Political Philosophy of St. Augustine (354-430 A.D.) PDF

# Political philosophy of St. Augustine (354-430 A.D.) ## Background - Augustine is committed to a portrayal of Christianity as radically countercultural but as countercultural in a politically unthreatening way. - For him, the corruption of human nature resulting from the Fall, human beings ofte...

# Political philosophy of St. Augustine (354-430 A.D.) ## Background - Augustine is committed to a portrayal of Christianity as radically countercultural but as countercultural in a politically unthreatening way. - For him, the corruption of human nature resulting from the Fall, human beings often try to enjoy what should be only an object of use; and, not infrequently, they attempt to enjoy what should be avoided altogether. - pessimistic-some might say “cynical", others "realistic" ## Works: ### City of God * **(The City of God is not a work of political philosophy**, and there is good reason to agree with Ernest L. Fortin's description of Augustine as exhibiting a "lack of interest in politics."* In Augustine's own words, "as for this mortal life, which ends after a few days' course, what does it matter under whose rule a man lives, being so soon to die, provided that the rulers do not force him to impious and wicked acts." * **Augustine's City of God serves as plausible example** (we shall see other perhaps even clearer examples in later chapters) of how social circumstances and an author's fundamental commitments can mold theoretical doctrine. But, at the same time, it serves as an outstanding example of the fact that such social and intellectual contextualization of a theoretical work need in no way detract from its philosophical interest or historical importance. ## Two principal motivations of writing the book _Civitate Dei_ 1. One is to reply anew to the old pagan charge that the serious, devout practice of Christianity is incompatible with discharging one's civic duties as a member of a secular political society. 2. The second motivation was to wean his "noble pagan" readers (as well as those Christians who had been attracted to the imperial theology of Eusebius and Orosius) away from the idea that any secular social or political structure could ever provide the sufficient means for attaining true human nobility—that is, for successfully fulfilling the human function or achieving the human good. ## The Two Civitates * The two cities is that they are not, in any literal sense, cities: that is, they are not to be identified with any specific social or political institutions of human history. - Augustine uses the figure of the two cities to describe two radically different sorts of persons. - The earthly city is not to be identified with the Roman Empire (or any other secular state), and the heavenly city is not to be identified with the (Catholic) Church. * The result is that "there is one city of men who choose to live by the standard of the flesh, another by the standard of the spirit. * Augustine's theory of the two cities suggests that there is strikingly little that the citizens of the heavenly city and those of the earthly city have in common by way of such goals and purposes. The ultimate motivations *(fructus or enjoyments)* of the two kinds of person are of entirely different orders suggests that this difference in ultimate motivation will thoroughly color their attitudes to subsidiary goals and purposes— their conceptions , in other words, of what is useful and of how it is so. ## 1. The city of God, or heavenly city * "there arise enemies against whom the City of God has to be defended, though many of these correct their godless errors and become useful citizens of that City [of God]." * The heavenly city is constituted of 1. those who love God correctly, who find their enjoyment only in him, and 2. who are destined to eternal beatitude in the company of God and 3. the saints after this mortal, biological life is ended. * Whereas the heavenly city was created “by the love of God carried as far as contempt of self," * while the citizens of the Heavenly City are brought forth by grace, which sets nature free from sin. ... In one case we are shown man's customary behaviour, in the other we are given a revelation of the goodness of God. * citizens of the city of God would have little if any need for politics at all. * Before the Fall, our first parents (Adam and Eve) belonged to the City of God; ## 2. The earthly city * "city that aims at dominion, which holds nations in enslavement, but is itself dominated by that very lust of domination." * The earthly city is constituted of 1. those who have not been reincorporated into the city of God. * They are persons who seek their happiness in the enjoyment of things that ought to be only objects of use. Their conception of the human function, or ultimate purpose or good, is faulty—or, if they have some inkling of the truth in this matter, they do not manage to conform their behavior to this insight. They have not, in other words, internalized the extravagant Christian normative anthropology * "alienated from God" * antithesis of peace. * corrupted by the will to dominate and love of glory of members of the earthly city: such corruption is the inevitable consequence of the fact that members of the earthly city attempt to find their enjoyment— "the earthly city was created by self-love reaching the point of contempt of God.” The earthly city "glories in itself," "looks for glory from men,” and “lifts up its head in its own glory.” In it, “the lust for domination lords it over its princes as over the nations it subjugates." * In the earthly city, “its wise men who live by men's standards have pursued the good of the body or of their own mind, or of both." * The “citizens of the earthly city are produced by a nature which is vitiated by sin, “Thus, when man lives ‘by the standard of man' and not 'by the standard of God,' he is like the Devil." * (disordered) ultimate ends of its citizens that are members of the earthly city, ## Theoretical Political Consequences * All political institutions will forever be constituted of both citizens of the city of God and citizens of the earthly city. * Augustine's theory of the two cities suggests that there is strikingly little that the citizens of the heavenly city and those of the earthly city have in common by way of such goals and purposes. ## Augustine's distinction of fructus and usus ### 1. Enjoyment *(fructus)* * enjoyment pertains to those things in which lies our happiness. * Augustine maintains that it is an objective fact that human beings have a certain nature, purpose, or function and that only the “enjoyment” of fulfilling that function or living up to that nature constitutes true human happiness. * "True objects of enjoyment, then, are the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit,' (Confessions, “for Thou madest us for Thyself, and our heart is restless until it repose in Thee.") ### 2. use *(usus)*. * use is either good or evil, and in the way temporal goods belong to one of the two cities, (Johannes van Oort) * The ultimate motivations *(fructus or enjoyments)* of the two kinds of person are of entirely different orders suggests that this difference in ultimate motivation will thoroughly color their attitudes to subsidiary goals and purposes— their conceptions, in other words, of what is useful and of how it is so. ## The corruption of human nature resulting from the Fall * The problem is that, due to the corruption of human nature resulting from the Fall, human beings often try to enjoy what should be only an object of use; and, not infrequently, they attempt to enjoy what should be avoided altogether—both as an object of enjoyment and as an object of use. ## Peace * The citizens of each of these desire their own kind of peace, and when they achieve their aim, that is the kind of peace in which they live. * What political organization rightly contributes to human existence is peace. And, as I said earlier, he generally thinks of the kind of peace that the state can supply simply as the suppression of anarchy and of those forms of evil that most disturb civil tranquility. * The maintenance of peace, according to Augustine, does include the suppression of the worst forms of vice, which can certainly detract citizens from attaining what they take to be their ultimate good. That is, peace is at most of instrumental value—perhaps in some instances a necessary condition—with respect to the citizens of a state attaining their ends. But the sort of instrumental value that it possesses is very different for citizens of the heavenly city as contrasted to citizens of the earthly city. * And, in fact, Augustine emphasizes the point that the peace and stability supplied by the state may be of use to the citizens of the city of God who are also members of such a state. This fact supplies a motivation for cooperation by members to the state. ## Evil * Evil, according to Augustine, typically lies not in the nature of the object of desire but in the very fact that such desire is “disordered”: that is, what should be desired and sought only as an object of “use,” and should be of only instrumental service to human beings, becomes an object of enjoyment.” * “Thus, when man lives ‘by the standard of man' and not ‘by the standard of God,' he is like the Devil." * The ethical consequence, so to speak, of this doctrine is that the pursuit, as “ends in themselves" or ultimate ends, of any “natural” human functions or goods-for example, biological life, health, security, pleasure, family or social life, knowledge, or even the practice of virtue—is evil. ## “predestinarian" doctrine * That is, it is essentially the work of God's grace that incorporates those whom he chooses into the city of God. That is why the city of God do not necessarily needs politics. ## State * State is (usually) not in a position to do much to assist directly, as it were, its citizens in achieving what they take to be the human function or attaining what they take be their “enjoyment” or ultimate good. * Kind of peace that the state can supply simply as the suppression of anarchy and of those forms of evil that most disturb civil tranquility. * Supplier of peace and stabiltiy ## Political philosophy of St. Thomas ((1224-1274) - His political writings are secondary to his theological works. - He is partly idealist and realist. ## State * The result of sin and its consequences need to be mitigated since body is embodied with soul. * Necessary for the development of man whose end is happiness or eudaimonia or flourishing (supernatural end rather than natural end. * Is important since it maintains order and educational function for their future life. * A natural command. ## Similarities * They certainly agree that the ultimate nature, function, or purpose of human beings is “to know [God our Creator and Redeemer], to love Him, and to serve Him in this world, and to be happy with Him forever in heaven.” * They both subscribe to a Christian anthropology that is “extravagant” in the following sense: 1. It postulates a human ergon—a human work or function—(1) which transcends any state or activity that is fully achievable in this mortal, biological, and social life, and 2. Which is not achievable -by human beings at all without specific divine assistance. * The question, then, is “what is the role of the state, or of political organization more generally, in helping human beings to fulfill this function or attain this end?” * The political theories of Augustine and of Aquinas scarcely does justice to the interest and complexities of the political thought of these two great theologians and philosophers. ## Differences * Augustine and Aquinas have rather different theoretical conceptions of this relation between the ultimate, supernatural function of human beings and their subsidiary natural activities and ends. This difference—which I shall explore in some detail in this chapter-in part explains their different conceptions of the proper role of politics in human affairs. * Augustine holds that the most that one can reasonably expect from a political structure is that it should promote, to a greater or lesser degree, peace. And he tends to view this central political task negatively, as the suppression of anarchy and of those forms of evil that most disturb civil tranquility. * For Aquinas, on the other hand, political PHILOSOPHY organization, chiefly through the instrumentality of human law, has the capacity of furthering, in a more direct or positive way, at least the natural aspects of the human function. ### Aquinas's more positive conception of the role of secular political organization * Is related to the fact that he sees a greater degree of continuity than does Augustine between the praeternatural (“beyond the natural”) aspect of the human function or good and the natural aspects of that function. ## Law * "an ordinance of reason for the common good, made by him who has care of the community, and promulgated." 1. rational, 2. establish by property authority, 3. made known by subject, 4. common good ## Eternal law * The "Parts" of the Eternal Law: Divine, Natural, and Human Law * Exist since the beginning * Governed by divine reason; not subjected to time and space ## Natural law * Man's participation of an eternal law is called natural law. * Portion of eternal law for man due to his rational capacity. ## Human law * The statutes of government derived from the precepts of natural law. ## Divine law * Pertains to the sacraments and theology of Christianity and, in general, to what is particular to the Christian dispensation with respect to moral and social matters. * That man is directed how to perform his proper acts in view of his last end. ## Natural law VS legal positivism * **natural law** = morality (good and evil) * **legal positivism** = only concerned to legality not on morality (abortion, nazis law, unjust law must be restricted acc. to Thomas, segregation in America)