BASIC CONCEPTS OF HAZARD, EXPOSURE AND VULNERABILITY.pdf

Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND 44...

Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph MATHEMATICS Basic Concepts of Hazard, Exposure and LESSON TWO Vulnerability BASIC CONCEPTS OF HAZARD, EXPOSURE AND VULNERABILITY Outline: Types of Hazards Classification of Hazards Effects of Hazards Exposure and Vulnerability Dimensions of Exposure Vulnerability of each exposure element Learning Objectives: The students should be able to: ✓ define hazard; ✓ give examples of the types of hazards; ✓ explain the impact of hazards on different exposed elements; ✓ enumerate elements exposed to hazards; ✓ explain the meaning of vulnerability; ✓ analyze why certain structures are more vulnerable to specific hazards than others; and ✓ recognize vulnerabilities of different elements exposed to specific hazards. BASIC CONCEPTS OF HAZARDS A hazard is a natural or human-made event that has the potential to cause harm or adverse effects to people, property, infrastructure, the environment, and socio-economic activities. Hazards can vary widely in their nature, frequency, and intensity, and they are typically classified into different categories based on their origin and characteristics. TYPES OF HAZARDS A. NATURAL HAZARDS A natural hazard is a naturally occurring event or phenomenon that has the potential to cause harm to people, property, and the environment. These events include geological, hydrological, meteorological, meteorological, biological, and space hazards. A natural hazard is a threat of a naturally occurring event that will have a negative effect on humans. Natural hazards are distinguished from natural disasters in that a hazard becomes a disaster when it leads to significant damage, loss of life, or widespread disruption. The severity of the impact often depends on the vulnerability of the affected population and the capacity of society to cope with the hazard. Natural hazards are those resulting from an adverse interaction between a natural process and human society or its man-made environment. For most communities, natural hazards are the primary concern of disaster managers. Natural hazards that may be faced by a community are dictated largely by the climate, geography, geology, and land use practices of that community. Natural Hazards (and the resulting disasters) are the result of naturally occurring processes that have operated throughout Earth's history. If the process that poses the hazard occurs and destroys human life or property, then a natural disaster has occurred. Among the natural hazards and possible disasters to be considered are: 1. Cyclone - an intense low-pressure system which is characterized by strong spiral winds towards the center, called the “Eye” in a counter-clockwise flow in the northern hemisphere. Classifications Lesson 2: Basic Concepts of Hazards, Exposure and Vulnerability Compiled and edited by: Lamsis, JJJ. & Quezada, TM Updated: August 2024 Page 1 of 10  Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph MATHEMATICS Basic Concepts of Hazard, Exposure and LESSON TWO Vulnerability Tropical Depression – forms when a low-pressure area is accompanied by thunderstorms that produce a circular wind flow with maximum winds from 35 kph to 63 kph Tropical Storm – occurs when cyclonic circulation becomes more organized with maximum winds from 64 kph to 118 kph Typhoons – maximum winds exceeding 118 kph - North West Pacific / Atlantic, Central North Pacific, and Eastern North Pacific *Hurricane / Tropical Cyclones - S. Pacific and Indian Ocean, regardless of strength *Wily-wily in Australia Classification as adopted by PAGASA (as of 23 March 2022) Tropical Depression (TD) – tropical cyclone with maximum sustained winds of up to 62 kilometers Tropical Storm (TS) – with a maximum wind speed of 62 to 88 kph Severe Tropical Storm (STS) – with a maximum wind speed of 87 to 117 kph Typhoon (TY) – with a maximum wind speed of 118 to 184 kph or 64 - 99 knots SUPER TYPHOON (STY) – with maximum wind speed exceeding 185 kph or more than 100 knots. 2. Tornado - described as a violently rotating column of air extending from a thunderstorm to the ground. The four key conditions that enable a Tornado are: o Moisture in the lower to mid-levels of the atmosphere. o Unstable air. That is air that will continue rising once it begins rising from near the ground. o A lifting force. Something is needed to cause the air to begin rising. The most common lifting force is the heating of air near the ground. As the air warms it becomes lighter and begins rising. Advancing masses of cool air, which force warm air upward, also trigger thunderstorms. o Large, flat Plains. 3. Thunderstorms – a violent local atmospheric disturbance accompanied by lightning, thunder, and heavy rain, often by strong gusts of wind, and sometimes by hail. 4. Flood - inundation of land areas which are not normally covered by water. A flood is usually caused by a temporary rise or the overflowing of a river, stream, or other water course, inundating adjacent lands or floodplains. 5. Storm surge - is a rise of seawater above normal sea level on the coast, generated by the action of weather elements such as cyclonic wind and atmospheric pressure. As more water moves from the sea to the coast excess water piles up on the shoreline. CLASSIFICATION OF THE NATURAL HAZARDS Natural hazards can be classified based on their characteristics and the speed at which they manifest. Here are three common classifications: i. Catastrophic Hazards These are large-scale hazards that have the potential to cause widespread destruction and loss of life, often affecting entire regions or countries. They can overwhelm local response capabilities and require significant national or international aid(UNDRR,2015). ii. Rapid Onset Hazards These hazards occur suddenly and with little or no warning, causing immediate and often severe impacts. The response time for these hazards is usually very short, making preparedness and early warning systems critical (Wisner, B., Blaikie, P., Cannon, T., & Davis, I. (2004). Lesson 2: Basic Concepts of Hazards, Exposure and Vulnerability Compiled and edited by: Lamsis, JJJ. & Quezada, TM Updated: August 2024 Page 2 of 10  Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph MATHEMATICS Basic Concepts of Hazard, Exposure and LESSON TWO Vulnerability iii. Slow Onset Hazards These hazards develop gradually over time, often as a result of prolonged environmental or climatic changes. They may initially appear less threatening, but their impacts can accumulate and cause significant long-term damage. (IPCC,2014) B. MAN-MADE HAZARDS Technological Hazards Technological or 'man-made' hazards are an inevitable potentiality of technological innovation, and can occur after the failure of an existing technology. These tend to be less understood than natural hazards due to the scope of technological expansion. The most common technological hazards result from various components of transportation, infrastructure, and industry. 1. Transportation Hazards – These involve land, sea, and air transportation systems and include the infrastructure that supports such systems. Examples of transportation hazards include: roadway aviation nautical accidents railway accidents transportation systems failures or shutdowns any impediment to travel. 2. Infrastructure Hazards – These are hazards related to government-critical utilities and other public service systems. Hazards of infrastructure include: failures of power, telecommunications, computer network, water, sewer, and gas distribution systems dam failure, food shortage, overburdened public health resources, and economic failure 3. Industrial Hazards – These hazards result from industrial processes such as: hazardous materials (HazMat) accidents raw material extraction (mining) accidents structural (building) fires and failures C. ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION Environmental degradation refers to the deterioration of the natural environment through the depletion of resources, the destruction of ecosystems, and the extinction of wildlife. This process can contribute to or exacerbate natural hazards, making it an indirect yet significant type of natural hazard. The key aspects of environmental degradation as a hazard are deforestation and soil erosion, wetland depletion, desertification, and climate change. EFFECTS OF HAZARDS Hazardous processes of all types can have primary, secondary, and tertiary effects. Primary Effects occur as a result of the process itself. For example, water damage during a flood or collapse of buildings during an earthquake, landslide, or hurricane. Lesson 2: Basic Concepts of Hazards, Exposure and Vulnerability Compiled and edited by: Lamsis, JJJ. & Quezada, TM Updated: August 2024 Page 3 of 10  Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph MATHEMATICS Basic Concepts of Hazard, Exposure and LESSON TWO Vulnerability Secondary Effects occur only because a primary effect has caused them. For example, fires ignited as a result of earthquakes, disruption of electrical power and water service as a result of an earthquake, flood, or hurricane, or flooding caused by a landslide into a lake or river. Tertiary Effects are long-term effects that are set off as a result of a primary event. These include things like loss of habitat caused by a flood, permanent changes in the position of river channels caused by a flood, crop failure caused by a volcanic eruption, etc. COMMON LONG-TERM IMPACTS OF NATURAL AND MAN-MADE HAZARD TO HUMANS The effects of natural hazards can be wide-ranging and severe, impacting various aspects of society, the economy, and the environment. These effects can be categorized into immediate and long-term impacts, with consequences that may persist for years or even decades. 1. Human and Social Impact – e.g. loss of life and injury, displacement and migration, psychological trauma, and disruption of social services. 2. Economic Impact – e.g. direct economic losses, disruption of economic activities, long-term and economic consequences. 3. Environmental Impact – e.g. economic destruction, biodiversity loss, and pollution and contamination. 4. Infrastructure Damage – e.g. destruction of physical infrastructure and loss of utilities. 5. Cultural and Heritage Loss – e.g. damage to cultural sites and disruption of cultural practices. EXPOSURE AND VULNERABILITY Exposure and vulnerability are two critical concepts in understanding the impact of natural hazards on communities and societies. Both play a significant role in determining the risk level and potential damage that a hazard can inflict. VULNERABILITY Vulnerability refers to the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system, or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard. This includes physical, social, economic, and environmental factors that increase the susceptibility of people or assets to harm. People differ in their exposure to risk as a result of their social group, gender, ethnic or other identities, age, and other factors. Vulnerability may also vary in its forms: poverty, for example, may mean that houses are unable to withstand an earthquake or a hurricane, or lack of preparedness may result in a slower response to a disaster, leading to greater loss of life or prolonged suffering. To determine people’s vulnerability, two questions need to be asked: 1. To what threat or hazard are they vulnerable? 2. What makes them vulnerable to that threat or hazard? Examples of potentially vulnerable groups include: 1. Displaced populations who leave their residences collectively, usually due to sudden impact disaster, such as an earthquake or a flood, threat or conflict, as a coping mechanism and with the intent to return; 2. Migrants who leave or flee their residences go to new places, usually abroad to seek better and safer perspectives; 3. Returnees – former migrants or displaced people returning to their homes; Lesson 2: Basic Concepts of Hazards, Exposure and Vulnerability Compiled and edited by: Lamsis, JJJ. & Quezada, TM Updated: August 2024 Page 4 of 10  Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph MATHEMATICS Basic Concepts of Hazard, Exposure and LESSON TWO Vulnerability 4. Specific groups within the local population, such as marginalized, excluded or destitute people; Young children, pregnant and nursing women, unaccompanied children, widows, elderly people without family support, disabled persons. Counteracting vulnerability requires: 1. Reducing the impact of the hazard itself where (through mitigation, prediction and warning, preparedness); 2. Building capacities to withstand and cope with hazards; 3. Tackling the root causes of vulnerability, such as poverty, poor governance, discrimination, inequality, and inadequate access to resources and livelihoods. EXPOSURE Exposure refers to the presence of people, property, systems, or other elements in hazard-prone areas that are thereby subject to potential losses. This includes both the physical location of populations and assets as well as the socio-economic activities carried out in these areas. The level of exposure increases with the concentration of people and assets in high-risk areas. For example, a city built on a floodplain or a coastal area prone to hurricanes has high exposure. Similarly, critical infrastructure such as power plants, hospitals, and schools located in hazard-prone areas are highly exposed. Elements at Risk and Exposure Elements at risk are the people, properties, economic activities, and private and public services potentially threatened by a harmful event. Risk assessment involves the identification and mapping of elements at risk and the assessment of vulnerability. To reduce risk, most of the focus is on reducing vulnerability. Understanding the elements at risk exposed to each type of hazard is the first step in reducing vulnerability. As the risk model (Risk = Hazard x Exposure x Vulnerability) shows, risk is also a function of hazard. Exposed elements can refer to the number of people or structures within the exposed area. The combination of both hazard and exposed population provides the physical exposure: PhExp = Hazard x Exposure Where: PhExp = physical exposure for the affected area Hazard = probability of occurrence of an event at a given magnitude Exposure = total population living in the affected area for each event An example of a physical exposure map is shown in the figure below. Although estimates of risk are not shown, such maps are useful indicators of possible impacts of the occurrence of hazard events to people and residential structures. Lesson 2: Basic Concepts of Hazards, Exposure and Vulnerability Compiled and edited by: Lamsis, JJJ. & Quezada, TM Updated: August 2024 Page 5 of 10  Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph MATHEMATICS Basic Concepts of Hazard, Exposure and LESSON TWO Vulnerability DIMENSIONS OF EXPOSURE When disaster strikes, casualties and property losses and damages are the first to be reported in tri-media. Long after a disaster, the effects of the other elements assume greater attention. These are long consequences that cannot be measured or quantified as easily as property losses or damages. Tangible or intangible losses fall under social, environmental, and economic categories. Dimensions of exposure refer to the extent to which people, property, systems, or other elements are present in hazard-prone areas. Understanding the dimensions of exposure is critical for assessing risk and planning effective disaster mitigation strategies. The dimensions of exposure typically include the following: Physical Exposure This dimension relates to the geographical location and the physical presence of people, buildings, infrastructure, and other assets in areas where they could be affected by hazards. Social Exposure Social exposure involves the demographic characteristics of the population that influence the level of risk, such as age, health status, income, education, and social networks. Economic Exposure This dimension refers to the economic value of the assets that are at risk of being affected by a hazard. It includes the financial losses that could occur due to damage to property, infrastructure, and economic activities. Environmental Exposure This involves the exposure of natural ecosystems and biodiversity to hazards. It also considers the capacity of the environment to buffer or amplify hazard impacts. The physical aspects of exposure and vulnerability refer to location and built structures. The images on the next page are satellite images of an area in Tacloban City (Leyte) taken before and after Yolanda Typhoon. The hazard events, which destroyed a wide range of structures, showed Lesson 2: Basic Concepts of Hazards, Exposure and Vulnerability Compiled and edited by: Lamsis, JJJ. & Quezada, TM Updated: August 2024 Page 6 of 10  Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph MATHEMATICS Basic Concepts of Hazard, Exposure and LESSON TWO Vulnerability how vulnerable a city’s exposed elements can be to typhoons and storm surges partly because of location. Cultural Exposure Cultural exposure relates to the risk posed to cultural heritage, including historic buildings, monuments, and sites of cultural significance, which may be irreplaceable if damaged by hazards. Detailed List of Physical Elements Exposed to Various Hazards 1. Essential Facilities a. Educational Facilities b. Medical and Healthcare Facilities c. Emergency Response Facilities d. Government Offices e. Recreational or Tourist Facilities f. Places of Worship g. Banks and Financial Centers h. Markets and Shopping Centers i. Cemeteries 2. Industrial and High Potential Loss Facilities and Facilities Containing Hazardous Materials a. Dams and Ponds b. Fuel reservoirs, pipelines, and pumps c. Power generating plants and lines d. Multi-purpose hydropower plants, water tanks, and lines e. Food processing facilities 3. Transportation Lifelines a. Highways, bridges, railway tracks, and tunnels b. Bus facilities c. Port and harbor facilities d. Airport facilities and runways 4. Utility Lifelines a. Potable water facilities, waste water facilities, pipelines, and distribution lines b. Oil and natural gas systems, facilities, pipelines, and distribution lines c. Electric power facilities and distribution lines d. Communication facilities and distribution lines Economic Lesson 2: Basic Concepts of Hazards, Exposure and Vulnerability Compiled and edited by: Lamsis, JJJ. & Quezada, TM Updated: August 2024 Page 7 of 10  Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph MATHEMATICS Basic Concepts of Hazard, Exposure and LESSON TWO Vulnerability The economic effects of a hazardous event include: a. business interruptions due to accessibility problems b. loss of jobs and access to work c. loss of government income due to the inability of businesses and people to pay taxes at a time when more funds are needed for relief and rehabilitation. d. disasters may also significantly affect the gross domestic product (GDP) VULNERABILITY OF EACH EXPOSED ELEMENT Vulnerability is “the degree of loss to each element should a hazard of a given severity occur” (UNDP). Physical, social, economic, and environmental factors determine the likelihood and severity of damage due to a given hazard. Recent earthquake, volcanic, and hydrometeorological hazard events highlight the need to assess the vulnerability level of areas of the Philippines that are exposed to these hazards. With this, resources available can be made to work more efficiently to reduce vulnerabilities. Such measures include mitigation, prediction and warning, preparedness, and building capacities to withstand and cope with hazards. The root causes of vulnerability, such as poverty and poor governance, must also be addressed to sustain efforts to reduce vulnerability. Social Certain population groups may be more vulnerable than others. For example, the very young and the old are more exposed to most hazards than any other age group. A rapidly aging population is more vulnerable as health, economic growth and mobility issues are more pronounced. List of the most vulnerable populations a. People with disabilities b. Children c. Seniors d. Medication-dependent individuals e. Women, especially those who are single, single parents, or the unemployed f. Ethnic minorities, aboriginal or indigenous people g. Homeless or “street people” h. Incarcerated individuals i. Marginalized groups Environmental Compared with developed countries, developing nations face more exposure and vulnerability because of their rapid inability to adapt to changes and to create wealth that may enhance resilience. Rapid urbanization in hazardous areas heightens vulnerability to disaster risk. The quintupling of the world’s urban population, mostly in less-developed countries, in the last 60 years and the rapid development of megacities means greater exposure and vulnerability. More than half of the world’s people currently lives in cities and with the rate of migration from rural areas, two-thirds will be urban-dwellers by the year 2025. The increase in population will make it more difficult for governments and citizens hard up for funds to cope with the effects of hazardous events. The increasing number of informal settlers forced by circumstances to occupy areas at or close to river systems, coastal areas, and steep hillsides exposes more people to inundation and landslides. Lesson 2: Basic Concepts of Hazards, Exposure and Vulnerability Compiled and edited by: Lamsis, JJJ. & Quezada, TM Updated: August 2024 Page 8 of 10  Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph MATHEMATICS Basic Concepts of Hazard, Exposure and LESSON TWO Vulnerability Economic Economic vulnerability is the susceptibility of individuals, communities, businesses, and governments to absorb the cushion effects of a hazard event. Rural households are found to be more vulnerable than those in urban environments because of the greater number of people living in poverty. This is tied to more limited access to markets and other services. In the more traditional communities where gender inequalities are more pronounced, women are more vulnerable than men partly because they lack access to livelihoods. Family responsibilities and reproductive roles also contribute to their vulnerability. The resourcefulness and resilience of women should be recognized so they can be tapped to play critical roles in times of crisis. QUANTIFYING VULNERABILITY Quantifying the tangible aspects of vulnerability and loss is useful in estimating more precisely how much mitigation and preparedness measures shall be applied. There are many methods of expressing vulnerability. Some of these, especially those about future effects of hazards, are based on data about the intensity of previous hazard events and the severity of their effects. Vulnerability can be expressed simply as a quantity between 0 and 1. For people, vulnerability can be measured as a ratio of casualties or injuries to the total population. For buildings, it can also be expressed as a repair cost or as the degree of physical damage. When dealing with a larger area, it may be measured in terms of the proportion of damaged buildings. For example, a typhoon with a wind speed of 130 km/hr may render 20% of buildings heavily damaged. The same typhoon may result in an average repair cost of 10%. Vulnerability of a human population area can be expressed, for instance, as 5% killed and 30% injured in an intensity IX earthquake. The damage that might be incurred should increase with rising hazard intensity. The 20% of buildings suffering heavy damage in a 130km/hr wind is likely to increase to 50% in a 160km/hr wind. REFERENCES: Birkmann, J. (Ed.). (2013). Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: Towards Disaster Resilient Societies (2nd ed.). United Nations University Press. Cutter, S. L., Boruff, B. J., & Shirley, W. L. (2003). Social Vulnerability to Environmental Hazards. Social Science Quarterly, 84(2), 242-261. De Guzman, F. and Suarez, D. R. (2016), Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction (First Edition). Rex Book Store, Inc. Manila, Ph Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2014). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Cambridge University Press. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2014). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from IPCC International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS). (2019). Cultural heritage and natural disasters: Risk preparedness and the limits of prevention. Retrieved from ICOMOS National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (2021). Billion-dollar weather and climate disasters. Retrieved from NOAA Nelson, S. A. (2018, January 10). Natural Disasters & Assessing Hazards and Risk. Retrieved April 6, 2020, from https://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/Natural_Disasters/introduction.html Lesson 2: Basic Concepts of Hazards, Exposure and Vulnerability Compiled and edited by: Lamsis, JJJ. & Quezada, TM Updated: August 2024 Page 9 of 10  Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction Governor Pack Road, Baguio City, Philippines 2600 Tel. Nos.: (+6374) 442-3316, 442-8220; 444-2786; SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND 442-2564; 442-8219; 442-8256; Fax No.: 442-6268 Email: [email protected]; Website: www.uc-bcf.edu.ph MATHEMATICS Basic Concepts of Hazard, Exposure and LESSON TWO Vulnerability Ramsar Convention Secretariat. (2013). The Ramsar Convention Manual: A Guide to the Convention on Wetlands (6th ed.). Ramsar Convention Secretariat. Smith, K. (2013). Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster (6th ed.). Routledge. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). (2017). Global Land Outlook. United Nations. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2016). Protecting Cultural Heritage in Times of Conflict. Retrieved from UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2016). Protecting cultural heritage in times of conflict. UNESCO. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (2013). The environmental impact of natural disasters. Retrieved from UNEP United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR). (2015). Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2015. Retrieved from UNDRR United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR). (2019). Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction 2019. Retrieved from UNDRR Wisner, B., Blaikie, P., Cannon, T., & Davis, I. (2004). At Risk: Natural Hazards, People’s Vulnerability and Disasters (2nd ed.). Routledge. World Bank. (2021). The economics of disaster risk, risk management, and resilience. Retrieved from World Bank Lesson 2: Basic Concepts of Hazards, Exposure and Vulnerability Compiled and edited by: Lamsis, JJJ. & Quezada, TM Updated: August 2024 Page 10 of 10