Bcom Sem 1 Business Structure & Process PDF

Name of Faculty: Faculty of Commerce and Management Course Code: 1BCM03 Course Title: Business Structure and Processes Meaning and definition of business Business denotes busi-ness, that is the state of being busy – any activity in which one keeps himself busy. But the economic term of business ref...

Name of Faculty: Faculty of Commerce and Management Course Code: 1BCM03 Course Title: Business Structure and Processes Meaning and definition of business Business denotes busi-ness, that is the state of being busy – any activity in which one keeps himself busy. But the economic term of business refers to work, efforts, and acts of people or human busy in connection with the production of wealth. Business is the sum of total activities which are connected with the production or purchase and sale of goods and services with the main objective to earn profit. According to Urwick and Hunt, “Business is any enterprise which makes, distributes or provides any service which other members of the community need and are willing to pay for it”. Nature of Business Man always wants and wants more. In fact he is a wanting being having insatiable innumerous wants. For satisfying his wants he works and works harder so as to make use of scarce resources available. Making use of scarce resources to the best advantage for the satisfactionof human wants is termed as economic activity. Economic activities, thus deal with theactivities of living and making a living. For this purpose everyone of use follow an occupation according to our inkling, capacity, knowledge and training. One therefore, may either follow a profession (rendering specialized expert and personal service), or seek employment (under taking to work for others according to terms and conditions set for the purpose), or set up a business engaging in production of wealth. Business is an economic activity having some feature and characteristics. Following are some important characteristics of Business 1. Production or Acquisition of Goods Every business whether small or large scale deals with goods and services. The goods may produce, manufacture or procure. Business is either to produce, manufacture or procure and then to supply for a price to those who are in need of the goods so produced, manufactured or procured. 2. Profit – The basic motive of business Profit is an essential part of business; in fact profit is the motivation factor behind a business one carries on. Profit is stimulus and a guarantee to continue the business. Profit is the factor which ensures the survival of the business. Profit is the reward of all those individuals engaged in a particular business. The efficiency of a businessman depends on the profit which he is able to make during the business operation. He renders singular service to the continuity bysatisfying the needs of the people. He expected a reward for such a service rendered and if he gets the double and redoubles his efforts and plans his future in such manner so as to render best possible service to the community. 3. Risk – Uncertainty of future Every business involves risk and uncertainty while carrying on its operations. Future is uncertain and business activity focuses on future. This focus on future and uncertainty of future naturally entails risk. It is risk which every businessman takes when he embarks upon a business activity. 4. Dealing in Goods and Services Business refers to goods and services dealt with a view to supply to those who need them and are ready to make payment for the same. Dealing in goods and services is business. The goods may either be consumers’ goods (Cloth, books, electronics appliances, medicine etc) or Producer goods (machinery, tools etc) or services (courier or transport services etc). 5. Regular Dealings One of important characteristics of business is regularity and recurrences. Business is not a single operation. A single operation would never constitute a business. It should a regular and continuous entity. Recurrence of dealing is a must to constitute a business. On selling furniture of his household with a view to replace it with new one is not business. But if the same person procures a variety of furniture, keeps the stock and sells them to the consumers, he carries on a business dealing in furniture. Scope of Business The Scope of “Business” is wider than that of the terms “Trade” and “Commerce”. The terms trade and commerce are often used synonymously. Trade is one of the branches of commerce. It is concerned with exchange of goods and services. It performs the function of acting as an intermediary and thereby it transfers goods from the producer to the consumer. On the other hand, commerce is a wider term. It includes “Trade” as well as, Aids to trade i.e. the various activities which facilitate trade.  Scope of Business 1. Industry The word “Industry” refers to that part of business activities which is apprehensive with the extraction, production or fabrication of products. The products which are raised, produced or processed by an industry may either be used by the ultimate consumer or by another concern for further production. If the goods produced by an industry are consumed by the finalcustomers, these are named as ‘consumer’s goods’ e.g. clothes. If the goods are used for further production of wealth they are called producer’s or capital goods. In case the goods produced by an industry are further processed into finished products by another concern they are called as intermediate goods. i.e Plastic. Types of Industry On the basis activity industry is further classified into various types are as under:- (i) Extractive Industries Extractive industries are those industries which extract, raise or fabricate raw materials from above or beneath surface of the earth. i.e. Mining, fisheries forestry, agriculture.  (ii) Genetic Industries Those industries which are engaged in reproducing and multiplying certain species of animals and plants and selling them in the market for profit are named as genetic industries. i.e. Cattle breeding farms, poultry farms, plant nurseries. (iii) Constructive Industries Constructive industries as the name signifies are engaged in the construction of building, canals, brides, dams, roads etc. (iv) Manufacturing Industries Manufacturing industries are those which are concerned of converting raw material or semi finished products into finished products. E.g. Shoes Company, Textiles Mills. (v) Service Industries Service industries are usually engaged in the manufacturing of intangible goods which cannot be seen or touched by naked eye. The service of professionals such as doctors, lawyers is examples of service industries. (vi) Commerce The second element that comes in the scope of business is Commerce. It is a very important component of business and is concerned with the buying and selling of goods. It includes all the activities which are connected to the transfer of goods from the place of production to the ultimate consumers. The whole ranges of commerce activities are classified are as under:- 2. Trade The process of buying and selling of goods is called Trade. It is the exchange of goods and services among buyers and sellers in which both the parties are benefited. Trade is classified into two types. (i) Internal Trade The process of buying and selling of goods within the edge of a country is called internal trade.  Wholesale Trade. The process of purchase of goods in huge quantity from producers and their resale to retailers is known as wholesale trade. The retailer then further sells these goods to the final consumers.  Retail Trade. The retailer sale the goods and services to the ultimate consumers is known as Retail Trade.  (ii) External Trade The purchase and sale of goods between two countries are called external trade. It is also called foreign trade. There are two types of external Trade.  Import Trade  Export Trade. 3. Aid to Trade The activities which help in the purchase of goods and services are called aids to trade. The aids which are compulsory for the development of the trade are as follows:- (i) Transport The different ways of transport help in carrying goods from the places of production to centers of utilization e.g. Railways, ships, airlines etc. (ii) Insurance Insurance is very essential aid to trade. The risk of damage of goods due to fire, flood, earthquake or other causes us covered by insurance. (iii) Warehousing Warehousing is a kind of storeroom. Nowadays most of the goods are produce in anticipation of demand. They are stored in safe places and are released as and when demanded in the market. Warehousing thus helps in overcoming the barrier of time and creates time utility. (iv) Banking The commercial banks play a vital role in financing the different trade activities. They are funding the traders for stock holding and transportation of goods. They also support the buyers and sellers of goods in receiving and making payments, both at the national and worldwide level. The credit facility in the form of cash credit, overdrafts and loans is provided to the traders. (v) Advertisement Selling of goods is the most difficult problem for the producer. Advertisement regarding the product through newspapers, magazines, radio and television has greatly helped the consumers in choosing the goods of their taste. So advertisements play a vital role in increasing sale of goods. Meaning, Definition of Business Organisation An entrepreneur organizes various factors of production like land, labour, capital, machinery, etc. for channelizing them into productive activities. The product finally reaches consumers through various agencies. Business activities are divided into various functions, these functions are assigned to different individuals. Various individual efforts must lead to the achievement of common business goals. Organization is the structural framework of duties and responsibilities required of personnel in performing various functions with a view to achieve business goals through organization. Management tries to combine various business activities to accomplish predetermined goals. Present business system is very complex. The unit must be run efficiently to stay in the competitive world of business. Various jobs are to be performed by persons most suitable for them. First of all various activities should be grouped into different functions. The authority and responsibility is fixed at various levels. All efforts should be made to co-ordinate different activities for running the units efficiently so that cost of production may be reduced and profitability of the unit may be increased. Definitions: Louis Allen, “Organization is the process of identifying and grouping work to be performed, defining and delegating responsibility and authority and establishing relationships for the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in accomplishing objectives.” In the words of Allen, organization is an instrument for achieving organizational goals. The work of each and every person is defined and authority and responsibility is fixed for accomplishing the same. Wheeler, “Internal organization is the structural framework of duties and responsibilities required of personnel in performing various functions within the company. It is essentially a blue print for action resulting in a mechanism for carrying out function to achieve the goals set up by company management”. In Wheeler’s view, organization is a process of fixing duties and responsibilities of persons in an enterprise so that business goals are achieved. Koontz and O’Donnell, ‘The establishment of authority relationships with provision for co- ordination between them, both vertically and horizontally in the enterprise structure.” These authors view organization as a coordinating point among various persons in the business. Oliver Sheldon, “Organization is the process so combining the work which individuals or groups have to perform with the facilities necessary for its execution, that the duties so performed provide the best channels for the efficient, systematic, positive and coordinated application of the available effort”. Organization helps in efficient utilization of resources by dividing the duties of various persons. Characteristics of Business Organization 1. Economic activity: Business is an economic activity of production and distribution of goods and services. It provides employment opportunities in different sectors like banking, insurance, transport, industries, trade etc. it is an economic activity corned with creation of utilities for the satisfaction of human wants. It provides a source of income to the society. Business results into generation of employment opportunities thereby leading to growth of the economy. It brings about industrial and economic development of the country. 2. Buying and Selling: The basic activity of any business is trading. The business involves buying of raw material, plants and machinery, stationary, property etc. On the other hand, it sells the finished products to the consumers, wholesaler, retailer etc. Business makes available various goods and services to the different sections of the society. 3. Continuous process: Business is not a single time activity. It is a continuous process of production and distribution of goods and services. A single transaction of trade cannot be termed as a business. A business should be conducted regularly in order to grow and gain regular returns. Business should continuously involve in research and developmental activities to gain competitive advantage. A continuous improvement strategy helps to increase profitability of the business firm. 4. Profit Motive: Profit is an indicator of success and failure of business. It is the difference between income and expenses of the business. The primary goal of a business is usually to obtain the highest possible level of profit through the production and sale of goods and services. It is a return on investment. Profit acts as a driving force behind all business activities. Profit is required for survival, growth and expansion of the business. It is clear that every business operates to earn profit. Business has many goals but profit making is the primary goal of every business. It is required to create economic growth. 5. Risk and Uncertainties: Risk is defined as the effect of uncertainty arising on the objectives of the business. Risk is associated with every business. Business is exposed to two types of risk, Insurable and Non- insurable. Insurable risk is predictable. 6. Creative and Dynamic: Modern business is creative and dynamic in nature. Business firm has to come out with creative ideas, approaches and concepts for production and distribution of goods and services. It means to bring things in fresh, new and inventive way. One has to be innovative because the business operates under constantly changing economic, social and technological environment. Business should also come out with new products to satisfy the growing needs of the consumers. 7. Customer satisfaction: The phase of business has changed from traditional concept to modern concept. Now a day, business adopts a consumer-oriented approach. Customer satisfaction is the ultimate aim of all economic activities. Modern business believes in satisfying the customers by providing quality product at a reasonable price. It emphasize not only on profit but also on customer satisfaction. Consumers are satisfied only when they get real value for their purchase. The purpose of the business is to create and retain the customers. The ability to identify and satisfy the customers is the prime ingredient for the business success. 8. Social Activity: Business is a socio-economic activity. Both business and society are interdependent. Modern business runs in the area of social responsibility. Business has some responsibility towards the society and in turn it needs the support of various social groups like investors, employees, customers, creditors etc. by making goods available to various sections of the society, business performs an important social function and meets social needs. Business needs support of different section of the society for its proper functioning. 9. Government control: Business organisations are subject to government control. They have to follow certain rules and regulations enacted by the government. Government ensures that the business is conducted for social good by keeping effective supervision and control by enacting and amending laws and rules from time to time. 10. Optimum utilisation of resources: Business facilitates optimum utilisation of countries material and non-material resources and achieves economic progress. The scarce resources are brought to its fullest use for concentrating economic wealth and satisfying the needs and wants of the consumers. Objectives of Business Organisation Economic Objectives: Economic objectives of business refer to the objective of earning profit and also other objectives that are necessary to be pursued to achieve the profit objective, which include, creation of customers, regular innovations and best possible use of available resources. (i) Profit Earning: Profit is the lifeblood of business, without which no business can survive in a competitive market. In fact profit making is the primary objective for which a business unit is brought into existence. Profits must be earned to ensure the survival of business, its growth and expansion over time. Profits help businessmen not only to earn their living but also to expand their businessactivities by reinvesting a part of the profits. In order to achieve this primary objective, certain other objectives are also necessary to be pursued by business, which are as follows: (a) Creation of customers: A business unit cannot survive unless there are customers to buy the products and services. Again a businessman can earn profits only when he/she provides quality goods and services at a reasonable price. For this it needs to attract more customers for its existing as well as new products. This is achieved with the help of various marketing activities. (b) Regular innovations: Innovation means changes, which bring about improvement in products, process of production and distribution of goods. Business units, through innovation, are able to reduce cost by adopting better methods of production and also increase their sales by attracting more customers because of improved products. Reduction in cost and increase in sales gives more profit to the businessmen. Use of power looms in place of handlooms, use of tractors in place of hand implements in farms etc. are all the results of innovation. (c) Best possible use of resources: As we all know, to run any business we must have sufficient capital or funds. The amount of capital may be used to buy machinery, raw materials, employ men and have cash to meet day- to-day expenses. Thus, business activities require various resources like men, materials, money and machines. The availability of these resources is usually limited. Thus, every business should try to make the best possible use of these resources. Employing efficient workers. Making full use of machines and minimizing wastage of raw materials, can achieve this objective. B. Social Objectives: Social objective are those objectives of business, which are desired to be achieved for the benefit of the society. Since business operates in a society by utilizing its scarce resources, the society expects something in return for its welfare. No activity of the business should be aimedat giving any kind of trouble to the society. If business activities lead to socially harmful effects, there is bound to be public reaction against the business sooner or later. Social objectives of business include production and supply of quality goods and services, adoption of fair trade practices and contribution to the general welfare of society and provision of welfare amenities. (i) Production and Supply of Quality Goods and Services: Since the business utilizes the various resources of the society, the society expects to get quality goods and services from the business he objective of business should be to produce better quality goods and supply them at the right time and at a right price It is not desirable on the part of the businessman to supply adulterated or inferior goods which cause injuries to the customers. They should charge the price according to the quality of e goods and services provided to the society. Again, the customers also expect timely supply of all their requirements. So it is important for every business to supply those goods and services on a regular basis. (ii) Adoption of Fair Trade Practices: In every society, activities such as hoarding, black- marketing and over-charging are considered undesirable. Besides, misleading advertisements often give a false impressionabout the quality of products. Such advertisements deceive the customers and the businessmen use them for the sake of making large profits. This is an unfair trade practice. The business unit must not create artificial scarcity of essential goods or raise prices for the sake of earning more profits. All these activities earn a bad name and sometimes make the businessmen liable for penalty and even imprisonment under the law. Therefore, the objective of business should be to adopt fair trade practices for the welfare of the consumers as well as the society. (iii) Contribution to the General Welfare of the Society: Business units should work for the general welfare and upliftment of the society. This is possible through running of schools and colleges better education opening of vocationaltraining centres to train the people to earn their livelihood, establishing hospitals for medical facilities and providing recreational facilities for the general public like parks, sports complexes etc. С. Human Objectives: Human objectives refer to the objectives aimed at the well-being as well as fulfillment of expectations of employees as also of people who are disabled, handicapped and deprived of proper education and training. The human objectives of business may thus include economic well-being of the employees, social and psychological satisfaction of employees and development of human resources. (i) Economic Well-being of the Employees: In business employees must be provided with tan remuneration and incentive for performance benefits of provident fund, pension and other amenities like medical facilities, housing facilities etc. By this they feel more satisfied at work and contribute more for the business. (ii) Social and Psychological Satisfaction of Employees: It is the duty of business units to provide social and psychological satisfaction to their employees. This is possible by making the job interesting and challenging, putting the right person in the right job and reducing the monotony of work Opportunities for promotion and advancement in career should also be provided to the employees. Further, grievances of employees should be given prompt attention and their suggestions should be considered seriously when decisions are made. If employees are happy and satisfied they can put then best efforts in work. (iii) Development of Human Resources: Employees as human beings always want to grow. Their growth requires proper training as well as development. Business can prosper if the people employed can improve their skills and develop their abilities and competencies in course of time. Thus, it is important that business should arrange training and development programmes for its employees. (iv) Well-being of Socially and Economically Backward People: Business units being inseparable parts of society should help backward classes and also people those are physically and mentally challenged. This can be done in many ways. For instance, vocational training programme may be arranged to improve the earning capacity of backward people in the community. While recruiting its staff, business should give preference to physically and mentally challenged persons. Business units can also help and encourage meritorious students by awarding scholarships for higher studies. D. National Objectives: Being an important part of the country, every business must have the objective of fulfilling national goals and aspirations. The goal of the country may be to provide employment opportunity to its citizen, earn revenue for its exchequer, become self-sufficient in production of goods and services, promote social justice, etc. Business activities should be conducted keeping these goals of the country in mind, which may be called national objectives ofbusiness. The following are the national objectives of business. (i) Creation of Employment: One of the important national objectives of business is to create opportunities for gainful employment of people. This can be achieved by establishing new business units, expanding markets, widening distribution channels, etc. (ii) Promotion of Social Justice: As a responsible citizen, a businessman is expected to provide equal opportunities to all persons with whom he/she deals. He/ She is also expected to provide equal opportunities to all the employees to work and progress. Towards this objectives special attention must be paid to weaker and backward sections of the society. (iii) Production According to National Priority: Business units should produce and supply goods in accordance with the priorities laid down in the plans and policies of the government. One of the national objectives of business in our country should be to increase the production and supply of essential goods at reasonable prices. (iv) Contribute to the Revenue of the Country: The business owners should pay their taxes and dues honestly and regularly. This will increase the revenue of the government, which can be used for the development of the nation. (v) Self-sufficiency and Export Promotion: To help the country to become self-reliant, business units have the added responsibility of restricting import of goods. Besides, every business units should aim at increasing exports and adding to the foreign exchange reserves of the country.  E. Global Objectives: Previously India had very restricted business relationship with other nations. There was a very rigid policy for import and export of goods and services. But, now-a-days due to liberal economic and export-import policy, restrictions on foreign investments have been largely abolished and duties on imported goods have been substantially reduced. This change has brought about increase in competition in the market. Today because of globalisation the entire world has become a big market. Goods produced in one country are readily available in other countries. So, to face the competition in the global market every business has certain objectives in mind, which may be called the global objectives. Let us learn about them. (i) Raise General Standard of Living: Growth of business activities across national borders makes quality goods available at reasonable prices all over the world. The people of one country get to use similar types of goods that people in other countries are using. This improves the standard of living of people. (ii) Reduce Disparities among Nations: Business should help to reduce disparities among the rich and poor nations of the world by expanding its operation. By way of capital investment in developing as well as underdeveloped countries it can foster their industrial and economic growth. (iii) Make Available Globally Competitive Goods and Services: Business should produce goods and services which are globally competitive and have huge demand in foreign markets. This will improve the image of the exporting country and also earn more foreign exchange for the country. Evolution of Business The economic development of a country is measured by the development of commerce and industry. The development of business activities in India has been going on with the changes in civilisation. There was a time when there was no commerce at all and now its development has brought the whole world together. There have been different stages through which the development of trade and industry has passed. A brief description of evolution of business activities has been discussed herewith: 1. Barter System: Barter is a system of exchange of goods for goods. The earlier system of producing or percuring only for one’s needs gave way to barter system. With the increase in demand for more and more goods and surplus in one’s own production, there was a search for those who wanted to exchange goods for goods. The families started producing more than their needs.  The surpluses were exchanged with those goods which they needed. At a later stage some places were fixed where people used to come for exchanging their surplus products withothers. The payment for using the services of other people was also in kind. Though commerce had come into being but it was at an elementary level. There was a problem of bringing together persons who needed each other’s goods. There was no common yardstick for measuring the value of goods to be exchanged. 2. Village Economy: People started setting at particular places and began to sow seeds and rearing cattle on the land which they shared with community. These tribes started producing the things which they required and it was a system of self-sufficiency. With the advent of private ownership of land and cattle, the tribe system split into families. Some families started concentrating on occupations other than agriculture. This led to exchange of goods for satisfying family needs. There was a system of village economy and all the requirements of the village were met by the people themselves. In order to facilitate exchange, a class of people called traders also emerged. Different families started specialising in producing different goods or taking up specific jobs. All these developments led to a self-reliant village economy. 3. Introduction of Money: The difficulties faced in barter system compelled people to find out some common medium for exchange. In the beginning some commodities were used as a denominator for exchange. The commodities like stones, shells, cattle, feathers etc. were used to value the goods to be exchanged. Gradually, metals like iron, copper, bronze, silver and gold were taken to be more convenient, as a medium of exchange. The metals were weighed and stamped to fix their value. The metal money facilitated trade not only in the country but also with foreign countries. The coins were also used to make payments for various types of services availed. It was ultimately the use of paper currency which led to all round development of business activities. 4. Town Economy: With the use of money for exchange purposes, the volume of trade started increasing. The system of self-sufficiency gave way to division of labour. Instead of producing for familyneeds people started meeting needs of the whole village. People started specialising in different products. Certain places were being fixed where people could come to buy and sell goods. There used to be weekly mandis or fairs where people from nearby villages would come to sell their surplus products and buy goods for their needs. The mandis or fairs became a regular feature. The increased volume of trade encouraged more and more division of labour. A separate class of traders and artisans came into existence.  These persons started settling at central places and established their business premises there. These places were known as towns and became trade centres for people living in villages. The villagers brought raw materials, cattle, milk, etc. to the towns for sale. The artisans would manufacture goods as per the needs of the people. The traders became a link between farmers and artisans. The traders also started bringing luxury goods from outside places for sale in towns. As the journey was risky, the traders used to move in caravans and with the protection of armed men. The town economy gave further philip to commerce. 5. Industrial Revolution: The word ‘Industrial Revolution’ is used to describe a series of changes in the industrial field in England during the period between 1760 and 1850. The changes of far reaching effects took place during this period. Generally, the word ‘Revolution’ is used for an abrupt change but in this case it is used to describe ‘fundamental change’. A number of inventions took place in England which changed the entire technique of production. Some of the important inventions were the Spinning Jenny of Hargreaves, the Water Frame of Arkwright, the Mule of Crompton and the Power-loom of Cartwright. Withthe help of these inventions industrial production started at a mass scale. The machinery was used for production, division of labour was introduced and the modes of transport were improved. The use of steam-engine in place of labour helped to increase production manifold. The use of machines required more capital investments and it led to the change in ownership from a sole proprietorship to a joint stock company. According to Mr. L.C.A Knowles, “The so-called Industrial Revolution comprised of six great changes or developments-all of which were inter-dependent”. These changes were: (i) Development of Engineering: Industrial revolution brought about a change in engineering skill. Engineers were required to design machines for textile and coal-mixing industries. The tool making for repairing ships and locomotives were also essential. There was a need for sufficient number of trained persons for taking up these jobs. The development of trained people was a part of industrial revolution. (ii) Revolution in Iron-making: The casting of iron for manufacturing machines was the other need of this revolution. A sufficient quantity and goods of iron was the need of the time. This development helped in producing sufficient number of machines.  (iii) Use of Steam Power in Textiles: The use of mechanical devices in textile industry raised its production. First steam power was used in spinning. It created a surplus of yarn because man-made and traditional methods of weaving could not cope with the situation. It necessitated the use of power for weaving purposes also. The use of power was also extended to other aspects of textile industry. (iv) Rise of Chemical Industry: The use of power in textile industry necessitated suitable changes in the processes like bleaching, dying, finishing or printing so that production could be accelerated to keep pacewith the output of piece goods. All this was possible only with the development of chemical industry. (v) Development of Coal Mining: The development of coal mining was inter-dependent on other developments. The coke was needed for smelting and refining iron and pig iron respectively in blast furnaces as also for producing the steam power which had also become the motive power of the industry. (vi) Revolution in Transport: The above mentioned developments could not have been possible without the improved modes of transport. The horse driven carriages could not cope with the needs of large scale production. The moving of inputs to centres of industrialization and then distribution ofmanufactured goods to places of consumption will be possible only with better transport means. The industrial revolution led to large scale production. The production large scale reduced prices of goods. The commodities which were considered luxuries earlier were within thereach of a common man. The division of labour was introduced in factories and this led to specialisation. 6. Revolution in Transport and Communication: Industrial production increased manifold after the mechanisation of production methods. There was a need for more and more markets to sell the goods. The discovery of new sea routes, opening of Suez Canal, introduction of railways, steamships, aeroplanes and automobiles revolutionised transport system. The movement of goods among different countries became easy and fast. The trade crossed national boundries. The trade expanded from local to national and from national to international boundries. The facilities such as insurance and banking also gave philip to the development of trade. The revolution in communication methods has further facilitated the growth of business activities.  The use of telephone, telegraph, radio, T.V. etc. has helped in creating world market for goods. The latest edition of internet, intranet, e-commerce and advanced IT methods has radically changed the structure of trade and commerce both at national and international levels. 7. Advancements in Modern Business: A number of advancements have occurred in commerce and industry in the last fifty years. These changes have revolutionised production and distribution. Some of these changes are described as follows : (i) Improved Methods of Production: The use of latest technology has revolutionised production methods. The rate of production has increased substantially. Mechanisation and automation have also helped in controlling wastes and reducing cost of production. Productivity of workers has also gone up. (ii) Large Scale Production: The growth of multinational companies has increased the scale of production. The goods are not produced for local or national markets only but international demand is taken into consideration. (iii) Specialisation: The division of labour has led to specialisation in every industrial activity. Industrial units produce small number of components but specialise in them. Big industrial units also encourage specialisation in small units. The specialisation helps in raising productivity and competitive strength of the units. Even at international level countries produce only thosegoods in which they can specialise and have natural advantage. This specialisation has further increased international trade. (iv) Research and Development: The focus of industrial units is to devise better and better products on a regular basis. This has necessitated an emphasis on research and development. The thrust now is on revolution and not on evolution. Research and development helps in controlling costs, increasing production and raising standards of living of people. (v) Expansion of International Trade: International trade is expanding at a greater pace. The organisations like WTO are helping to bring together the whole world by removing various hindrances imposed by countries in the flow of goods and services. The whole world is now becoming one big market. 8. Growth of Public and Private Enterprises: Industrialisation in India mainly started after 1947. British rulers wanted India to be the supplier of raw materials and consumer of their finished goods. After independence the government devised specific roles to public and private sectors. Basic and strategic industries were developed under public sector and consumer goods industries were left to be developed under private sector. There were a number of changes in industrial policy from time to time. The public sector enterprises could not provide the required quantum for industrial development. It was in 1991 when government decided to limit the role of public sector only to a few industries and rests of the industries were left to be developed by private sector. Foreign entrepreneurs were freely allowed to set up unit in India. A number of multinational companies, especially in automobile sector and durable consumer goods, have set up their manufacturing facilities in India. Foreign investors are allowed to own majority of equity in a number of Indian industries. There are basic structural changes in Indian industrial sector in the last 15 years. Under world trade treaties every country has to.allow free access to foreign goods. Indian industries are now operating under intense competition from foreign undertakings. This competition has created awareness about quality and cost among Indian entrepreneurs. Indian exports are now finding good foreign markets. Businessmen are exploring newer and better foreign markets for Indian goods. The government is also giving proper attention to export promotion. Though public sector is also continuing but the thrust has shifted to private sector. Private sector will have to show results in a fairly competitive environment. Modern Businesses Companies that have rapidly reshaped their categories to place previous leaders at a disadvantage or who have created entirely new categories of their own. They have employed a dizzying array of new techniques and technologies and it is often hard to separate their strategy from their execution. However, as more of these companies emerge, it has become clear that there are a consistent set of fundamentals that they all have in common. 1. Committed deeply to delivering individual, social and environmental value that is tightly aligned with the creation of economic value for its stakeholders. 2. Built around a purpose: Enlists employees, customers and partners to help achieve the purpose. 3. Design workplaces and cultures that install employees with passion and autonomy: Employ flatter structures, offer more holistic, human work. 4. Transparent, open and sharing by default. View operations and culture as a competitive advantage. 5. Create ecosystems of shared value within their industry: Utilize platforms and networks to scale value creation and further social and economic goals for a wide range of stakeholdersand partners 6. Primarily profit through eliminating waste and breaking barriers within their industries or categories or through enabling greater value for partners and customers. 7. Deliver real value to people and the community, build relationships with customers not transactions 8. Make real progress against social goals and commercial goals Business & Profession Business means to earn profit by supplying goods and services, whereas profession is an advice or service rendered by one or a group of persons which does not include manufacturing or selling of goods. In order to become a professional, a person has to attain certain academic qualifications and training. Examples are Chartered Accountants, Doctors, Advocates, Engineers, Cost Accountants and Company Secretaries. The points of difference between business and profession are given below. 1. Difference in Educational Qualifications The professional should have the specified academic qualifications to practice the profession, whereas the businessman is not expected to have such specified academic qualifications. 2. Difference in Expert in the Field The businessman need not have expertise knowledge in his field of business. On the other hand, the professional must be an expert in his profession. 3. Difference in Personal Attention The businessman can appoint anybody to manage the affairs of his business. The professional, on the other hand, has to perform the duties personally. 4. Difference in Name of the Reward The reward for business is known as profit. The reward for profession is called as fee. 5. Difference in Code of Conduct and Ethics There is no rigorous code of conduct and ethics to be followed by a businessman. The professional, on the other hand is expected to follow code of conduct and ethics. 6. Difference in Governing Body Association does not govern the business man. He may or may not be a member of any trade association. On the other hand, the association to which he belongs governs the professional.  7. Difference in Motive The primary motive of a businessman is profit. The basic motive of a professional is service, and profit is only secondary. 8. Difference in Advertisement The businessman can advertise his business to attract more and more customers towards his business. A professional, on the other hand, cannot advertise except displaying a name board in front of his office. II - BUSINESS ORGANISATION – SBAA 11  Business Unit A Business Unit is most commonly recognized as an independent transaction-processingentity. It is defined as an organization or the subset of an organization which is independent in its accounting and operational functionality. A Business Unit is basically a profit making centre which has a prime focus to segment the market and be able to enhance the product offerings of the company. They usually have a separate clearly defined marketing plan, a well- defined marketing campaign and a detailed analysis of the competition, even when they are essentially a part of a bigger business entity. In organizations, subsidiaries are often confused with business units. But these two have some significant differences. A company which is at least 50 percent owned by another company, more commonly known as the parent company is referred to as a subsidiary. The subsidiary is a complete corporate body, whereas the business units are sub-components or components of these subsidiaries. Business units are a smaller entity like a department or a functional group within a company which is responsible for handling the issues and affairs of that specific activity. Examples of business units include marketing, finance, operations, accounting, sales, human resources and research and development divisions. Companies can have multiple independent business units into itself or as a branch, and each one of them is responsible for their own profitability. For example: General Electric is a company having 49 business units. There are three important parameters that are usually seen as the success determining factors of a business unit:  The autonomy and power delegated to a business unit manager  The degree of functionality and facility sharing between multiple SBUs  The way of handling new products in organizations Establishing a new Business unit Step 1. Idea Generation: To kick start operations, entrepreneurs must be imbued with rich ideas that can work. In order to generate ideas, entrepreneurs need to have an eye for detail. They should keep a close watch over changing trends in the market place and identify gaps that can be profitably exploited. Step 2. Nature of Business: The entrepreneur should be clear about the nature of type of business that he wants to be in: 1. What type of business- Wholesale or retail, independent or franchise business or simply a trading business. 2. What to offer- Products or services or a mix of both; he wants to trade in these or wants to produce and distribute. 3. III. In Which sector- Entertainment, construction, software, hardware, fashion, etc. 4. Is it a profitable business or a risky one -Carefully studying the prospects of chosen business. He needs to calculate the gains, the challenges ahead and the type of risks that exist and the viability of business in the long run. 5. Whether inputs, resources and requisite manpower available- It is better to carry out a feasibility study of everything beforehand. 6. Whether the idea will actually work or not- To this end, he has to conduct a feasibility study examining the pros and cons of everything. 7. Prepare the business plan and move ahead with other steps that follow the decision. Step 3. Determine the Size and Scale of Operations: The entrepreneur should be clear about what kind of sales could be generated at different price points. He should plan for a volume that recovers his costs fully and generates enough profits for survival initially. Then he can think of expanding volumes, size and scale of operations. A gradual step by step, trial and error process is what most market experts suggest. Rushing into catch a temporary wave of demand created by artificial mismatch between demand and supply might eventually put a very good business also on the stretcher. For a budding small business venture, size should not be a fascinating option unless the market is totally ignored, unexplored or underserved (like it happened in the case of iodized salt, vegetarian tooth paste, low priced but reasonable quality detergents; multigrain wheat flour, etc.) The size and scale of operations chosen must be in sync with what the entrepreneur has interms of available capital and other resources at his command. Step 4. Select a Place for Business: The entrepreneur must pick up a location that is closer to all the inputs, resources and materials that the business would require. Availability of manpower and transport links also need to be looked into. Other services like banking, telecommunications, and power supply need closer attention of course, different organisations in the same industry may have different facilities requirements. For example Benetton uses only one distribution centre for the entire world, whereas Wal-Mart has several distribution centres in the United States alone. In any case, a small business owner of retail business must pay close attention to the convenience factor especially from the customers’ point of view. Step 5. Choose the Form of Ownership: The entrepreneur must be clear about the form of ownership that is closer to his heart. He could think of a small business owned by him exclusive or start the venture in partnership withsomeone or create a company with diversified shareholding. To start with, he can pick up the entity that is easy to form, simple to operate, allows freedom to implement his ideas without any legal or taxation problems and gives him enough room to expand further, whenever the opportunity turns out to be big. Step 6. Determine Financial Requirements: Here it is a question of calculating the fixed capital and working capital needs of the firm, keeping the present and future plans of the business in mind. The entrepreneur should be clear about the type of expenses that are going to eat up resources at different points of time. Requisite funds for emergency use need to be put in place. The sources of funds also need tobe calculated well in advance. How much through bank financing, how much from the long term lending institutions, how much from the general public—if equity is a preferred option— how much from own sources etc.? Step 7. Plan for Physical Facilities: This is a question of giving a concrete shape to the business plan by arranging the physical infrastructure required. It includes decisions regarding machines, equipment, factory and office design, choosing furniture, space planning, providing for repair and maintenance, availability of spare parts, degree of sophistication required in terms of modernizing the plant in every way— keeping the availability of skilled hands in the chosen location etc. An appropriate organisation structure must also be designed keeping the space needs of various departments, divisions and plants in mind. Step 8. Select an Appropriate Plant Layout: The choice of physical configuration or the layout of facilities is closed related to other operation decisions. A product layout is appropriate when large quantities of a single product are needed. It makes sense to custom design a straight line flow of work for a product when a specific task is performed at each work station as each unit flows past. Most assembly linesuse this format. For example, Dell’s personal computer factories use a product layout. The type of layout depends on the expected volume of production, space available, type of equipment, etc. The chosen layout, in any case, must be in sync with space available and must permit easy flow of production without posing any danger to human life. Step 9. Determine Human Resource Requirements: Here it is a question of finding human resource requirements in terms of physical numbers and also in terms of quality such as technical skill sets, managerial competencies, degree ofexpertise, necessity for people possessing latest knowledge in a high-tech area etc. The necessity for hiring people with qualities of head and heart must be recognized and the small business owner must keep plans ready for this purpose. Step 10. Keep an Eye on Legal and Procedural Requirements: All approvals, sanctions must be obtained well in advance. The needed paper work must be entrusted to experienced people hired for this purpose. Help from external consultants could also be obtained to avoid surprises of various kinds hitting the budding venture at a later stage. All taxation matters be carefully looked into at this stage. If required, the owner must carry out a drill looking into each and every detail personally. Step 11. Launch the Business: The owner should get ready to launch the business formally after acquiring physical and financial resources, providing for infrastructural facilities and hiring the people needed. Meaning of Promotion Promotion is a type of communication between the buyer and the seller. The seller tries to persuade the buyer to purchase their goods or services through promotions. It helps in making the people aware of a product, service or a company. It also helps to improve the public image of a company. This method of marketing may also create interest in the minds of buyers and can also generate loyal customers. It is one of the basic elements of the market mix, which includes the four P’s: price, product, promotion, and place. It is also one of the elements in the promotional mix or promotional mix or promotional plan. These are personal selling, advertising, sales promotion, direct marketing publicity and may also include event marketing, exhibitions, and trade shows. Types of Promotion Advertising Advertising means to advertise a product, service or a company with the help of television, radio or social media. It helps in spreading awareness about the company, product or service. Advertising is communicated through various mass media, including traditional media such as newspapers, magazines, television, radio, outdoor advertising or direct mail; and new media such as search results, blogs, social media, websites or text messages. Direct Marketing Direct marketing is a form of advertising where organizations communicate directlyto customers through a variety of media including cell phone text messaging, email, websites, online adverts, database marketing, fliers, catalog distribution, promotional letters and targeted television, newspaper and magazine advertisements as well as outdoor advertising. Among practitioners, it is also known as a direct response. Sales Promotion Sales promotion uses both media and non-media marketing communications for a pre- determined, limited time to increase consumer demand, stimulate market demand or improve product availability. Personal Selling The sale of a product depends on the selling of a product. Personal Selling is a method where companies send their agents to the consumer to sell the products personally. Here, the feedback is immediate and they also build a trust with the customer which is very important. Public Relation Public relation or PR is the practice of managing the spread of information between an individual or an organization (such as a business, government agency, or a nonprofit organization) and the public. A successful PR campaign can be really beneficial to the brand of the organization. Features for business Characteristics are the features which are necessary to classify the business. Therefore let’s have a look at them. Economic Activity Business necessarily has to be an economic activity. But what exactly is an economic activity? Any activity that gives a monetary return is an economic activity. For example, if your friend’s father picks you up and drops you at college every day, he is doing this act out of kindness. But if he starts a transportation service of picking up and dropping by charging money then it’san economic activity. Production or Trading of Good or Services for Sale If a business plans on selling a product, it has to either manufacture that product or purchase it and add a profit margin to it and sell it further. Business is interested in every activity that is concerned with the production or purchase of goods for selling, this makes it one of the most important characteristics of a business. Services for sale include transportation, housekeeping, and security. Whereas, goods are mostly consumable items. Sale or Exchange of Goods and Services The third and crucial one of the characteristics of business after production or procurement is to sell that product for the money. The way to sell a product or service is by launching it in the market or to offer it for sale. A sale or exchange must take place between the seller and the buyer. Regularity in Dealings Business is a repeatable economic activity that generates money. For example, if you sell your old bike and it generates money. Also, it’s an economic activity but is you doing this on a regular basis? No. As it has no regularity in it, it cannot be accepted as a business activity. Similarly, there is a dealer who deals in the purchase and sells of second-hand bikes. For him, it’s a business activity as there is a regularity in his dealing. A single transaction of purchase or sale cannot be classified as a business. Profit Earning The sole purpose of business is the maximization of profit. It steps into the market with the main objective of earning a profit. For the survival of business in a market, generating profit is extremely necessary. If a business can’t produce profit, it is expected of it to go downhill financially. Therefore the businessman does all the possible tricks to maximize its profits by increasing the volume of sales or decreasing the costs Risk Factor It is well known “Higher the risks, higher the return”. Business attracts risk. While initiating business it is not guaranteed 100% that the business will be successful. There is an anticipation that there might be demand for its product or service in the market. But the market is always dwindling the subject to risk. The business may even earn profit but the amount of profit earned may vary. Uncertainty of Returns Businessmen invest huge capital in their activities to sustain and extract profit from thebusiness. As we discussed the risk above, it is very uncertain as to what amount the profit will be earned. Often there are situations where is no return of profit. There are always chances of losses in the business activities. Legal Activity The business has to be legal and lawful. Business is an extremely important activity for a country but it is not above the law. Every economic activity has to be within the limits of the law. The country’s legislation puts clauses on the functioning of the business to control its activities. Plant location Location of an industry is an important management decision. It is a two-step decision: first, choice of general area or region and second, the choice of site within the area selected. Location decision is based on the organisations long-term strategies such as technological, marketing, resource availability and financial strategies. The objective of plant location decision-making is to minimise the sum of all costs affected by location. Plant location is important because of the following: (i) Location influences plant layout facilities needed. (ii) Location influences capital investment and operating costs. Location decisions are strategic, long-term and non-repetitive in nature. Without sound and careful location planning in the beginning itself, the new facilities may create continuous operating problems in future. Location decision also affects the efficiency, effectiveness, productivity and profitability. The location decision should be taken very carefully, as any mistake may cause poor location, which could be a constant source of higher cost, higher investment, difficult marketing and transportation, dissatisfied and frustrated employees and consumers, frequent interruptions of production, abnormal wastages, delays and substandard quality etc.  Therefore, it should be based upon a careful consideration of all factors that are essentially needed in efficient running of a particular industry. The necessary factors in the selection of plant location vary among industries and with changing technical and economical conditions. Site selection is not an easy problem because if the selection is not proper then all money spent on factory building, machinery and their installation etc., will go as waste and the owner has to suffer a great loss. Therefore, while selecting a site, owner must consider technical, commercial, financial aspects which may provide maximum advantages. It is sometimes possible that all the requirements and features of ideal site may not be available at one particular location but then it will be advantageous to find out suitable site with combinations of all essential requirements of the particular industry to be established as explained in following paras. Market Location: To solve such problems a market analysis of the area is conducted and answers of the following questions can be found out: 1. If there is a market which could be served and if retail price of product can be reduced? 2. Whether quick delivery of the product can be made by better plant location to the particular market? 3. Whether there is a competitor for the product in the market? Whether demand for product may increase? Whether an additional plant is required to meet the future demand? 4. What is the potential purchasing power of the market? 5. What are the buying habits of local people, and what must be done to fit your service to these habits? Economical Aspects: Locational economics for an enterprise includes a consideration of the product to be manu- factured, the processes and machinery to be used, and the service and facilities required. To know this the following factors may be studied: 1. Product: (a) Nature, (b) Volume, and (c) Value. Production process: (a) Continuous, (b) Intermittent, and (c) Interrupted. 3. Manufacturing machinery. 4. Other manufacturing equipment’s. 5. Special manufacturing requirement. 6. Service: (a) Steam, (b) Gas, (c) Water, (d) Air or high pressure, (e) Electricity, and (f) Sewerage. Plant Layout Meaning of Plant Layout Plant layout is the arrangement of machines, work areas and service areas within a factory. George R. Terry. Plant layout involves the development of physical relationship among building, equipment and production operations, which will enable the manufacturing process to be carried on efficiently. Need of Plant Layout: Many situations give rise to the problem of plant layout. Two plants having similar operations may not have identical layouts. This may be due to size of the plant, nature of the process and management’s calibre. The necessity of plant layout may be felt and the problem may arise when: (i) There are design changes in the product. (ii) There is an expansion of the enterprise. (iii) There is proposed variation in the size of the departments. (iv) Some new product is to be added to the existing line. (v) Some new department is to be added to the enterprise and there is reallocation of the existing department. (vi) A new plant is to be set up. Importance of Plant Layout: The layout of a plant is quite important in view of the above definition but the importance of a layout may greatly vary from industry to industry. The possibility of attaining the best possible layout is directly proportional to following factors: (i) The Weight, Volume or Mobility of the Product: If the final product is quite heavy or difficult to handle involving costly material handling equipment or a large amount of labour, important consideration will be to move the product minimum possible e.g. boiler, turbines, locomotive industries and ship building companies etc. (ii) Complexity of the Final Product: f the product is made up of a very large number of components and parts i.e. large number of people may be employed for handling the movement of these parts from shop to shop or from machine to machine or one assembly point to another e.g. automobile industry. (iii) The Length of the Process in Relation to Handling Time: If the material handling time represents a appreciable proportion of the total time of manufacturing, any reduction in handling time of the product may result in great productivity improvement of the industrial unit e.g. Steam Turbine Industry. (iv) The Extent to which the Process Tends towards Mass Production: With the use of automatic machines in industries for adopting mass production system of manufacturing the volume of production will increase. In view of high production output, larger percentage of manual labour will be engaged in transporting the output unless the layout is good. Objectives of Good Plant Layout: A good rather an optimum layout is one which provides maximum satisfaction to all concerned i.e. shareholders, management employees and consumers. The objectives of a good layout are as follows: (i) Should provide overall satisfaction to all concerned. (ii) Material handling and internal transportation from one operation to the next is minimized and efficiently controlled. (iii) The production bottle necks and points of congestions are to be eliminated so that input raw materials and semi-finished parts move fast from one work station to another. (iv) Should provide high work in process turnover.  (v) Should utilize the space most effectively; may be cubical utilization. (vi) Should provide worker’s convenience, promote job satisfaction and safety for them. (vii) Should avoid unnecessary investment of capital. (viii) Should help in effective utilization of labour. (ix) Should lead to increased productivity and better quality of the product with reduced capital cost. Types of Plant layout Four Main Types of Plant Layout 1. Product or Line Layout 2. Process or Functional Layout. 3. Fixed Position Layout. 4. Combination type of Layout. 1. Product or Line Layout If all the processing equipment and machines are arranged according to the sequence of operations of the product, the layout is called product type of layout. In this type of layout, only one product of one type of products is produced in an operating area. This product must be standardized and produced in large quantities in order to justify the product layout. The raw material is supplied at one end of the line and goes from one operation to the next quite rapidly with a minimum work in process, storage and material handling. Fig. 8.3 shows product layout for two types of products A and B. Advantages offered by Product Layout: (i) Lowers total material handling cost. (ii) There is less work in processes. (iii) Better utilization of men and machines, (iv) Less floor area is occupied by material in transit and for temporary storages. (v) Greater simplicity of production control. (vi) Total production time is also minimized. Limitations of Product Layout: (i) No flexibility which is generally required is obtained in this layout. (ii) The manufacturing cost increases with a fall in volume of production. (iii) If one or two lines are running light, there is a considerable machine idleness. (iv) A single machine break down may shut down the whole production line. (v) Specialized and strict supervision is essential. 2. Process or Functional Layout The process layout is particularly useful where low volume of production is needed. If the products are not standardized, the process layout is more low desirable, because it has creator process flexibility than other. In this type of layout, the machines and not arranged according to the sequence of operations but are arranged according to the nature or type of the operations. This layout is commonly suitable for non repetitive jobs. Same type of operation facilities are grouped together such as lathes will be placed at one place, all the drill machines are at another place and so on. See Fig. 8.4 for process layout. Therefore, the process carried out in that area is according to the machine available in that area. Advantages of Process Layout (i) There will be less duplication of machines. Thus, total investment in equipment purchase will be reduced. (ii) It offers better and more efficient supervision through specialization at various levels. (iii) There is a greater flexibility in equipment and man power thus load distribution is easily controlled. (iv) Better utilization of equipment available is possible. (v) Break down of equipment can be easily handled by transferring work to another machine/work station. (vi) There will be better control of complicated or precision processes, especially where much inspection is required.  Limitations of Process Layout (i) There are long material flow lines and hence the expensive handling is required. (ii) Total production cycle time is more owing to long distances and waiting at various points. (iii) Since more work is in queue and waiting for further operation hence bottle necks occur. (iv) Generally, more floor area is required. (v) Since work does not flow through definite lines, counting and scheduling is more tedious. (vi) Specialization creates monotony and there will be difficult for the laid workers to find job in other industries. 3. Fixed Position Layout This type of layout is the least important for today’s manufacturing industries. In this type of layout the major component remain in a fixed location, other materials, parts, tools, machinery, man power and other supporting equipment’s are brought to this location. The major component or body of the product remain in a fixed position because it is too heavy or too big and as such it is economical and convenient to bring the necessary tools and equipment’s to work place along with the man power. This type of layout is used in the manufacture of boilers, hydraulic and steam turbines and ships etc. Advantages Offered by Fixed Position Layout (i) Material movement is reduced (ii) Capital investment is minimized. (iii) The task is usually done by gang of operators, hence continuity of operations is ensured (iv) Productioncenters are independent of each other. Hence, effective planning and loading can be made. Thus total production cost will be reduced. (v) It offers greater flexibility and allows change in product design, product mix and production volume. Limitations of Fixed Position Layout (i) Highly skilled man power is required. (ii) Movement of machines equipment’s to production centre may be time consuming. (iii) Complicated fixtures may be required for positioning of jobs and tools. This may increase the cost of production. 4. Combination Type of Layout Now a days in pure state any one form of layouts discussed above is rarely found. Therefore, generally the layouts used in industries are the compromise of the above mentioned layouts. Every layout has got certain advantages and limitations. Therefore, industries would to like use any type of layout as such. Flexibility is a very important factory, so layout should be such which can be molded according to the requirements of industry, without much investment. If the good features of all types of layouts are connected, a compromise solution can be obtained which will be more economical and flexible. Size of Business unit 1. Entrepreneurial Skill: The most important factor of comes is the skill, initiative and resourcefulness of the entrepreneur. Everything depends on his judgment and ability. An entrepreneur of outstanding ability will be able to procure as much finance as he may need, hire the requisite labor force and build up a huge business. But an entrepreneur of moderate ability will run business on a moderate scale and a man of limited entrepreneurial skill will be content with a small business 2. Managerial Ability: For running the routine part of the business, managers are appointed. If a firm is lucky enough to have a manager of great ability, the size of the firm will grow to considerable dimensions. On the other hand, a mediocre manager will have a small-sized firm to manage. 3. Availability of Finance: It is finance which oils the wheels of business machine. If ample funds are available, it will help the entrepreneur to make his business grow to a big size. This requires a proper development, of the banking system so that savings of the community can be effectively mobilized and utilized in the development of trade and industry. 4. Availability of Labour: Another factor on which the size of the firm depends is the availability of labour of requisite skill. After all, what can the entrepreneur even with large capital do, if the labour to man the business is not available? What is required is efficient and skilled labour. 5. Nature of Business: Much also depends on the nature of business. If the business obeys the law of increasing Returns, it will grow to a big size, otherwise, in the case of diminishing returns it will remain stunted, and in the case of constant returns it will remain stagnant. 6. Extent of the Market: The size of the firm also depends on the extent of the market. If the commodity in which the firm deals or which it-manufactures has a wide market, naturally the business will assume a large scale. But if the demand for the commodity is fitful or limited, the size of the firm will continue to be small. These are some of the factors on which the size of an average firm in a country depends. UNIT III - BUSINESS ORGANISATION – SBAA 1104  Forms of Business Organization Introduction A business enterprises is an organisation which is engaged in some business or commercial activity. Every business enterprises is a separate and distinct unit of business. Various forms of business organisation from which one can choose the right one include  Sole Proprietorship  Partnership  Joint Stock Companies  Co-operative Societies Sole Proprietorship The vast majority of small businesses start out as sole proprietorships. These firms are owned by one person, usually the individual who has day-to-day responsibility for running the business. Sole proprietorships own all the assets of the business and the profits generated by it. They also assume complete responsibility for any of its liabilities or debts. In the eyes of the law and the public, you are one in the same with the business. Advantages  Easiest and least expensive form of ownership to organize.  Sole proprietors are in complete control, and within the parameters of the law, may make decisions as they see fit.  Profits from the business flow-through directly to the owner’s personal tax return.  The business is easy to dissolve, if desired. Disadvantages  Sole proprietors have unlimited liability and are legally responsible for all debts against the business. Their business and personal assets are at risk.  May be at a disadvantage in raising funds and are often limited to using funds from personal savings or consumer loans.  May have a hard time attracting high-caliber employees, or those that are motivated by the opportunity to own a part of the business.  Some employee benefits such as owner’s medical insurance premiums are not directly deductible from business income (only partially as an adjustment to income).  Partnership Meaning of Partnership A partnership is a kind of business where a formal agreement between two or more people is made and agreed to be the co-owners, distribute responsibilities for running an organization and share the income or losses that the business generates. In India, all the aspects and functions of the partnership are administered under ‘The Indian Partnership Act 1932’. This specific law explains that partnership is an association between two or more individuals or parties who have accepted to share the profits generated from the business under the supervision of all the members or behalf of other members. Features of Partnership: Following are the few features of a partnership: 1. Agreement between Partners: It is an association of two or more individuals, and a partnership arises from an agreement or a contract. The agreement (accord) becomes the basis of the association between the partners. Such an agreement is in the written form. An oral agreement is even-handedly legitimate. In order to avoid controversies, it is always good, if the partners have a copy of the written agreement. 2. Two or More Persons: In order to manifest a partnership, there should be at least two (2) persons possessing a common goal. To put it in other words, the minimal number of partners in an enterprise can be two (2). However, there is a constraint on their maximum number of people. 3. Sharing of Profit: Another significant component of the partnership is, the accord between partners has to share gains and losses of a trading concern. However, the definition held in the Partnership Act elucidates – partnership as an association between people who have consented to share the gains of a business, the sharing of loss is implicit. Hence, sharing of gains and losses is vital. 4. Business Motive: It is important for a firm to carry some kind of business and should have a profit gaining motive. 5. Mutual Business: The partners are the owners as well as the agent of their firm. Any act performed by one partner can affect other partners and the firm. It can be concluded that this point act as a test of partnership for all the partners. 6. Unlimited Liability: Every partner in a partnership has unlimited liability. Advantages  Partnerships are relatively easy to establish; however time should be invested in developing the partnership agreement.  With more than one owner, the ability to raise funds may be increased.  The profits from the business flow directly through to the partners’ personal tax return.  Prospective employees may be attracted to the business if given the incentive to become a partner.  The business usually will benefit from partners who have complementary skills.  Disadvantages  Partners are jointly and individually liable for the actions of the other partners.  Profits must be shared with others.  Since decisions are shared, disagreements can occur.  Some employee benefits are not deductible from business income on tax returns.  The partnership may have a limited life; it may end upon the withdrawal or death of a partner. Types of Partnerships. There are three relatively common partnership types: general partnership, limited partnership (LP) and limited liability partnership. 1. General Partnership: General partnership is a simple partnership and many times referred as Partnership Firm. A general partnership is a business entity that is made up of two or more entities to carry on a trade or business. Each partner contributes money, property, labor, or special skills and each partner shares in the profits and losses from the business. The law also allows the partners of a general partnership firm to sue or to be sued in the name of firm (only applicable for registered firms), though registration is optional. 2. Limited Partnership: A limited partnership includes both general partners and limited partners. A limited partner does not participate in the day-to-day management of the partnership and his/her liability is limited. In many cases, the limited partners are merely investors who do not wish to participate in the partnership other than to provide an investment and to receive a share of the profits. 3. Limited Liability Partnership: A limited liability partnership (LLP) is a form of partnership in which, Individual partners are not personally responsible for the wrongful acts of other partners, or for the debts or obligations of the business. Specifically, a limited liability partnership can only be sued for the total amount of assets in the business. Owing to flexibility in its structure and operation, it would be useful for small and medium enterprises, in general, and for the enterprises in services sector, in particular. Internationally, LLPs are the preferred vehicle of business, particularly for service industry or for activities involving professionals. LLP is a separate legal entity; means LLP and Partners are distinct from each other. Minimum two partners are required for starting LLP but there is no limit for maximum numbers of partners. Example: If a customer slipped on a pickle in your grocery store and is suing for their injuries, they cannot receive more than the total value of your grocery store. This partnership is a popular choice for law firms and medical practices to ensure that customers cannot sue for assets such as the practitioner’s home. Advantages of Limited Liability Partnership: i. Low cost of Formation and Easy to establish. ii. Easy to manage and run. iii. No restrictions as to maximum number of partners. iv. LLP and its partners are distinct from each other. v. Partners are not liable for Act of partners. vi. Less Government Intervention and Easy to dissolve or wind-up. vii. Audit requirement only in case of contributions exceeding Rs 25 lakh or turnover exceeding Rs 40 lakh. Disadvantages of Limited Liability Partnership: i. Any act of the partner without the other partner, may bind the LLP. ii. Under some cases, liability may extend to personal assets of partners. iii. Cannot raise money from Public. 4. Public Private Partnership: Public Private Partnership means an arrangement between a government/statutory entity/government owned entity on one side and a private sector entity on the other, for the provision of public assets and/or public services, through investments being made and/or management being undertaken by the private sector entity, for a specified period of time, where there is well defined allocation of risk between the private sector and the public entity and the private entity receives performance linked payments that conform (or are benchmarked) to specified and pre-determined performance standards, measurable by the public entity or its representative. These schemes are sometimes referred to as PPP, P3 or P3. “Public Private Partnership (PPP) is a partnership between the public and private sector for the purpose of delivering a project or service traditionally provided by the public sector. Through this agreement, the skills and assets of each sector (public and private) are shared in delivering a service or facility for the use of the general public. In addition to the sharing of resources, each party shares in the risks and rewards potential in the delivery of the service and/or facility”. “Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) are arrangements between government and private sector entities for the purpose of providing public infrastructure, community facilities and related services. Such partnerships are characterized by the sharing of investment, risk, responsibility and reward between the partners. The reasons for establishing such partnerships vary but generally involve the financing, design, construction, operation and maintenance of public infrastructure and services.” Example: Gurgaon is a good example of large scale public-private participation in urban development in India, The Uttaranchal Mobile Hospital and Research Center (UMHRC) (Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC), the Government of Uttaranchal and the Birla Institute of Scientific Research (BISR)) and HPCL-Mittal Energy partnership. (C) Joint Stock Companies Features of a Joint Stock Company 1) Artificial Legal Person A company is a legal entity that has been created by the statues of law. Like a natural person, it can do certain things, like own property in its name, enter into a contract, borrow and lend money, sue or be sued, etc. It has also been granted certain rights by the law which it enjoys through its board of directors. However, not all laws/rights/duties apply to a company. It exists only in the law and not in any physical form. So we call it an artificial legal person. 2) Separate Legal Entity Unlike a proprietorship or partnership, the legal identity of a company and its members are separate. As soon as the joint stock company is incorporated it has its own distinct legal identity. So a member of the company is not liable for the company. And similarly, the company will not depend on any of its members for any business activities. 3) Incorporation For a company to be recognized as a separate legal entity and for it to come into existence, it has to be incorporated. Not registering a joint stock company is not an option. Without incorporation, a company simply does not exist. 4) Perpetual Succession The joint stock company is born out of the law, so the only way for the company to end is by the functioning of law. So the life of a company is in no way related to the life of its members. Members or shareholders of a company keep changing, but this does not affect the company’s life. 5) Limited Liability This is one of the major points of difference between a company and a sole proprietorship and partnership. The liability of the shareholders of a company is limited. The personal assets of a member cannot be liquidated to repay the debts of a company.  A shareholders liability is limited to the amount of unpaid share capital. If his shares are fully paid then he has no liability. The amount of debt has no bearing on this. Only the companies assets can be sold off to repay its own debt. The members cannot be made to pay up. 6) Common Seal A company is an artificial person. So its day-to-day functions are conducted by the board of directors. So when a company enters any contract or signs an agreement, the approval is indicated via a common seal. A common seal is engraved seal with the company’s name on it. So no document is legally binding on the company until and unless it has a common seal along with the signatures of the directors. 7) Transferability of Shares In a joint stock company, the ownership is divided into transferable units known as shares. In case of a public company the shares can be transferred freely, there are almost no restrictions. And in a public company, there are some restrictions, but the transfer cannot be prohibited. Advantages  One of the biggest drawing factors of a joint stock company is the limited liability of its members. Their liability is only limited up to the unpaid amount on their shares. Since their personal wealth is safe, they are encouraged to invest in joint stock companies  The shares of a company are transferable. Also, in the case of a listed public company they can also be sold in the market and be converted to cash. This ease of ownership is an added benefit.  Perpetual succession is another advantage of a joint stock company. The death/retirement/insanity/etc does affect the life of a company. The only liquidation under the Companies Act will shut down a company.  A company hires a board of directors to run all the activities. Very proficient, talented people are elected to the board and this results in effective and efficient management. Also, a company usually has large resources and this allows them to hire the best talent and professionals. Disadvantages  One disadvantage of a joint stock company is the complex and lengthy procedure for its formation. This can take up to several weeks and is a costly affair as well.  According to the Companies Act, 2013 all public companies have to provide their financial records and other related documents to the registrar. These documents are then public documents, which any member of the public can access. This leads to a complete lack of secrecy for the company.  And even during its day to day functioning a company has to follow a numerous number of laws, regulations, notifications, etc. It not only takes up time but also reduces the freedom of a company  A company has many stakeholders like the shareholders, the promoters, the board of directors, the employees. the debenture holders etc. All these stakeholders look out for their benefit and it often leads to a conflict of interest. Types of Companies A) On the basis of incorporation: On the basis of incorporation, companies can be classified as: (i) Chartered companies (ii) Statutory companies (iii) Registered companies (i) Chartered companies: The crown in exercise of the royal prerogative has power to create a corporation by the grant of a charter to persons assenting to be incorporated. Such companies or corporations are known as chartered companies. Examples of this type of companies are Bank of England (1694), East India Company (1600). The powers and the nature of business of a chartered company are defined by the charter which incorporates it. After the country attained independence, these types of companies do not exist in India. (ii) Statutory companies: A company may be incorporated by means of a special Act of the Parliament or any state legislature. Such companies are called statutory companies, Instances of statutory companies in India are Reserve Bank of India, the Life Insurance Corporation of India, the Food Corporation of India etc. The provisions of the Companies Act 1956 apply to statutory companies except where the said provisions are inconsistent with the provisions of the Act creating them. Statutory companies are mostly invested with compulsory powers. (iii) Registered companies: Companies registered under the Companies Act 1956, or earlier Companies Acts are called registered companies. Such companies come into existence when they are registered under the Companies Act and a certificate of incorporation is granted to them by the Registrar. (B) On the basis of liability: On the basis of liability the company can be classified into: i) Companies limited by shares (ii) Companies limited by guarantee (iii) Unlimited companies. (i) Companies limited by shares: When the liability of the members of a company is limited to the amount if any unpaid on the shares, such a company is known as a company limited by shares. In a company limited by shares the liability of the members is limited to the amount if any unpaid on the shares respectively held by them. The liability can be enforced during existence of the company as well as during the winding up. Where the shares are fully paid up, no further liability rests on them. (ii) Companies limited by guarantee: It is a registered company in which the liability of members is limited to such amounts as they may respectively undertake by the memorandum to contribute to the assets of the company in the event of its being wound up. In the case of such companies the liability of its members is limited to the amount of guarantee undertaken by them. Clubs, trade associations, research associations and societies for promoting various objects are various examples of guarantee companies. (iii) Unlimited companies: A company not having a limit on the liability of its members is termed as unlimited company. In case of such a company every member is liable for the debts of the company as in an ordinary partnership in proportion to his interest in the company. Such companies are not popular in India. (C) On the basis of number of members: (i) Private company: A private company means a company which by its articles of association: (i) Restricts the right to transfer its shares (ii) Limits the number of its members to fifty (excluding members who are or were in the employment of the company) and (iii) Prohibits any invitation to the public to subscribe for any shares or debentures of the company. (iv) Where two or more persons hold one or more shares in a company jointly, they are treated as a single member. There should be at least two persons to form a private company and the maximum number of members in a private company cannot exceed 50. A private limited company is required to add the words “Private Ltd” at the end of its name. Ex: ABC Private Limited/ABC PVT. Limited/ABC (P) Limited (ii) Public company: public company means a company which is not a private company. There must be at least seven persons to form a public company. It is of the essence of a public company that its articles do not contain provisions restricting the number of its members or excluding generally the transfer of its shares to the public or prohibiting any invitation to the public to subscribe for its shares or debentures. Only the shares of a public company are capable of being dealt in on a stock exchange. Ex: Reliance Industries Limited/Tata Consultancy Services Limited (D) According to Domicile: (i) Foreign company: It means a company incorporated outside India and having a place of business in India. According to Section 591 a foreign company is one incorporated outside India: (a) Which established a place of business within India after the commencement of this Act or (b) Which had a place of business within India before the commencement of this Act and continues to have the same at the commencement of this Act. (ii) Indian Companies: A company formed and registered in India is known as an Indian Company. (E) Miscellaneous Category: (i) Government Company: It means any company in which not less than 51 percent of the paid up share capital is held by the Central Govt, and/or by any State Government or Governments or partly by the Central Government and partly by one or more State Governments. The subsidiary of a Government company is also a Government company. Ex: NLC India Limited/BSNL/ONGC/BEML/BHEL (ii) Holding and subsidiary companies: A company is known as the holding company of another company if it has control over another company. A company is known as subsidiary of another company when control is exercised by the latter over the former called a subsidiary company. A company is to be deemed to be subsidiary company of another. (a) If the other: (a) Controls the composition of its Board of directors or (b) Exercises or controls more than half of its total voting power where it is an existing company in respect where of the holders of preference shares issued before the commencement of the Act have the same voting rights as the holders of equity shares or (c) In the case of any other company holds more than half in nominal value of its equity share capital or (b) If it is a subsidiary of a third company which is subsidiary of the controlling company. (iii) One man Company: This is a company in which one man holds practically the whole of the share capital of the company and in order to meet the statutory requirement of minimum number of members, some dummy members hold one or two shares each. The dummy members are usually nominees of principal shareholder. The principal shareholder is in a position to enjoy the profits of the business with limited liability. Such type of companies are perfectly valid and not illegal. Co-operatives A cooperative society is not a new concept. It prevails in all the countries, this is almost a universal concept. The cooperative society is active in all countries worldwide and is represented in all the sectors including agriculture, food, finance, healthcare, etc. To protect the interest of weaker sections, the co-operative society is formed. It is a voluntary association of persons, whose motive is the welfare of the members. Types of Cooperative Society 1) Producer Cooperative To protect the interest of small producers, these societies are set up. The co-operative society members may be farmers, landowners, owners of the fishing operations. To increase the marketing possibilities and production efficiency, producers decide to work together or as separate entities. They perform several activities like processing, marketing & distributing their own products. This helps in lower costs and strains in each area with a mutual benefit to each producer. 2) Consumer Cooperative These businesses are owned and governed by consumers of a particular area for their mutual benefit. Their view is to provide daily necessary commodities at an optimum price. Rather than earning a pecuniary profit, their aim is towards providing service to the consumers. 3) Credit Unions Credit unions are generally member-owned financial cooperatives. Their principle is of people helping people. They provide credit and financial services to the members at competitive prices. Each and every depositor has the right to become a member. Members attend the annual meeting and are given rights to elect a board of directors. 4) Marketing Cooperative Society  With an aim of helping small producers in selling their products, these societies are established. The producers who wish to obtain reasonable prices for their output are the members of this society. For securing a favourable market for the products they eliminate the middlemen and improve the competitive position of its members. It collects the output of individual members. Various marketing functions like transportation, packaging, warehousing, etc are performed by the cooperative societies to sell the product at the best possible price. 5) Housing Cooperative Society To help people with limited income to construct houses at reasonable costs, these societies are established. Their aim is to solve the housing problems of the members. A member of this s