Conflict Resolution Course Outline PDF

Level: BS (Sociology) Code No. 9446 Unit 1-9 (All Rights are Reserved with the Publisher) Year of Printing.......................... 2017 Quantity...................................... Price............................................ Rs. Composed & Layout by............. Muhammad Javed Printer........................................ Printing Press Operations Committee Publisher..................................... Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad 2 COURSE TEAM Chairperson Course Team: Farhana Khattak Course Development Coordinator: Syed Imran Haider Unit Writers: 1. Syed Imran Haider 2. Farhana Khattak Reviewers: 1. Syed Imran Haider 2. Farhana Khattak 3. Dr. M. Iqbal Saif Editor: Fazal Karim 3 COURSE INTRODUCTION The course is an effort to define and discuss the issue of conflict and different strategies involved in the process conflict resolution. In the first unit, it is tried to explain the concept of conflict, its origin an nature. Further to this the functions of conflict are included to present different roles of conflict in our day to day lives. The unit 2 is further extension to different explorative about courses of conflict and its sources. The Units 3 & 4 of the course explain different types and levels of conflict. It is tried to briefly discuss disputes, inter perusal and inter personal conflicts. In addition, source elaborations are made on inter and intra group conflicts as well as international conflicts. The conflict process model is presented at the end for having an in depth understanding. Units No. 5 & 6 are written to present and explain the techniques of conflict prevention and management. Under this umbrella, a discussion is made on developing an understanding of negotiation, mediation arbitration and influence of cultural aspects on their processes. The units no 7 & 8 of this course are included to develop as understanding on care studies of different international conflicts and the most prevailing conflicts with in Pakistan. After discussion on the conflicts of Palestine, Kashmir, Iraq etc. Some issues of Pakistan i.e. regional ethnic and sectarian conflicts are also highlighted. The issue of terrorism has emerged as a very important phenomenon both at national and international levels. So the last unit is a discussion on this. Syed Imran Haider Course Develop Coordinator 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Unit 1 Conflict......................................................................................................... 07 1.1 What is Conflict?.......................................................................................... 09 1.2 Origin of Conflict......................................................................................... 11 1.3 Nature of Conflict......................................................................................... 16 1.4 Functions of Conflict.................................................................................... 17 1.5 Self-assessment Questions........................................................................... 19 Unit 2 Conflict Management and Conflict Resolution:..................................... 21 2.1 Terms and Definitions.................................................................................. 23 2.2 What Causes Disputes and Conflict?.......................................................... 23 2.3 The Circle of Conflict................................................................................... 25 2.4 Sources and Causes of Conflict................................................................... 28 2.5 Self-assessment Questions........................................................................... 29 Unit 3 & 4 Types and Levels of Conflict............................................................. 31 3.1 Types of Conflict.......................................................................................... 33 3.1.1 Disputes................................................................................................ 33 3.1.2 Deep-rooted Conflict........................................................................... 33 3.1.3 Intrapersonal Conflict......................................................................... 33 3.1.4 Interpersonal Conflict.......................................................................... 34 3.1.5 Intragroup Conflict.............................................................................. 34 3.1.6 Intergroup Conflict.............................................................................. 35 3.1.7 Intra-national Conflict......................................................................... 36 3.1.8 International Conflict.......................................................................... 36 4. The Conflict Process Model...................................................................... 37 The five stages.............................................................................................. 38 Stage 1: Potential for Conflict...................................................................... 38 Stage 2: Recognition of conflict.................................................................. 41 Stage 3: Conflict Handling Techniques....................................................... 42 Stage 4: Conflict Behavior........................................................................... 45 Stage 5: Conflict Outcomes......................................................................... 46 Self-assessment Questions........................................................................... 47 Unit 5 & 6 Techniques of Conflict Prevention and Management................ 49 5.1 Conflict Prevention....................................................................................... 51 5.2 Conflict Resolution....................................................................................... 53 5.3 Distributive Bargaining................................................................................ 53 5.4 Use of Force.................................................................................................. 54 5.6 Negotiation.................................................................................................... 54 5 6.1 Communication........................................................................................... 55 6.2 Mediation...................................................................................................... 56 6.2.1 Fundamental Elements of Mediation................................................. 56 6.2.2 Stages of the Mediation Process......................................................... 57 6.3 Cultural Aspects Influencing Conflict Resolution...................................... 58 6.4 Convening Multi-party Stakeholder Negotiations...................................... 59 6.5 Arbitration..................................................................................................... 59 6.6 Reconciliation............................................................................................... 60 Unit 7 Major Conflicts in the World (Case Studies in Conflict).................... 63 7.1 Palestine Conflict.......................................................................................... 65 7.2 Kashmir Conflict........................................................................................... 67 7.3 Iraq Conflict.................................................................................................. 69 7.4 Afghan Conflict............................................................................................ 71 7.5 United Nations and International Conflict Resolution............................... 74 7.6 Self-assessment Questions........................................................................... 76 Unit 8 Situation of Conflict in Pakistan............................................................. 77 8.1 Background................................................................................................... 79 8.2 Ethnic Conflicts............................................................................................ 79 8.3 Regional Conflicts........................................................................................ 81 8.4 Religious Conflicts....................................................................................... 82 8.5 Sectarian Conflicts........................................................................................ 82 Self-assessment Questions........................................................................... 84 Unit 9 Terrorism..................................................................................................... 85 9.1 Terrorism – What is it?................................................................................. 87 9.2 Terrorism Networks...................................................................................... 90 9.3 History of Terrorism..................................................................................... 91 9.4 Sociology of Terrorism................................................................................ 94 9.5 Sociological Theories................................................................................... 98 9.6 Types of Terrorism..................................................................................... 102 9.7 Causes of Terrorism.................................................................................... 103 9.8 Terrorism in Pakistan................................................................................. 105 9.9 Self-assessment Questions......................................................................... 112 6 Unit 1 THE CONFLICT Written By: Farhana Khattak Reviewed By: Syed Imran Haider 7 OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, student will be able to: 1. define that what is conflict. 2. know and study the origin of conflict 3. Define the nature of conflict 4. discuss the function of conflict MAJOR TOPICS  What is conflict  Origin of Conflict  Nature of Conflict  Function of Conflict 8 1.1 What is Conflict? The word “conflict” comes from the Latin word conflictus, which means collision or clash. Nevertheless, considerable disagreement exists over how to define conflict. Many attempts to define conflict in a way that best sums up its major aspects have been made. People who work in the field continue to work on developing definitions of conflicts according to their various features. For example, definitions exist based on the major causes of conflict, such as material resources, power, values or feelings (these are sometimes called “causative agents”). There are also definitions based on the nature of the conflict parties, such as individuals, organizations or states. These definitions have developed along with what is today known as conflict theory, taking into account newly emerging practices of conflict analysis and intervention. 1 Conflict is defined as a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a threat to their needs, interests or concerns. Conflict refers to some form of friction, disagreement, or discord arising within a group when the beliefs or actions of one or more members of the group are either resisted by or unacceptable to one or more members of another group. It can be described as a disagreement among groups or individuals characterized by antagonism and hostility. This is usually fueled by the opposition of one party to another, in an attempt to reach an objective different from that of the other party. The elements involved in the conflict have varied sets of principles and values, thus allowing such a conflict to arise. Conflict is an inevitable social occurrence because human beings have widely varying needs, interests and viewpoints. One of the values of conflict is that it sharpens our awareness of whether or not we are committed to respect the opinions of others and whether or not we have the skills to work through and resolve our differences with others irritably. At times, there will inevitably be areas of conflict between you and the young people you work with. There may also be conflict between: you and your work colleagues youth development practitioners and the agencies they work for the prevailing laws and what the young people you are leading feel compelled to do. You may also face inner mental conflict that impacts on your work. Conflict between and among groups is also very natural, given that groups tend to be in positions of rivalry over relatively scarce resources: land, wealth, jobs, territory, reproductive resources, etc. 1 http://pjp-eu.coe.int/documents/1017981/7110680/3-Understandingconflict.pdf/0f63c846-6942-4e8f-83c0- 3626f2f73dfa 9 Defining a Group A group is a social unit that: (i) consists of a number of individuals who, at a given time, stand in definite interdependent status and role relationships with one another, and (ii) explicitly and implicitly possesses a set of values or norms regulating the behaviour of individual members, at least in matters of consequence to the group; thus shared attitudes, sentiments, aspirations and goals are related to, and implicit in, the common values or norms of the group (Hogg and Abrams, 2001). There are various sociological perspectives of group conflict. Some commentators will accept that there is a situation of conflict only when there is open struggle such as fighting. Others require there to be only the existence of competing claims to scarce resources. The following definition of conflict illustrates this latter perspective: “Conflict is...a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about.” Conflict thus represents a clash of ideas, interests, values, behaviours or the competing needs of two or more individuals or groups (who are the ‘parties’ to a dispute). It is not always a win–lose struggle since most instances of conflict occur when individuals share the same goals and simply disagree over the means by which these goals can be achieved. Regardless of the divergent perspectives of the concept of conflict, one of two common themes can be found in most situations: the conflict occurs around tasks the conflict occurs around relationships. These common themes will help you to understand and deal with conflict in a youth development context. Because you will be working in teams, it is important to recognise the two types of conflict that affect team performance, based on the themes identified above: 1. Task conflict: This type of conflict concerns disagreements over the content of the tasks being carried out – for example, differences of opinion among the young people involved in a project on how best to achieve the desired outcomes. 2. Relationship conflict: This type of conflict concerns interpersonal hostility and tensions between individuals, rather than conflict over the task being carried out. Perceiving Conflict Whether a conflict exists or not is normally an issue of whether or not it is perceived to exist. For a conflict to exist, the situation must be perceived as a conflict by the people or parties who are involved. If no one is aware of a conflict, it is generally assumed that no conflict exists, though a key tenet of Marxist analysis is that the working classes are in structural conflict with the ruling classes in capitalist society, whether they know it or not. 10 In your practice, you should be wary of entering into conflict situations until you have fully ascertained whether the conflict has a real basis. Perceived conflicts may not be real. For example, you may have found yourself arguing with a friend and realised at the end of the argument that you were both saying the same thing in different terms. The initial perception of conflict may have been caused by difficulty in communicating your ideas to each other. This would sometimes appear to be the case when sects of the same religion are in conflict over matters of small differences in the interpretation of scripture, though sometimes these are very real conflicts of principle. As Marxists have realised, many circumstances that could be described as situations of conflict do not become conflicts, because the parties involved do not perceive the conflict. For example, despite equal pay legislation and commitment to the International Labour Organization’s convention on equal pay, there are many examples of women in Commonwealth countries who receive significantly less pay than men for doing equal work. In some situations, women have perceived this as a conflict and converted it into a real conflict in order to address the inequity, especially when influenced by radical feminism (see below). In other situations and in some industries, it remains a potential conflict situation, but not one perceived by the parties; hence it has not yet become an overt conflict situation. In Pakistan there is no structural inequality in pay of women and men especially in public sector, but in case of private jobs especially as teacher in schools, the inequality exists. Conflict Behaviour Let’s consider the example of resources: all resources are limited and therefore relatively scarce. People’s needs (or wants) often exceed resource availability. This imbalance between the available resources and the needs (or wants) of the people often causes ‘blocking’ behaviour, with both parties trying to get more of the resources than the other side. The parties are likely then to be in opposition. When one party is perceived to block the access to the resources of another, a conflict will most probably result. To identify a conflict situation one should assess whether the conflict is caused by an intentional act – that is, somebody does something on purpose – or whether the conflict is caused by an unintentional act – that is, somebody does something accidentally. The question is then whether blocking behaviour is likely to be a conscious and intended action, or whether it might have occurred as a result of circumstances. For example, in many Commonwealth countries, the eldest son in a family traditionally inherits more resources from his parents than the other siblings. However, given the modern democratic context, does this suggest to the other siblings that the eldest son, in collusion with the parents, has deliberately blocked their access to family resources? Today that might well put the eldest son in a formal conflict situation with his siblings, one that could end in court. 1.2 Origin of Conflict Society’s view of conflict and conflict management has evolved substantially over the last century. These views can be summarized in three perspectives on managing conflict: 11 1. Traditional View—This view was predominant in the early 20th century, when it was believed that conflict was always bad and should be avoided at all costs. This perspective posited that conflict was a result of dysfunctional managerial behaviour and therefore should and could be stopped at the source. Presumably, if the dysfunctional behaviour was stopped (i.e., the manager is fired), the conflict would cease to exist. 2. Human Relations View—This was the over riding perspective for the three decades spanning 1940 through 1970. In this view, conflict was viewed as a natural and inevitable part of human existence and was accepted as a normal part of group interaction and relationships. Sometimes the conflict was functional, other times dysfunctional, but it was always present. 3. Interactionist View—The contemporary view holds that not only is conflict inevitable, but maintaining a degree of tension can actually be helpful in keeping a group energized and creative. In this view, conflict is seen as a positive force for change within organizations, groups, and relationships. The challenge is finding constructive means for man-aging conflict while still maintaining some differences that energize a group toward continued discussion and innovation. 1. Functionalist The functionalist view of conflict is determined by the functionalist view of society. Functionalist thinkers argue that the prevailing forms of social behaviour and social structures in a given society have developed as natural, manageable developments of the way that society has evolved. Therefore, many social conflicts are functional for the problems that that particular society has to resolve. When you point to examples of caste or gender conflict, functionalists are usually able to say that there are underlying social changes that are making the existence of certain caste or gender relationships out of date. Therefore, these traditional relationships are dysfunctional for modern society. The caste and gender conflicts are therefore functional because they will help the society to adapt to the change. Where repeated patterns of conflict occur and are eventually resolved, then those patterns of conflict function to ensure that the society goes on adjusting sensibly to change. Such are the conflicts between teenage children and their parents in capitalist societies, for example. In rapidly changing social systems like capitalist societies, teens are the ones who carry the seeds of social change, hence they are the first to make the inevitable adjustments that their elders often later accept it. An example of this view on conflict in capitalist societies is the sexual freedom of young people compared with their elders. Eventually, as the conflict situation evolved, the whole society tended to become more sexually permissive. Functionalists interpret the many forms of conflict that we observe in society as a natural part of the process of living together and resolving our social problems. Capitalist societies are based on competitive processes, so we inevitably see frequent struggles between workers and managers, women and men, the old and the young, those within the law and those outside the law. Functionalists argue that these struggles can be resolved by intelligent leadership and good management. 12 Over the years, the social structure has had to change in order to accommodate the new forces that are at work within societies, groups and individuals. Functionalists see this as a valuable response to changed conditions – unlike conflict theorists, who tend to see it as part of an ongoing social revolution. Functionalists point to societies like Vietnam, for example, which won its freedom fighting as a communist revolutionary society against the US capitalist superpower, in a war that many people described as an ideological struggle against world capitalism by poor people. Yet, today Vietnam is developing as a very successful capitalist society, with America as one of its major partners. As a youth leader you may find that there are some people or groups causing conflict that you can do nothing about. Functionalism says that their behaviour is dysfunctional for the society in which they are working, and/or it may be dysfunctional for them if they wish simply to achieve more social prestige or success than they are getting. Your skills may not be enough to deal with this, though social analysis will help: either human relations analysis and/or structural analysis will assist in examining the social class/ caste tensions. It may be that the conflict theorists are right, and that what you are facing is part of a revolutionary struggle to establish a new social order, based on very different lines. This may well be what is happening among some young Christians and some young Muslims. 2. Structuralist The structural view of conflict starts from the idea that human societies progress and develop primarily through social conflict: the struggle between social factions who are basically hostile to each other, even though for long periods they may co-exist peacefully. Let’s look at social conflict under the following three perspectives: Marxism Capitalism Radical feminism. Marxism The main influence on structuralist conflict theorists is the work of Karl Marx, though the essential ideas have now become strongly influential in radical feminism, whose conclusions are very different from Marx’s (see below). Marxists analyse societies, including the history of pre-capitalist societies, in terms of structural conflicts for control of the production and distribution of wealth in a society. Marxists say that this conflict may sometimes take the form of a religious struggle, but at base it is a political and economic struggle. This conflict is fought out also in the world of ideas or ideology, and each side will try to get control of the ideology of the mass of the people in order to gain power. In capitalist systems, the basic conflict is between those who have, the control of production and distribution of wealth (the bourgeoisie) and those who have to sell their ability to work to the capitalist system (the proletariat). You will probably be able to see this for yourself, if you work with unemployed youth. They are likely to be unemployed because, in a world where capital is free to go wherever it wants, the people who have the money want to invest it where it creates most profit. Today that will be mainly in places such as China, where the costs of production are cheap but the economic infrastructure is developed. It’s very difficult for working people to fight against this in Commonwealth 13 Youth Programme Diploma in Youth Development Work the global market because there are few barriers to rich people and corporations who want to put their money where it will earn most for them. Radical Feminism Radical feminism – ‘radical’ here meaning looking at root causes rather than extremist – takes a structural conflict view of society, but in this case, the two social factions in conflict are women and men. The movement also points to the evidence for this struggle as the main human struggle throughout history. Radical feminists explain that, because men have usually come out on top as winners in this conflict, the achievements of women have been hidden by male historians. Just as the rich exploit the labour power of the working classes and label them as intellectually and socially inferior, so have men done this to women. Women’s labour in home-caring and family development is unpaid in financial terms and badly recognised in most societies, where men are usually in control. But this form of labour is crucial in maintaining living standards and, through the support of children, many of whom will be the organisers and leaders of the coming generations, women are the gender mainly responsible for overall social development. Women do the majority of the world’s work, but have much less wealth than men and own a very small proportion of the world’s property. The conflict between women and men will be visible in how the work is organised, what the distribution of opportunities is between males and females, the nature of the gender relationships in groups and so on. It can be difficult to deal with because of social sensitivities and social norms, especially in societies where women are supposed to show modesty. But it does require at least partial resolution if you are to get the best out of your groups. If the feminists are right, women are the key to social progress. You will be able to help young women and men understand this concept, as you work with them to build up women’s skills and enormous potential. 3. Human Relations Human relations theorists have extended the ideas of functionalism by a sophisticated analysis of what managers and leaders need to do in order to manage conflict in human groups. As a youth development worker are being trained to mediate and manage: to recognise the signs of dysfunctional behaviour among your clients, to analyse the likely causes of it, and to make adjustments to the situation so that your group can pursue and meet its objectives satisfactorily. The reason behind this training philosophy comes from the ideas of functionalist administrators, who posit that conflict is the result of poor communication, narrow mindedness and lack of trust between people. The functionalist human relations view of conflict is consistent with the perspective of the local administrators who replaced the old colonialist authoritarianism in many Commonwealth countries. The view that all conflict is the result of bad people management provides a clear framework for analysing the behaviour of people who create conflict, and for developing strategies to address that conflict.According to a functionalist human relations view, most 14 conflict can be avoided if we direct our attention to identifying the causes of conflict and focus on programmes that help people to avoid future conflict. Skilled leaders and managers can reduce and resolve local conflict to a useful extent, depending on the nature of the conflict. While, for example, you will be unable to resolve major issues of gender conflict by confronting the local gender issues sensitively in your group work and developing the right insights and skills in the young men and women you work with, you can develop their skills to effectively deal with these issues in the real world. Recent research indicates that the human relations approach to conflict reduction does not necessarily lead to improved long-term relationships between groups or individuals. Often the conflicts are structural, as in the case of the Mau Mau struggle against the colonial seizures of traditional Kikuyu land holdings in Kenya. Not even bodies as powerful as the United Nations can resolve structural issues very easily and effectively, as the ethnic conflicts in Somalia show. The human relations view on conflict maintains that many conflicts cannot be avoided, and therefore have to be faced up to and worked through. Moreover, this view sees conflict is an opportunity; it offers a challenge to personal growth and development, as well as a means of promoting change or social cohesion, clarifying an issue or finding a solution to a problem. To this end, we can say that conflict can be an honest confrontation that respects diversity, and creates environments where differences can be expressed non- aggressively. Those who endured the kind of savage political conflicts that took place in Nazi Germany, in wartime, China following the Japanese invasion, in Rwanda and in Darfur have undoubtedly found it extremely difficult to achieve any kind of resolution. And it seems almost insulting to view conflict through a human relations lens, as a means to resolving those post-conflict traumas that are so horrific. However, the social and psychological damage done by such trauma needs to be undone if that is possible. Social healing is clearly demonstrated in the Amnesty Committee of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa, where people who have committed even the most horrendous of racialist and political crimes are enabled to face their accusers in open court. With the prospect of amnesty and therefore without threat, they are enabled to acknowledge their guilt through a full confession, and to plead mitigation if there is any, while the evidence for and against them is made public. The end of the process is moral and public forgiveness. The alternative is a life of hiding, fear and reprisals, and bitterness and revenge. In the words of Tanya Glaser of the Conflict Research Consortium (at the University of Colorado, USA): “Amnesty also suits the Commission’s philosophical approach to justice. Justice is achieved not by retribution, but by the restoration of community. Healing communities requires truth telling, forgiveness, acceptance and trust.” 15 4. Interactionist The interactionist view on conflict has many similarities with the human relations view. Both rely on social interaction and relationships between groups and between individuals to perceive conflict. The core of the interactionist view is that the processes of social interaction have a powerfully influential effect on the behaviour of the members of an interacting group. Where a group interacts over a period of time, this may be very influential in deciding members’ long-term characteristics, such as the intelligence and skill of their interactive behaviour, their self-beliefs and so on. In managing groups, interactionists can very usefully encourage creative conflict on the basis that an over- friendly, cosy set of group relationships can be prone to stand still, becoming dull and unresponsive to the need for change. The interactionist approach encourages group leaders to preserve an ongoing undercurrent of conflict to ensure the group remains innovative, self-critical and self-developing so that individuals can increase their open- ended potential in a given situation. Skilled teachers make use of the natural conflicts of views and opinions in groups in order to stimulate new thinking and to get their students searching underneath their opinions for evidence and logical argument. This can even be done in science classes, where students can be stimulated to explore and challenge each other over the reasons for the phenomena they are investigating. Knowing that people can build up their insights and skills themselves by these processes enables the teacher to teach in greater depth. 1.3 Nature of Conflict 2 Culture, race, and ethnicity:2 Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to hold certain beliefs about the social structure of our world, as well as the role of conflict in that experience. We may have learned to value substantive, procedural and psychological needs differently as a result, thus influencing our willingness to engage in various modes of negotiation and efforts to manage the conflict Gender and sexuality:3 Men and women often perceive situations somewhat differently, based on both their experiences in the world (which relates to power and privilege, as do race and ethnicity) and socialization patterns that reinforce the importance of relationships vs. task, substance vs. process, immediacy vs. long- term outcomes. As a result, men and women will often approach conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired outcomes from the situation, as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist. Knowledge (general and situational): Parties respond to given conflicts on the basis of the knowledge they may have about the issue at hand. This includes situation-specific knowledge (i.e., "Do I understand what is going on here?") and general knowledge (i.e., "Have I experienced this type of situation before?" or "Have I studied about similar situations before?"). Such information can influence the person's willingness to engage in efforts to manage the conflict, either 2 https://www.ohrd.wisc.edu/onlinetraining/resolution/aboutwhatisit.htm 16 reinforcing confidence to deal with the dilemma or undermining one's willingness to flexibly consider alternatives. Impressions of the Messenger: If the person sharing the message - the messenger - is perceived to be a threat (powerful, scary, unknown, etc.), this can influence our responses to the overall situation being experienced. For example, if a big scary- looking guy is approaching me rapidly, yelling "Get out of the way!" I may respond differently than if a diminutive, calm person would express the same message to me. As well, if I knew either one of them previously, I might respond differently based upon that prior sense of their credibility: I am more inclined to listen with respect to someone I view as credible than if the message comes from someone who lacks credibility and integrity in my mind. Previous experiences: Some of us have had profound, significant life experiences that continue to influence our perceptions of current situations. These experiences may have left us fearful, lacking trust, and reluctant to take risks. On the other hand, previous experiences may have left us confident, willing to take chances and experience the unknown. Either way, we must acknowledge the role of previous experiences as elements of our perceptual filter in the current dilemma. 1.4 Functions of Conflict Here are some of the positive aspects noted by Coser (1956): Conflict helps establish our identity and independence. Conflicts, especially at earlier stages of your life, help you assert your personal identity as separate from the aspirations, beliefs and behaviours of those around you. Intensity of conflict demonstrates the closeness and importance of relationships. Intimate relationships require us to express opposing feelings such as love and anger. The coexistence of these emotions in a relationship create a sharpness when conflicts arise. While the intensity of emotions can threaten the relationship, if they are dealt with constructively, they also help us measure the depth and importance of the relationship. Conflict can build new relationships. At times, conflict brings together people who did not have a previous relationship. During the process of conflict and its resolution, these parties may find out that they have common interests and then work to maintain an ongoing relationship. Conflict can create coalitions. Similar to building relationships, sometimes adversaries come together to build coalitions to achieve common goals or fend off a common threat. During the conflict, previous antagonism is suppressed to work towards these greater goals. Conflict serves as a safety-valve mechanism which helps to sustain relationships. Relationships which repress disagreement or conflict grow rigid over time, making them brittle. Exchanges of conflict, at times through the assistance of a third-party, allows people to vent pent-up hostility and reduce tension in a relationship. Conflict helps parties assess each other’s power and can work to redistribute power in a system of conflict. Because there are few ways to truly measure the power of the other party, conflicts sometimes arise to allow parties to assess one another's strength. In cases where there is an imbalance of power, a party may seek ways to 17 increase its internal power. This process can often change the nature of power within the conflict system. Conflict establishes and maintains group identities. Groups in conflict tend to create clearer boundaries which help members determine who is part of the “in- group” and who is part of the “out-group”. In this way, conflict can help individuals understand how they are part of a certain group and mobilise them to take action to defend the group’s interests. Conflicts enhance group cohesion through issue and belief clarification. When a group is threatened, its members pull together in solidarity. As they clarify issues and beliefs, renegades and dissenters are weeded out of the group, creating a more sharply defined ideology on which all members agree. Conflict creates or modifies rules, norms, laws and institutions. It is through the raising of issues that rules, norms, laws and institutions are changed or created. Problems or frustrations left unexpressed result in the maintaining of the status quo. 18 1.5 Self-assessment Questions Q. 1 Define Conflict and also elaborate the origin of conflict. Q.2 Discuss in detail the functions of conflict. Q.3 Write a detail note on nature of conflict. 19 Suggested Books 1. Conflict Resolution for the Helping Professions: Negotiation, Mediation, Advocacy, Facilitation, and Resotrative Justice. By: Allan Edward Barsky, Professor Social Work Allan Barsky Oxford University Press, 24-Jan-2017. 2. Working with Conflict: Skills and Strategies for Action, by: Simon Fisher, Zed Books, 04-Nov-2000 – Political Science 3. Teaching the Skills of Conflict Resolution: Activities and Strategies for Counselors and Teachers, By: David Cowan, Susanna Palomares, Dianne Schilling Innerchoice Publishing, 1992 – Conflict Management. 4. The Handbook of Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice by: Morton Deutsch, Peter T. Coleman, Eric C. Marcus John Wiley & Sons, 04-Mar-2011 – Business & Economics. 5. Mediation Skills and Strategies: A Practical Guide by: Tony Whatling, Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 15-Apr-2012 - Law 20 Unit 2 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION Written By: Syed Imran Haider Reviewed By: Dr. M. Iqbal Saif 21 OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, student will be able to: 1. define the relevant term and definitions. 2. discuss the causes of disputes and conflict. 3. define the circle of conflict. 4. describe the sources and causes of conflict. MAJOR TOPICS  Terms and Definitions  Causes of Dispute and Conflict  Circle of Conflict  Sources and Causes of Conflict 22 2.1 Terms and Definitions The management of conflict 1 has three main dimensions; 1. The repertoire of formal and informal, autonomous and intervention based, procedures available for confronting and handling the conflict 2. The understandings and skills for recognizing and making sense of conflict, for imagining alternatives and for communicating to pursue resolution 3. The individual and community relationships context within which conflicts may emerge, feel, and be understood as problems by participants, and evolve, escalate, or de-escalate. The new field of conflict resolution in the 1950s2 defined itself in relation to the challenge of understanding and transforming destructive human conflicts of this kind. In contrast to older established fields, such as international relations, conflict resolution was to be: multilevel: analysis and resolution had to embrace all levels of conflict: intra- personal (inner conflict), interpersonal, intergroup (families, neighbourhoods, affiliations), international, regional, global, and the complex interplays between them; multidisciplinary: in order to learn how to address complex conflict systems adequately, the new field had to draw on many disciplines, including politics, international relations, strategic studies, development studies, individual and social psychology, etc.; multicultural: since human conflict is a worldwide phenomenon within an increasingly intricate and interconnected local/global cultural web, this had to be a truly cooperative international enterprise, in terms of both the geographical locations where conflict is encountered and the conflict resolution initiatives deployed to address them; both analytic and normative: the foundation of the study of conflict was to be systematic analysis and interpretation of the ‘statistics of deadly quarrels’ (polymology), but this was to be combined from the outset with the normative aim of learning how better thereby to transform actually or potentially violent conflict into non- violent processes of social, political and other forms of change; both theoretical and practical: the conflict resolution field was to be constituted by a constant mutual interplay between theory and practice: only when theoretical understanding and practical experience of what works and what does not work are connected can properly informed experience develop. 2.2 What Causes Disputes and Conflict? Economic conflict is brought about by a limited amount of resources. The groups or individuals involved then comes into conflict to attain the most of these resources, thus bringing forth hostile behaviors among those involved. Aggravating conditions worsen a conflict, make outbreak, escalation and intense conflict more likely. 1 Handbook of Conflict Management - edited by William J. Pammer, Jerri Killian 2 http://www.polity.co.uk/ccr/contents/chapters/1.pdf 23 Three such conditions affect international Conflict Behavior generally, regardless of phase or sub-phase. One is sociocultural dissimilarity, which makes opposing interest more likely and aggravates communications between parties. The second is cognitive imbalance, or the imbalance in relationships or status between parties. Such can create a pressure towards misperception and miscommunication, and necessitate a conflict aggravating readjustment. A third aggravator is the overall status difference (distance vector), or rank between parties. Relative status is a basic force between states, as between individuals, and differences in wealth (e.g., a rich-poor gap), in power, and in prestige can interject status considerations into a conflict. And make it far more difficult to resolve. Value conflict is concerned with the varied preferences and ideologies that people have as their principles. Conflicts driven by this factor are demonstrated in wars wherein separate parties have sets of beliefs that they assert (in an aggressive manner at that). Value conflicts are caused by perceived or actual incompatible belief systems. Values are beliefs that people use to give meaning to their lives. Values explain what is "good" or "bad," "right" or "wrong," "just" or "unjust" Differing values need not cause conflict. People can live together in harmony with different value systems. Value disputes arise only when people attempt to force one set of values on others or lay claim to exclusive value systems that do not allow for divergent beliefs. It is of no use to try to change value and belief systems during relatively short and strategic mediation interventions. It can, however, be helpful to support each participant's expression of their values and beliefs for acknowledgment by the other party. The conflict between values is the source of many conflicts and problems today. In contrast to the traditional conflict of values, the following features distinguish the contemporary conflict: (1) extensiveness; (2) complicatedness; (3) profoundness; and (4) continuousness. The plurality and relativity of values is the primary cause of contemporary conflicts. The origin of pluralism lies in an interrelated trio of aspects: commodity economy, democratic politics, and individualism. Power conflict occurs when the parties involved intends to maximize what influence it has in the social setting. Such a situation can happen among individuals, groups or even nations. In other types of conflict, power is also evident as it involves an asserting of influence to another. A sufficient cause of conflict is one whose occurrence produces conflict. There is only one such cause, and it is of a conflict situation, not formal or official conflict behavior. This is a significant change in the balance of powers, that is in the interests, capabilities, and/or wills of one or both parties Such change therefore has a dual effect. It produces a conflict situation, perhaps manifested in tension, hostility, friction, coolness, and anti-foreign demonstrations. Interstate relations remain "correct," but beneath the pot is boiling. And this change is a 24 necessary cause for the subsequent Conflict Behavior (as shown in the phase map), once expectations have been disrupted. Note that there is a logical relationship between incongruent expectations as a necessary and sufficient cause of hostility and tension, and a significant change in the balance of powers as a sufficient cause. "Significant" is defined in terms of those changes in the interests, capabilities, and wills comprising a balance of powers that creates a gap with regard to expectations. That is, what states want, can get, or are resolved to get are no longer consistent with their understandings or agreements. The more relative power a state has the more global its contacts and interests and the more concern over its reputation for power. Great power is not necessary or sufficient for conflict behavior. Weak states do conflict; do go to war. But power does stimulate and aggravate issues, giving them a more global significance. And centralized state power means also that resources can be controlled and directed towards a conflict and domestic restraints manipulated. The more power the parties have in a conflict, the more conflict behavior there is likely to be. Part of developing an effective intervention strategy is knowing the general categories of causes of conflict. One model (see Moore, 1996) identifies five sources of conflict: 1. Data or information conflict, which involves lack of information and misinformation, as well as differing views on what data are relevant, the interpretation of that data and how the assessment is performed. 2. Relationship conflict, which results from strong emotions, stereotypes, miscommunication and repetitive negative behaviour. It is this type of conflict which often provides fuel for disputes and can promote destructive conflict even when the conditions to resolve the other sources of conflict can be met. 3. Value conflict, which arises over ideological differences or differing standards on evaluation of ideas or behaviours. The actual or perceived differences in values do not necessarily lead to conflict. It is only when values are imposed on groups or groups are prevented from upholding their value systems that conflict arises. 4. Structural conflict, which is caused by unequal or unfair distributions of power and resources. Time constraints, destructive patterns of interaction and un-conducive geographical or environmental factors contribute to structural conflict. 5. Interest conflict, which involves actual or perceived competition over interests, such as resources, the way a dispute is to be resolved, or perceptions of trust and fairness. 2.3 The Circle of Conflict The Circle of Conflict Model, adapted by Gary Furlong 3 in The Conflict Resolution Toolbox, provides a means for diagnosing and addressing conflict through examining the five primary causes of conflict: Data, Values, Relationships, Externals/Moods, and Furlong, Gary. The Conflict Resolution Toolbox. Ontario: John Wiley & Sons, 2005. 25 Structure. Furlong’s model also includes a placeholder for Interests, which are the key to resolving conflict. The model can be used as a tool for diagnosing the components of the conflict and as a process-directing tool for facilitating resolution of the dispute. It is important to fully analyze the conflict using all five conflict components and interests. However, when facilitating resolution, it is important to focus on the conflict’s Data, Structure, and Interests, opposed to Values, Relationship, and External/Moods, which are more difficult to resolve. This approach is recommended because there is a greater chance of reaching resolution through reconciling the parties’ less intractable Data, Structure, and Interests. It is common for conflicts that involve all five components to be resolved when the Data, Structure, and Interest needs are satisfied. Applying the Circle of Conflict; 1. Observe what people are saying and doing 2. Identify and name one or more sources of conflict 3. Take action where you can to address and resolve conflict. Conflict Orientation Everyone has an orientation towards conflict. Take time to reflect on yours conflict and that of others. The orientation that supports movement from talk to action has two elements: 1. Conflict is normal and necessary to the work of achieving results 2. It is possible to address and resolve conflicts. 26 The Values section of the Circle of Conflict model “includes all the values and beliefs held by the parties that are contributing to the conflict.” The values can be what Furlong calls “terminal or life defining values” or “day-to-day values.” Terminal values include religious beliefs, morals, ethical views, and beliefs arising from cultural norms. Day-to- day values include basic values like wearing seat belts, workplace values, politeness; etc. When values of two or more individuals or groups lead to the perception of incompatible aspirations, conflict ensues or is escalated. The Relationship section of the model represents conflicts driven by “specific negative experiences in the past.” The parties’ negative experiences with one another can lead to “poor or failed communication” and “stereotypes.” Relationship issues can ignite or further fuel and existing conflict between parties. The Externals/Moods section of the model “covers external factors not directly a part of the situation, but that are still contributing to the conflict.” The list of potential Externals is limitless. Any factor not directly involved in the parties’ dispute which leads to or drives the conflict is an External. The Data section of the model identifies incorrect, incomplete, and differential information as a cause of conflict. The section also encompasses differing interpretations of shared information, too much information, and issues with efficient collection of information, as issues that can create and escalate conflicts. The Structure section of the model represents three distinct drivers of conflict. Conflict occurring due to competition for limited resources, lack of authority to solve a problem, and divergent priorities within working groups are types of structural conflict. Interests are party’s needs, wants, fears, and hopes in relation to the conflict. Interests are often why a party wants what they are stating as their position? Understanding each party’s interests and facilitating the development of options to solve the parties’ underlying problems are key steps to resolving conflict. Christopher Moore identified three types of interests: procedural, emotional, and substantive, which he included in his Triangle of Satisfaction model. 27 http://www.alaeditions.org/files/Stoltz_Inspired_WE/Stoltz_WebExtraA.pdf 1. Furlong, Gary. The Conflict Resolution Toolbox. Ontario: John Wiley & Sons, 2005. 2.4 Sources and Causes of Conflict Early reviews in the field of conflict resolution identified a large number of schemes for describing sources or types of conflict (Fink, 1968; Mack & Snyder, 1958). One of the early theorists on conflict, Daniel Katz (1965), created a typology that distinguishes three main sources of conflict: economic, value, and power. 28 1. Economic conflict involves competing motives to attain scarce resources. Each 2 party wants to get the most that it can, and the behavior and emotions of each party are directed toward maximizing its gain. Union and management conflict often has as one of its sources the incompatible goals of how to slice up the “economic pie”. 2. Value conflict involves incompatibility in ways of life, ideologies – the preferences, principles and practices that people believe in. International conflict (e.g., the Cold War) often has a strong value component, wherein each side asserts the rightness and superiority of its way of life and its political-economic system. 3. Power conflict occurs when each party wishes to maintain or maximize the amount of influence that it exerts in the relationship and the social setting. It is impossible for one party to be stronger without the other being weaker, at least in terms of direct influence over each other. Thus, a power struggle ensues which usually ends in a victory and defeat, or in a “stand-off” with a continuing state of tension. Power conflicts can occur between individuals, between groups or between nations, whenever one or both parties choose to take a power approach to the relationship. Power also enters into all conflict since the parties are attempting to control each other. 2.5 Self-assessment Questions Q. 1 Define the terms conflict management and conflict resolution with examples. Q.2 Discuss in detail, the causes of disputes and conflict. Q.3 Describe the circle of conflict. Q.4 Write down a comprehensive were on sources and causes of conflict. 29 Suggested Books 1. Conflict Resolution for the Helping Professions: Negotiation, Mediation, Advocacy, Facilitation, and Resotrative Justice. By: Allan Edward Barsky, Professor Social Work Allan Barsky Oxford University Press, 24-Jan-2017. 2. Working with Conflict: Skills and Strategies for Action, by: Simon Fisher, Zed Books, 04-Nov-2000 – Political Science 3. Teaching the Skills of Conflict Resolution: Activities and Strategies for Counselors and Teachers, By: David Cowan, Susanna Palomares, Dianne Schilling Innerchoice Publishing, 1992 – Conflict Management. 4. The Handbook of Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice by: Morton Deutsch, Peter T. Coleman, Eric C. Marcus John Wiley & Sons, 04-Mar-2011 – Business & Economics. 5. Mediation Skills and Strategies: A Practical Guide by: Tony Whatling, Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 15-Apr-2012 - Law 30 Unit 3 & 4 TYPES AND LEVELS OF CONFLICT Written By: Syed Imran Haider Reviewed By: Farhana Khattak 31 OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, student will be able to: 1. define the types of conflict. 2. describe the conflict process model MAJOR TOPICS  Types of conflict - Disputes - Deeprooted conflict - Intrapersonal conflict - Interpersonal conflict - Intra group conflict - Inter group conflict - Intra – national conflict - International conflict  Conflict process model - Potential for conflict - Recognition of conflict - Conflict handling styles - Conflict behaviour - Conflict outcomes 32 3.1 Types of Conflict Conflict occurs in many different spheres (ranging from the personal to the broad social and environmental) and at different levels. We can identify four levels of conflict: Intra-personal: conflicts that occur within the consciousness of an individual Interpersonal: conflicts that occur between two or more individuals (including family and friends) Intra-group: conflicts that occur within a particular group Inter-group: conflicts that occur between two or more groups (e.g. ethnic or religious groups). Sometimes inter-group and intra-group conflicts can be manifested at the organisational, national and international levels due to political, social, economic and even environmental factors. For example, tribal conflicts can surface among government agencies over supposedly non-tribal issues when governments are formulating social policy in the national context rather than the local, tribal context. 3.1.1 Disputes Disputes are short-term disagreements that are relatively easy to resolve. Disputes involve interests that are negotiable. That means it is possible to find a solution that at least partially meets the interests and needs of both sides. For example, it generally is possible to find an agreeable price for a piece of merchandise. The seller may want more, the buyer may want to pay less, but eventually they can agree on a price that is acceptable to both. Likewise, co-workers may disagree about who is to do what task in an office. After negotiating, each may have to do something they did not want to do, but in exchange they will get enough of what they did want to settle the dispute 3.1.2 Deep-rooted Conflict Long-term, deep-rooted problems that involve seemingly non-negotiable issues and are resistant to resolution are referred to as conflicts. Long-term conflicts, on the other hand, usually involve non-negotiable issues. They may involve deep-rooted moral or value differences, high-stakes distributional questions, or conflicts about who dominates whom. Fundamental human psychological needs for identity, security, and recognition are often at issue as well. None of these issues are negotiable. People will not compromise fundamental values. They will not give up their chance for a better life by submitting to continued injustice or domination, nor will they change or give up their self-identity. Deep-rooted conflicts over these types of issues tend to be drawn out and highly resistant to resolution, often escalating or evolving into intractable conflicts. 3.1.3 Intrapersonal Conflict Intrapersonal conflict occurs within an individual. The experience takes place in the person’s mind. Hence, it is a type of conflict that is psychological involving the individual’s thoughts, values, principles and emotions. Interpersonal conflict may come in different scales, from the simpler mundane ones like deciding whether or not to go organic for lunch to ones that can affect major decisions such as choosing a career path. 33 Furthermore, this type of conflict can be quite difficult to handle if you find it hard to decipher your inner struggles. It leads to restlessness and uneasiness, or can even cause depression. In such occasions, it would be best to seek a way to let go of the anxiety through communicating with other people. Eventually, when you find yourself out of the situation, you can become more empowered as a person. Thus, the experience evoked a positive change which will help you in your own personal growth. This refers to a state of implosion in an individual shaped by the state of mind. It is however important to know that such human state is largely dictated by circumstances around him. Such situations are anger, depression, confusion, frustration, which could lead to aggression, erratic behavior, addiction and in extreme cases, suicide (Ross, 1993). This is the kind of conflict that has been described as “man against self” (Lamb, 2008), in which man continues to contend or battle with his mind and habits. Smoking, drug use, alcoholism, as well as lying are some addictive habits that man may continually contend with; even when he desires to stop, he may find himself continuing it. This is intra- personal conflict or “man against self”. 3.1.4 Interpersonal Conflict Interpersonal conflict refers to a conflict between two individuals. This occurs typically due to how people are different from one another. We have varied personalities which usually results to incompatible choices and opinions. Apparently, it is a natural occurrence which can eventually help in personal growth or developing your relationships with others. In addition, coming up with adjustments is necessary for managing this type of conflict. However, when interpersonal conflict gets too destructive, calling in a mediator would help so as to have it resolved. This is what has been described as “man against man” in the micro sense. This type of conflict may be direct opposition, as in exchange of blows, a gunfight or a robbery, or it may be a more subtle conflict between the desires of two or more persons (Nikolajeva, 2005). A boxing or wrestling match is a kind of game, but the act on the mat depicts conflict. Conflict in this sense is a fight between people. However, conflict does not always translate to physical exchange of blows. Malice or ‘cold attitude’ to each other already underscores conflict. Conflict thus also means implicit hostility. It may not be obvious to the third party, but the disagreeing or unfriendly parties already understand that there is a state of discontent between them. 3.1.5 Intragroup Conflict Intragroup conflict is a type of conflict that happens among individuals within a team. The incompatibilities and misunderstandings among these individuals lead to an intragroup conflict. It is arises from interpersonal disagreements (e.g. team members have different personalities which may lead to tension) or differences in views and ideas (e.g. in a presentation, members of the team might find the notions presented by the one presiding to be erroneous due to their differences in opinion). Within a team, conflict can be helpful in coming up with decisions which will eventually allow them to reach their objectives as a team. However, if the degree of conflict disrupts harmony among the 34 members, then some serious guidance from a different party will be needed for it to be settled. 3.1.6 Intergroup Conflict Intergroup conflict takes place when a misunderstanding arises among different teams within an organization. For instance, the sales department of an organization can come in conflict with the customer support department. This is due to the varied sets of goals and interests of these different groups. In addition, competition also contributes for intergroup conflict to arise. There are other factors which fuel this type of conflict. Some of these factors may include a rivalry in resources or the boundaries set by a group to others which establishes their own identity as a team. Indigenous and non-indigenous peoples, rich and poor, governing political parties and their oppositions, women and men, young people and the police are all examples of interacting sets of groups that have a potential for conflict, as they may have very divergent goals. Considering inter-group behaviour as characterised by Hogg and Abrams in citing Summary above, the relationship between these groups may often be oppositional. This influences the quality of life and behavioural characteristics of the people involved in these groups. Conflict among groups can come from many sources and take many different guises. As the young are usually the ones who suffer most during violent conflicts, it is important that you are aware of the bases for such conflicts. There are several overarching factors that, in various combinations, give rise to conflicts at various levels. The factors that can originate inter-group conflict can be broadly categorised as: 1. political 2. social and cultural 3. economic 4. geopolitical The impact of conflict on group dynamics, both intra-group and inter-group, is dramatic. Inter-group conflict that is not addressed tends to reappear, and each time it does the situation becomes susceptible to rapid escalation. Within a group, conflict with another group tends to increase solidarity and compliance with group norms, following the group’s policy line. A good example of this type of group behaviour is seen in political parties just before elections. More often than not, power and status inequalities are the most critical problems of inter- group relations. The low-power group is more vulnerable, so it censors communication that might invoke retribution from a high-power group, such as on dissatisfaction with working conditions. As a result, the high-power group remains ignorant of information considered sensitive by the low-power group, which in turn experiences frustration and relative deprivation as a result of their own group discipline. Such a situation is 35 particularly true in cases where there is intense competition over scarce resources, and can be best described as a self-reproducing cycle of fear and ignorance. This is the sort of case you might meet in a non-unionised factory, where workers lack the formal structure and legitimacy of a trade union to enable them to voice their grievances without hostility. The long-term outcomes of this cycle of fear and ignorance are either a heightened feeling of being oppressed (a very destructive form of too little conflict) or scattered outbreaks of violence and guerrilla tactics, as individuals lose any feeling of social and personal commitment to the workplace. http://www.typesofconflict.org/ 3.1.7 Intra-national Conflict Intra-State Conflicts: This type of conflict is confined within the borders of a sovereign state. Such economic factors as land, uneven development, resource control and revenue- sharing formula could cause a conflict within a state.These include civil conflicts precipitated by deepening political cleavages, economic distress, and growing inequalities, which in worst case scenarios can lead to the erosion of government legitimacy, a breakdown of law and order, and escalating ungovernability. State weakness can spawn the creation of armed criminal gangs and armed vigilante groups, provoke inter-ethnic conflicts, anti-immigrant pogroms, separatist movements, and significant refugee outflows. Such developments will also stimulate the growth of organized crime and smuggling operations transcending national borders. 3.1.8 International Conflict Inter-State Conflicts: This type of conflict is also known as international conflict. This is a conflict between two or more states. In some cases, this type of conflict degenerates to a state of war. We must remember that all wars are described as conflict. As such, all inter-state wars are same as international conflict. Inter-sate conflict can be caused by territorial encroachment by another state, breakdown of diplomatic ties, exportation of toxic or contrabands to another country, et cetera. These may include conflicts over the status of disputed territories and the treatment of ethnic kindred in which intra-state conflicts can pull neighboring powers into the fray. They can also involve energy conflicts and other resource disputes stemming from the short and long-term impact of climate change. For example, the melting of the northern polar ice enables greater access to the region’s abundant oil and gas reserves, whose location could be a source of territorial disputes between Arctic littoral states leading to the region’s militarization. Leaders and citizens with inherited and learned patterns of human aggression who live in oppressive, weak, or overly aggressive states, interacting with each other in the absence of an overarching restraining global authority, should inevitably be drawn into violent international conflict Those who examine conflict as the product of individual cognitive processes, as well as intergroup dysfunction, also have contributed greatly to our understanding of 36 international conflict, and thus to its resolution. From psychology and sociology, we have come to understand how symbols are used to mobilize followers, how easy it is to create out-groups by fomenting exclusive identities (Tajfel and Turner, 1986), and how social exclusion social exclusion and moral exclusivity (Opotow, 1990) ultimately pave the way for violence against out-groups and, thus, war. Real wars persist and contemporary explanations have delved into the structures of states, as well as the dynamics of intergroup processes and the persistence of grievances real or constructed. Since the middle of the twentieth century, according to data from the Uppsala Conflict Data Program, the number of active civil wars has increased, and the number of interstate wars has decreased. Civil wars spiked in the early 1990s, then declined precipitously over the following ten years, but they remain at about double the number now as in 1950. Meanwhile, purely interstate war seems to be almost—but not quite—extinct (Themnér and Wallensteen, 2012). 4. The Conflict Process Model The conflict process can be modelled around five stages: 1. Potential for conflict 2. Recognition of conflict 3. Conflict handling styles 4. Conflict behaviour 5. Conflict outcomes. The following flowchart offers a representation of how these five stages relate to each other as well as what happens at each stage. 37 The Five Stages Stage 1: Potential for Conflict The first stage in the conflict process is the presence of circumstances that have the potential for conflict – that is, a pre-conflict situation. The circumstances do not necessarily result in conflict, but at least one of these circumstances needs to be present if conflict is to occur. The sources of conflict can be categorised into three groups of issues where problems can arise: Communication Structure Personal variables Communication While communication problems are clearly not the cause of all conflicts, they are the most frequently cited source of interpersonal conflict. Barriers to effective communication can include: the use of language that is incomprehensible to the receiver of the message the emotional states of the sender and receiver filtered or inadequate information from the sender selective hearing and perception by the receiver. Good communication can make the effective resolution of conflict possible; poor communication can block people from collaborating and can perpetuate misunderstandings. Research has established that conflict can occur not only when there is too little communication taking place, but also when too much communication takes place. An increase in communication is functional up to a certain point. After that point an increase in communication becomes increasingly dysfunctional, with more potential for conflict. Both information overload and lack of information can cause conflict. Communication Channels The communication channel chosen by the sender can also cause friction when it is not the channel to which the receiver is accustomed. Many of the countries in the Commonwealth have an oral tradition, where history and culture are communicated to the next generation by word of mouth, sometimes in the form of myths or stories with a deeper moral or practical meaning. Unless you are accustomed to the style of oral transmission being used, there is always the possibility of not really hearing what is being said. The same is also true of writing. Many cultures have a written tradition, where information is passed on through books and newspapers. But where this writing is taking 38 place, and the traditions that have been built up in the writing medium, will determine how well you can decide what is being said. When you first look at social science writing, for example, you will probably be puzzled by what is being said. Then, when you get used to it, it becomes part of your thinking and no longer baffles you. Preferred communication channels should, as far as possible, be employed to avoid causing friction. This issue was taken into consideration when developing the Diploma in Youth Development, as people’s preferred communication channel affects their favoured learning style. A major part of development worker role is communicating with a wide range of people in a variety of different. circumstances, including young people, co-workers, government officials, parents, other members of the community, volunteers, journalists and teachers. Different groups will have somewhat different preferred modes of communication – ranging, for example, from informal and intimate when dealing with young people in group to socially distant and formal when reporting to funding or management committees. One of the skills youth workers need is to be clever at working out what is the best way to communicate with the different groups and individuals they meet. It is important to be able to adapt your communication style to each situation, particularly when there is a potential conflict situation. In your workplace, try listening to and observing groups and individuals at work, and see what you can learn from those who are good at communication. It takes time to develop real skill. Structure the word ‘structure’, as one of the groups of issues where conflict can arise, is used in the context of interpersonal relationships to describe, for example: an asymmetrical relationship between individuals (e.g., teacher and student, parent and child) important differences in power (e.g., the differences in social power between oneself and one’s peers, the youth development worker and a young person) the roles and role-related activities that are assigned to people. In a group context, the term is used to include: the size and organisation of the group, including definitions of roles and the authority allocated to each group member in a specific situation style of leadership range and compatibility of group members’ goals (e.g., there is a potential for conflict if members of a netball team have vastly different goals in being part of the team, such as some wanting just to socialise and others to compete and win, particularly when the team is failing to perform in the league). 39 Groups within organisations, associations or communities have diverse goals. Within a youth organisation, some groups may be primarily interested in sporting activities – and would like, for example, to see the acquisition of volleyball net. Other groups may be interested in conducting a fund-raising event to send a representative to a United Nations Youth Forum, and others may want to run training workshops on environmental issues. This sort of diversity of goals between different groups in an organisation is potentially a major source of conflict. Due to limited resources, when one group achieves its goals it is likely to frustrate the other groups who have lost out in gaining the available resources. In addition, reward systems have been found to create conflict when one group member gains something at the expense of others. For example, the selection of one particular representative to the United Nations Youth Forum could cause friction in the group that has achieved that goal. Also, if one group is dependent on other groups to gain resources (the sports group needs everybody to participate in the fund-raising to get their equipment), the potential for conflict is increased. Research shows that an authoritarian style of leadership, where the group leader has a great deal of control over other group members’ behaviour and makes most of the decisions without consultation, increases latent conflict. However, other research shows that encouraging participation by group members in decision-making can also stimulate conflict. Geert Hofstede is a Dutch researcher who has contributed a great deal to our understanding of the role of socio-cultural factors in the management of groups. Hofstede administered a survey to 116,000 employees with similar occupations in over fifty different national subsidiaries of the same multinational corporation. The questionnaire contained value statements that reflected four indices or dimensions along which the cultures of various countries differed. One of those dimensions was large/ small power distance (Hofstede 2001). Power Distance Large power distance describes a situation in which people accept that power is distributed unequally in organisations. Small power distance describes a situation in which people want power to be equally shared and will always require justification for any differences in power distribution. The former condition entails greater acceptance of hierarchy than the latter. 40 The following table shows the value of the index for thirteen Commonwealth countries in which Hofstede conducted research. The higher the number, the greater the tendency to large power distance. Country Power Distance Index Australia 36 Britain 35 Canada 39 India 77 Jamaica 45 Malaysia 104 New Zealand 22 Pakistan 55 South Africa 49 Singapore 74 West Africa 77 (Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone) Strategies of group leadership that emphasise democratic consultation and decision- making are more congruent with small power distance cultures than cultures with large power distance. Personal variables Obviously, within a particular cultural norm, each individual has a unique value system and personality characteristics that are an aspect of individual differences. Differences in both value systems and personality characteristics are significant potential sources of conflict within any group. Stage 2: Recognition of Conflict The kind of situations described in Stage 1 can generate feelings of disappointment, frustration or anger. But the circumstances described only lead to conflict when one (or more) of the parties identifies the grounds for conflict and is affected by it. The latent conflict in a situation must be perceived by the parties involved for conflict to develop. However, just because they perceive the source of conflict does not mean that this will affect them enough emotionally to cause them anxiety and provoke pre-conflict behaviour. Overt conflict incorporates a wide range of antagonistic behaviours, both on micro and macro levels. For example: co-workers arguing about having a desk in their office, then coming to blows national strikes turning into riots disputes leading to wars between neighbouring countries. 41 Stage 3: Conflict Handling Techniques How do people deal with conflict? Which conflict handling techniques or strategies are successful at defusing conflict? Which are inappropriate and unsuccessful? These techniques or strategies are the bridge between people’s perceptions and feelings, and their actual behaviour. Such strategies may result from conscious decisions that people make to handle a particular conflict in a certain way, and may result from their training in conflict resolution. But they could also be intuitive strategies that may or may not be appropriate. It is important to recognise that there is no one correct way to handle conflict: it depends on the specific conditions of the situation. Nevertheless, depending on the situation, a particular type of conflict management style is likely to be the most appropriate. It is important to recognise that making a deliberate choice of conflict handling style is a distinct and necessary stage in successfully managing conflict. Before responding to the behaviour of the other protagonist/s in a conflict situation, you need first to hypothesize quickly about what their intentions are likely to be and to base your strategy on that analysis. Careful analysis is necessary because one party inferring the wrong intentions from the other party’s actions intensifies many conflicts. You need to remind yourself also that a person’s behaviour does not always accurately reflect their intentions, particularly when emotions are running hot. Dimensions of Conflict Handling Techniques Kenneth Thomas, in his book Conflict and Negotiation Processes in Organisations, developed a model with five conflict handling techniques using two dimensions. These dimensions are: 1. Cooperativeness – the degree to which one party will attempt to satisfy the needs or wants of the other party involved in the conflict 2. Assertiveness – the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her own needs or wants. The five conflict handling styles that can be used to resolve conflict include: competing collaborating compromising avoiding accommodating. The following diagram represents how the conflict handling techniques are situated in the spectrum of the cooperativeness and assertiveness dimensions. Analyse it carefully and note, for example, that an accommodating conflict handling techniques functions in the realms of the cooperative dimension. 42 Competing Competing is a techniques in which one's own needs are advocated over the needs of others. It relies on an aggressive style of communication, low regard for future relationships, and the exercise of coercive power. Those using a competitive style tend to seek control over a discussion, in both substance and ground rules. They fear that loss of such control will result in solutions that fail to meet their needs. Competing tends to result in responses that increase the level of threat. The aim is to win the conflict at all costs. When one party strives strongly to satisfy their needs and shows a corresponding unwillingness to consider the needs of the other party, regardless of the consequences, it means they are competing. In these win-lose contests, a party will use all their resources to gain a victory in their favour. For example, consider a situation in a workplace where there are frequent minor disputes among staff members about things like the layout of the office. In an attempt to resolve this conflict, the office manager requires that each staff member put forward a proposed office layout. In this situation, each member involved in the conflict will invest all their resources into producing a layout that will ‘win’ the conflict. This type of competition is an appropriate way to handle the conflict situation over the office layout. This is an example where a competing approach to handling conflict is appropriate, without any arbitration. There is a conflict – a competition for something that will put involved people in a conflict situation. Each goes at it with all they have to solve this conflict and win. This is seen as appropriate and acceptable in some situations. Collaborating Win/win – both parties strive for a solution that fully satisfies the needs and concerns of both. 43 When the parties to the conflict seek to explore their different perspectives and clarify differences, with a view to satisfying the concerns and needs of both parties, this is known as collaboration or confluence. In the process of clarifying differences, attention is devoted to developing and considering a full range of alternative solutions that may not have been canvassed initially by either party. This approach is considered by many behavioural scientists to be the best conflict handling style, and is certainly an important foundation to the conflict resolution process. Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common goal. Often called "win-win problem-solving," collaboration requires assertive communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better solution than either individual could have achieved alone. It offers the chance for consensus, the integration of needs, and the potential to exceed the "budget of possibilities" that previously limited our views of the conflict. It brings new time, energy, and ideas to resolve the dispute meaningfully. Compromising Both parties settle for a partial satisfaction of their needs, and give up something of value. In compromising, no one party is the clear winner. Both parties intend to give something up and accept a solution that provides incomplete satisfaction of their needs. Negotiations between employer bodies and workers’ unions are an example of situations where a compromise may be required to reach a settlement on workers’ conditions. Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give in a series of tradeoffs. While satisfactory, compromise is generally not satisfying. We each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our needs and don't necessarily understand the other side very well. We often retain a lack of trust and avoid risk-taking involved in more collaborative behaviors. Avoiding The desire of one of the parties to withdraw from the conflict is stronger than the desire to engage and resolve it, or to meet the needs of either oneself or the other party. One or both parties recognise that a conflict exists but want to withdraw from the situation or to conceal their feelings about it. For example, you may have two young women in your youth group who has fought over the same young man, and who now avoid each other, because he has chosen one of them. They have different sets of friends and rarely come at the same time. If withdrawal is not possible – for example, they may be in the same class for maths at school – the conflict may have to be recognised but suppressed in that environment. Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict. "Perhaps if we don't bring it up, it will blow over," we say to ourselves. But, generally, all that happens is that feelings get pent up, views go unexpressed, and the conflict festers until it becomes too big to ignore. Like a cancer that may well have been cured if treated early, the conflict grows and spreads until it kills the relationship. Because needs and concerns go unexpressed, people are often confused, wondering what went wrong in a relationship. 44 Accommodating One party is willing to place the needs of the other party to the conflict above their own needs. When one party to a conflict puts the needs of the other party above their own, and seeks to help their opponent meet their needs, this is known as accommodating. In this particular conflict situation, maintaining the relationship is more important to the self- sacrificing party than continuing the conflict to achieve a personal or group goal. For example, there may be somebody in your group who is very worried about speaking out in a public forum. When one day they do, you may support them by not speaking out against them – even though you don’t agree with their opinion – because you want to help them in overcoming their fear of public speaking. Note that any of these styles may be appropriate to use in a given scenario. It depends, to a large extent, on the specific situation. Accommodating, also known as smoothing, is the opposite of competing. Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others, trying to be diplomatic. They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their own, which may not ever be stated, as preserving the relationship is seen as most important. Stage 4: Conflict Behavior When most people think and talk about conflict situations, they tend to focus on this fourth stage, because it is where conflict becomes visible. It is the first time that there is interaction between the parties after the conflict has been recognised. Minor disagreements, challenging another person’s perspective or position, verbal attacks, threats, fighting and bloodshed are all types of conflict management style. They are overt manifestations of peoples’ attempts to implement their conflict management goals. But once embarked upon, these behaviours have a life of their own. They can heighten the conflict – as a result, for example, of inadequate communication of intentions – and may press the other party’s anger and hostility buttons. Steven P. Robbins (1974) has developed a ‘Conflict Intensity Continuum’, which provides a way of visualizing the development of conflict behaviour. All conflicts exist somewhere along this scale. To the left of the scale, we have conflicts where the parties are self-possessed and controlled: for example, when a student questions his/her teacher. 45 Conflict intensifies as it moves to the right of the scale until it becomes highly destructive: for example, when students riot because their voices are not heard in their academic institutions; governments may use police or soldiers to curb the demonstration, property is damaged and peoples’ lives may even be lost. The closer the conflict gets to the far right of the scale, the more likely it is that the conflict has become dysfunctional. Stage 5: Conflict Outcomes The consequences and end results of interaction between conflicting parties are many and varied. Sometimes these outcomes are functional: for example, the conflict has resulted in the group being more effective than it was before the conflict, or there may be an improved relationship between countries that are in conflict. Sometimes the results are dysfunctional, as is the case when conflict results in armed struggle and subsequent civil terrorism, as in Iraq. Functional Outcomes Conflict is functional when it enriches the quality of decisions, when it stimulates people to look for new, more creative strategies, when it encourages an environment of self- evaluation and when it stimulates change. Conflict is positive when the views of the minority groups are encouraged and their opinions included in important decisions. Conflict can stop stagnation and ensure that all aspects of an issue are covered in the decision-making process of a group, which makes for better decisions. On a macro level, conflict challenges the status quo and causes countries and political parties to reassess their policies and programmes in response to the needs of their people. Conflict Analysis Conflict analysis is the systematic study of the profile, causes, actors, and dynamics of conflict. It helps development, humanitarian and peace building organisations to gain a better understanding of the context in which they work and their role in that context. Conflict analysis can be carried out at various levels (eg local, regional, national, etc) and seeks to establish the linkages between these levels (see Fig 1). Identifying the appropriate focus for the conflict analysis is crucial: the issues and dynamics at the national level may be different from those at the grassroots. But while linking the level of conflict analysis (eg community, district, region or national) with the level of intervention (e-g project, sector, policy), it is also important to establish systematic linkages with other interrelated levels of conflict dynamics. These linkages are important, as all of these different levels impact on each other. 46 Self-assessment Questions Q. 1 Elaborate the types of conflict in detail. Q.2 Write a detail note on the conflict process model. Q.3 Write short note on: a) Power distance b) Conflict handling techniques c) Conflict behavior 47 Suggested Books 1. Conflict Resolution for the Helping Professions: Negotiation, Mediation, Advocacy, Facilitation, and Resotrative Justice. By: Allan Edward Barsky, Professor Social Work Allan Barsky Oxford University Press, 24-Jan-2017. 2. Working with Conflict: Skills and Strategies for Action, by: Simon Fisher, Zed Books, 04-Nov-2000 – Political Science 3. Teaching the Skills of Conflict Resolution: Activities and Strategies for Counselors and Teachers, By: David Cowan, Susanna Palomares, Dianne Schilling Innerchoice Publishing, 1992 – Conflict Management. 4. The Handbook of Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice by: Morton Deutsch, Peter T. Coleman, Eric C. Marcus John Wiley & Sons, 04-Mar-2011 – Business & Economics. 5. Mediation Skills and Strategies: A Practical Guide by: Tony Whatling, Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 15-Apr-2012 - Law 48 Unit 5 & 6 TECHNIQUES OF CONFLICT PREVENTION AND MANAGEMENT Written By: Syed Imran Haider Reviewed By: Dr. M. Iqbal Saif 49 OBJECTIVES After studying this unit, student will be able to:  discuss about conflict prevention.  define the conflict resolution.  define distributive bargaining  talk about use of force.  highlight the practices of negotiation.  know the communication.  describe the mediation.  discuss the cultural aspects influencing conflict resolution.  know about convening multi-party stakeholder negotiation.  describe arbitration.  define reconciliation. MAJOR TOPICS  Conflict prevention  Conflict resolution  Distributive bargaining  Use of force  Negotiation  Communication  Mediation - Fundamental

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