged learners are listed below: i) Low cognitive abilities As we have discussed earlier, the underprivileged learner lacks intellectual stimulation at home as well as at school. Without the necessary foundation in speaking, reading and writing skills, the learner is poorly equipped for a successful education in any of the subjects, especially language, which is instrumental in learning other subjects. Cognitive abilities, which are necessary to function at the level of abstraction and the abilities to perceive and formulate concepts are inadequately developed in the underprivileged learner. This learner is unable to learn in a symbolic way or solve problems using a hypothesis. The home situation provides the learner with skills but these are the skills of working with one’s hands, operating simple machines or completing simple chores of different kinds. The school curriculum expects the learner to use critical thinking skills which need concepts, association, manipulation of ideas or principles which the learner is not able to do. Even at school, opportunities to use critical thinking skills are not provided, for the teachers tend to think that the learner will not be able to handle them. So, the basic classroom experiences are based on rote, memorization and drills. If opportunities for critical and analytical thinking are not provided from the early classes the learner would not be able to handle the abstraction required in the curriculum of the later classes. The gap widens and the learner is unable to keep pace with the others in the classroom. This leads to frustration and low self- esteem. ii) Poor linguistic ability The underprivileged learners lack experiences that generate ideas about what they can talk or write. In addition to the experiential deficiency they often have poorly-developed verbal patterns. This deficiency in language is caused due to inadequate social interaction and it comes in the way of understanding what the teacher says in class or what the text contains. Since the standard language is used, the learner cannot often fully comprehend what is spoken or written. English appears very alien to these learners and there is a gap between the learners, their teachers and the texts. This language deficit hampers the development of high-level cognitive analytical abilities because the student is always kept at the remedial level, and is being drilled the basics of language which largely comprise grammar. The curriculum too for such learners is made so simple that some of these higher order thinking skills are not developed at all. iii) Low self-esteem Underprivileged learners feel that they are not able to cope with the content and the language in the classroom. Moreover, the textbooks are written more for the middle class learners and hardly have any representation about their lives is present in these books. This leads to a negative attitude about self, their culture, 25 Knowing the Learner people and language. There is an implicit segregation as the students of other social classes, castes and races do not mix with them. This subtle rejection also contributes to their low self-esteem. iv) Involvement Gap Underprivileged learners have been found to have low motivation to learn. Not only do they find the curriculum difficult to transact but also feel the absence of academic support in their home environment as well, which may be caused by illiteracy or long working hours of their parents. This leads to an involvement gap as there is ‘distancing between what the student perceives as his or her relevant life experiences and what is taking place inside the school.’ They feel that the learning is aimed at the middle class and that the teachers do not accept them as full members of the class. Often, they are not involved in the discussions as the teachers subtly make them feel that they would not be able to contribute. They watch the class go by and feel that all that is happening in the classroom is not relevant to their lives and thus lose interest, whereby their involvement and performance both get affected. This distancing process continues from one class to the next. v) Poor ability to read or write As discussed earlier, the underprivileged learners do not get the requisite experiences that form the foundation of reading and writing skills, like interaction with mature users of language, exposure to toys or print material, listening to songs and stories, experiences of visiting places and observing their environment. As a result they do not come prepared to receive the instruction provided in school. Their verbal patterns and expressions are deficient even in their own language and this causes a hindrance in their learning of L2. Having poor communication skills, negligible print or phonemic awareness, they have difficulty in reading and writing. vi) Their strengths: Higher sense of responsibility and emotional maturity In spite of their stunted knowledge base or linguistic abilities, the underprivileged learners are better than their peers in the classroom in many ways. Having shared the responsibilities of life, like working for a livelihood or looking after their younger siblings, sharing chores with their parents, they develop certain skills and a sense of responsibility. Having faced the hardships of life, they are more mature emotionally and can put in hard work and face hardships. Many underprivileged learners who have had to fend for themselves also display a great sense of independence and some amount of decision- making skill as well. The system of education needs to exploit these strengths of the learners to enable them to learn. Check Your Progress 1 1) Who would you call an underprivileged learner?............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 26 2) What are the causes of their deprivation? The Unreached Learner................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3) Which characteristics stand in their way of learning? Describe them in a sentence or two.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4) Describe the strengths that underprivileged learners have. How could a teacher use them beneficially in the classroom?................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.3 UNDERPRIVILEGED LEARNERS AND THE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION 2.3.1 A Brief History of the Education of the Underprivileged ‘According to a government estimate, out of 200 million children in the age group of 6 to 14 in India, around 59 million do not attend school. Of the rest, who are currently in school, four out of every 10 children beginning to attend school will drop out before completing their primary school education. In addition, various studies of the learning achievement of children indicate that the situation is actually grim. Recent community-based surveys done in 28 cities and eight rural districts in the country find that not more than 30 per cent of school children in the age group 6 to 14, in an educationally advanced state like Maharashtra, can read simple text fluently or do basic arithmetic sums (SMILE).So, we see that still a lot needs to be done for the underprivileged children of India. A brief look at the history of education of the underprivileged all over the world will reveal three clearly marked stages: Isolation, Assimilation and Integration. 27 Knowing the Learner i) Isolation Initially, a large number of underprivileged children were outside the network of education, having no access to educational facilities. With the realisation of social responsibility, various efforts were being made to provide them with education. But as in some countries like America, separate schools were created for the coloured population. Similarly, in India separate schools with a separate simplified curriculum were opened for the tribal population. Although government schools do not discriminate between class and caste in their policies, the attitudes and biases of teachers and administrators prevent them from accepting the lower caste children who are often made to sit separately, away from the rest of the children. It was commonly believed that these children would not be able to handle the general curriculum and a special curriculum was prepared for them. The general belief that assignments for the underprivileged would result in failure made many educationists lowered the bar for them. This created an isolation of another sort and the education gap continued to widen. ii) Assimilation The second phase of the education of the underprivileged is marked by a tendency to assimilate. Attempts were made to educate the underprivileged learners along with the privileged learners in the same school. But casteism and class consciousness came in the way and it was the case of isolation-assimilation as learners of lower castes sat in the same class but on separate benches or were relegated to the last benches where they seldom received the teacher’s attention. Since the school and the system of education was based on the dominant or the advantaged group, the aim was to assimilate the underprivileged into the privileged culture. This attempt is still on and according to the Right to Education, it is mandatory for elite private schools meant for the privileged sections of society to keep 25% of the seats for the underprivileged and also to look after their education monetarily. How much of this genuinely happens is a matter of concern. iii) Integration In the third phase of integration, attempts were first made to educate the underprivileged in their own language and culture so that they would develop a positive attitude to their own culture and language. Depending on these approaches or stages, mainly three theories have been put forth to explain the poor achievement of the unreached learner: these varied from innate or hereditary qualities, to cultural deprivation in their environment or to the deficiency in the institution (school) itself. Although these three stages have been historically noted there have been instances where all the three co-existed at the same time in some states. 2.3.2 Some Interventions It has been noticed universally that the system of education is targeted at the privileged in society and the curricular content, both in its selection and nature, mirrors the life of the privileged. The textbooks appeared alien to the underprivileged learners as they did not find any resemblance to their lives or their culture in the textbooks. In addition, the methods of teaching too were developed on certain assumptions of pre-knowledge which led to a gap in understanding for the underprivileged. Similarly, the teachers suffered from biases 28 and an unfriendly attitude towards these learners which either led to the neglect The Unreached Learner of these learners or a simplification of the content and assignments, making them repetitive and boring. As early as the 60’s, ‘The Kothari Commission (1964-66) articulated the idea of a “neighbourhood” school as a common space, where all children cutting across caste, class and gender lines learn together in the best inclusive manner. This idea has been articulated in practically all policy documents thereafter: the National Policy on Education 1968, as well as the National Curriculum Framework, 2005. This concept has also been incorporated in the RTE Act, 2009.’ (Anshu Vaish, Secretary, School Education and Literacy, in her speech at Shri Ram School) It has also been felt that the inclusion of underprivileged learners in schools, either government or private, has not been implemented fully, remaining a mere lip service in certain institutions. There is a clear demarcation between the schools for the privileged (privately-run schools) and those for the underprivileged (schools run by the government) and these cater to two distinct categories and economic strata. This segregation starts at an early stage in school; and many private schools feel reluctant to follow a policy of integrating children from the socio-economically weaker sections of society with those from the better-off strata. The education policies of the government like the Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE), Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, the Right to Education Act and the policy of neighbourhood schools are attempts to assimilate and integrate the underprivileged learners into the mainstream. In spite of these, certain assumptions need to be revisited and some interventions are required to realise these policies. By opening of the Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, the Government of India has made quality education accessible to rural learners. i) Curriculum The curriculum of the schools largely focuses on the skills and knowledge required for an individual to be integrated into the society of the middle class and white collared jobs. Skills and knowledge required for blue-collared jobs are neglected except for certain special schools and institutions. The textbooks are written from the point of view of the culture of the privileged. Contribution of the underprivileged class to nation building is neglected or ignored. Facts and information are densely packed in the textbook which seem suitable for highly motivated learners. Since the underprivileged learners find nothing of their lives, history or culture in the textbooks they find these irrelevant to their experiences and thereby lose interest. A simplified curriculum for these learners is created based on the assumption that the underprivileged learners would not be able to handle this. This further demoralizes them, and moreover they are not stimulated intellectually. A conscious attempt needs to be made to make the curriculum not only attractive but also challenging for the underprivileged learners. Some of the suggested interventions are listed below: Inclusion of topics of interest or familiarity for the underprivileged learners Reflection of the lives and culture of the underprivileged as equal contributors to society