Wonders of Asia (Natural Wonders) PDF

WONDERS OF ASIA (Natural Wonders) MT. EVEREST mountain on the crest of the Great Himalayas of southern Asia that lies on the border between Nepal and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, at 27°59′ N 86°56′ E. Reaching an elevation of 29,032 feet (8,849 m...

WONDERS OF ASIA (Natural Wonders) MT. EVEREST mountain on the crest of the Great Himalayas of southern Asia that lies on the border between Nepal and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, at 27°59′ N 86°56′ E. Reaching an elevation of 29,032 feet (8,849 meters), Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world Its most common Tibetan name, Chomolungma, means “Goddess Mother of the World” or “Goddess of the Valley.” K2-MOUNTAIN the world’s second highest peak (28,251 feet [8,611 metres]), K2 is located in the Karakoram Range and lies partly in a Chinese-administered enclave of the Kashmir region within the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang, China, and partly in the Gilgit-Baltistan portion of Kashmir under the administration of Pakistan. PACIFIC OCEAN Of the three major oceans, the Pacific is by far the largest, occupying about one-third of the surface of the globe. encompasses about 62.5 million square miles (161.76 million square km). It has double the area and more than double the water volume of the Atlantic Ocean—the next largest division of the hydrosphere—and its area more than exceeds that of the whole land surface of the globe. PHILIPPINE DEEP Worlds deepest submarine trench in the floor of the Philippine Sea of the western North Pacific Ocean bordering the east coast of the island of Mindanao.  The abyss, which reaches the second greatest depth known in any ocean, was first plumbed in 1927 by the German ship Emden. INDONESIA World largest archipelago Malay Archipelago, largest group of islands in the world, consisting of the more than 17,000 islands of Indonesia and the approximately 7,000 islands of the Philippines. The regional name “East Indies” is sometimes used as a synonym for the archipelago. The archipelago extends along the Equator for more than 3,800 miles (6,100 km) and extends for 2,200 miles (3,500 km) in its greatest north-south dimension. CASPIAN SEA Siberian world’s largest lake The sea’s name derives from the ancient Kaspi peoples, who once lived in Transcaucasia to the west. Among its other historical names, Khazarsk and Khvalynsk derive from former peoples of the region, while Girkansk stems from Girkanos, “Country of the Wolves.” It covers an area of about 149,200 square miles (386,400 square km)—larger than the area of Japan—and its surface lies some 90 feet (27 meters) below sea level. The Caspian is the largest salt lake in the world, LAKE BAIKAL Siberia world’s deepest lake It is the oldest existing freshwater lake on Earth (20 million–25 million years old), as well as the deepest continental body of water, having a maximum depth of 5,315 feet (1,620 meters). It is also the world’s largest freshwater lake by volume, containing about one-fifth of the fresh water on Earth’s surface, some 5,500 cubic miles (23,000 cubic km). BENGAL BAY India world’s largest bay large but relatively shallow embayment of the northeastern Indian Ocean, occupying an area of about 839,000 square miles (2,173,000 square km). The bay is about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) wide, with an average depth of more than 8,500 feet (2,600 meters). MALACCA STRAIT Bet. malaysia and indonesia world’s largest strait waterway connecting the Andaman Sea (Indian Ocean) and the South China Sea (Pacific Ocean) The strait derived its name from the trading port of Melaka (formerly Malacca)—which was of importance in the 16th and 17th centuries—on the Malay coast. SAN JUANICO STRAIT Bet. samar and leyte world’s smallest strait is a narrow strait in the Eastern Visayan region in the Philippines. It separates the islands of Samar and Leyte and connects Carigara Bay (Samar Sea) with the San Pedro Bay (Leyte Gulf). MAN MADE WONDERS OF ASIA GREAT WALL OF CHINA The most colossal edifice ever fashioned by human hands Built by emperor shih huang ti More than 200,000 men labored on this project Also known as the world largest cemetery IFUGAO RICE TERRACES  Built about 2000 years ago on the slopes of the towering mountains of northern luzon by bare hands. If placed end to end it would extend more than 22,500 km eight times longer than the great wall of china. TAJ MAHAL - CROWN OF THE PALACE Taj mahal- agra, india A magnificent marble tomb in agra, india is hailed by westerners as the most perfect of all the buildings in the world. Built by mogul emperor shah jahan in memory of his favorite wife muntaz mahal who died in 1631. More than 22,000 artist and craftsmen from europe and asia toiled for 22 years to finish it. BOROBODUR In java indonesia A massive masterpiece of indonesia’s buddhist architecture. The Borobudur monument combines the symbolic forms of the stupa (a Buddhist commemorative mound usually containing holy relics), the temple mountain (based on Mount Meru of Hindu mythology), and the mandala (a mystic Buddhist symbol of the universe, combining the square as earth and the circle as heaven). Borobudur was constructed between about 778 and 850 ce, under the Shailendra dynasty. ANGKOR WAT Angkor Wat in cambodia ( formerly campuchea) most splendid of khmer temples Angkor Wat is the world’s largest religious structure, covering some 400 acres (160 hectares), and marks the high point of Khmer architecture.  The city of Angkor served as the royal center from which a dynasty of Khmer kings ruled one of the largest, most prosperous, and most sophisticated kingdoms in the history of Southeast Asia. All of the original religious motifs derived from Hinduism, and the temple was dedicated to the god Vishnu. SHWE DAGON The fabulous golden pagoda in rangoon, myanmar (formerly burma). a great Buddhist temple complex that crowns a hill about one mile north of the Cantonment. The pagoda itself is a solid brick stupa (Buddhist reliquary) that is completely covered with gold. It rises 326 feet (99 meters) on a hill 168 feet (51 meters) above the city. DOME OF THE ROCK The famed dome of the rock is also known as mosque of omar, an islamic shrine in jerusalem shrine in Jerusalem built by the Umayyad caliph ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān in the late 7th century ce. It is the oldest extant Islamic monument. The structure is situated on a flat elevated plaza known to Muslims as al-Ḥaram al-Sharīf (“The Noble Sanctuary”) and to Jews as the Temple Mount (the site where the Temple of Jerusalem once stood). The Dome of the Rock’s structure and ornamentation are rooted in the Byzantine architectural tradition, yet its construction in the 7th century represents an early stage in the emergence of a distinct Islamic visual style. The Geography of Asia The Asian Continent Largest of the Earth’s seven continents. Lies almost entirely in the Northern Hemisphere.  Covers an estimated 44,936,000 square kilometers or about one-third of the world’s total land area. Climate – diverse: cold highlands and hot deserts in North & West Asia, mild climates in the East & tropical climates in the South. Geographical Regions Southeast Asia - Geographical south-eastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and north-west of mainland Australia which is part of Oceania. East Asia (Far East Asia) - Geographical region that encompasses the easternmost portion of the Asian continent, including East, North, and Southeast Asia. - The term Far East has widely fallen out of use and been substituted by Asia–Pacific, while the terms Middle East and Near East, although now pertaining to different territories, are still commonly used today. South Asia - Consisting of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and peninsular India. It includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Sri Lanka; Afghanistan and the Maldives are often considered part of South Asia as well. - The term is often used synonymously with “Indian subcontinent,” though the latter term is sometimes used more restrictively to refer to Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan. North Asia - Comprises faulted and folded mountains of moderate height, such as the Verkhoyansk, Chersky, and Okhotsk-Chaun mountain arcs, all Mesozoic structures that have been rejuvenated by geologically recent tectonic events. Southeast Asia Myanmar (Burma) Thailand Cambodia Laos Vietnam Malaysia Singapore Indonesia Brunei Philippines Southeast Asia Has a land area of almost 2.73 million square kilometers. A large part of region is agricultural, owing to frequent rains in this region. It also has a striking archipelagic character, with bodies of water surrounding the lands. Indonesia- world’s largest archipelago. Mekong River The longest river in Southeast Asia is the Mekong River. This river starts in the Himalayas and flows through China, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam before emptying into the South China Sea. East Asia (Far East Asia) China Japan Taiwan Mongolia North Korea South Korea East Asia (Far East Asia) With a land area of 4.5 Million square kilometers, the region accounts for 17 percent of Asia’s total land area. China- covers almost 90% of the whole East Asia. It also holds the distinction of having the largest population in the world. East Asia is largely mountainous. Mt. Fuji Mount Fuji is the tallest mountain in Japan at 12,388 ft. The mountain is located on the island of Honshu and it is considered sacred by Shintos. Himalayan Mountain Ranges The most important mountain range in Asia is the Himalaya Mountains. The Himalayas separate India from China. Himalayas means “house of snow.” China has three major rivers that begin in the Himalayas and flow into the East China Sea or Yellow Sea. River Chinese Name Yellow river Huang He Yangtze river Chang Jiang West river Xi Jiang Huang He River (Yellow River)- China’s Sorrow Some 10 million people drowned or died of famine & disease as the result of the catastrophic floods (1887-1943). Yangtze River  - Longest river in both China and Asia and third longest river in the world, with a length of 3,915 miles (6,300 km). - Its basin, extending for some 2,000 miles (3,200 km) from west to east and for more than 600 miles (1,000 km) from north to south, drains an area of 698,265 square miles (1,808,500 square km). - From its source on the Plateau of Tibet to its mouth on the East China Sea, the river traverses or serves as the border between 10 provinces or regions. Gobi desert of Mongolia - Large, cold desert and grassland region in northern China and southern Mongolia. It is the sixth largest desert in the world. - The desert covers the southern part of Mongolia, northern and northwestern parts of China, and is elevated approximately 1500 m above sea level. - The word "Gobi" means “very large and dry” in the Mongolian language. The landscape of the Gobi Desert is characterized by rocky outcrops and barren gravel plains Taklimakan Desert of China - Great desert of Central Asia and one of the largest sandy deserts in the world. The Takla Makan occupies the central part of the Tarim Basin in the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang, western China. - The desert area extends about 600 miles (960 km) from west to east, and it has a maximum width of some 260 miles (420 km) and a total area of approximately 123,550 square miles (320,000 square km). - The desert reaches elevations of 3,900 to 4,900 feet (1,200 to 1,500 meters) above sea level in the west and south and from 2,600 to 3,300 feet (800 to 1,000 meters) in the east and north. South Asia India Bangladesh  Pakistan Sri Lanka Maldives Nepal Bhutan In South Asia the most important rivers in South Asia are: a. The Indus Indus River - Indus civilization, one of the world’s earliest civilizations, sprang from Indus River. b. The Ganges - Hindus build temples on the banks of the Ganges River. One city, Varanasi, is considered sacred by Hindus and the focal point of pilgrimages. Hindus often pray in the water and when they die many are cremated and the ashes cast into the river. Varanasi on the Ganges River - Varanasi, also called Benares, Banaras, or Kashi, is a city located on the left bank of the Ganges (Ganga) River in southeastern Uttar Pradesh state, northern India. It is one of the seven sacred cities of Hinduism. The city has a central place in the traditions of pilgrimage, death, and mourning in the Hindu world c. The Brahmaputra - Brahmaputra River, major river of Central and South Asia. It flows some 1,800 miles (2,900 km) from its source in the Himalayas to its confluence with the Ganges (Ganga) River, after which the mingled waters of the two rivers empty into the Bay of Bengal. Mt. Everest the World’s tallest mountain Mountain on the crest of the Great Himalayas of southern Asia that lies on the border between Nepal and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, at  27°59′ N 86°56′ E. Reaching an elevation of 29,032 feet (8,849 metres), Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world. Southwest Asia (Middle Eastern) Afghanistan Iran Iraq Turkey Cyprus Syria Lebanon Israel Jordan Saudi Arabia Yemen Oman Qatar United Arab Emirates Bahrain Kuwait Southwest Asia (Middle Eastern) Southwest Asia has a land area of 4.18 million square kilometers or almost 16% of Asia’s total land area. Majority of the people of Southwest Asia are Muslims or followers of the Islamic Faith. The region takes pride in the fact that it is the birthplace of the major religions: Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Zoroastrianism Southwest Asia (Middle Eastern) Southwest Asia is also known for its rich oil fields.  The region experiences a prolonged dry spell during summer, while some parts experience a reprieve with brief periods of cooler climate. The region has many deserts, particularly the Nafud and Rub’Al Khali in Saudi Arabia. Rub’ al Khali Desert : Empty Quarter of Arabian Peninsula - Vast desert region in the southern Arabian Peninsula, constituting the largest portion of the Arabian Desert. It covers an area of about 250,000 square miles (650,000 square km) in a structural basin lying mainly in southeastern Saudi Arabia, with lesser portions in Yemen, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates. North Asia Georgia Armenia Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Turkmenistan Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan North Asia Almost 40% of Asia’s total land area is located in North Asia, whose area totals 10.4 million square kilometers. The region also host the Ural Mountain, which serves as boundary between Europe and Asia. Among the major bodies of water in the region are the Black Sea, Aral Sea and the Caspian Sea.  ASIAN HISTORY ASIA- came from Aegean word ASER which means “SUNRISE”. The term Asia was first used by Pindar, a Greek poet. Formerly called Far East. GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES world’s largest continent 17, 139,000 sq. miles (nearly 1/3 of the land surface of the earth) World’s populous continent (about 60% of the world’s pop. is in Asia) Boundaries N- Arctic Ocean S- Indian Ocean E- Pacific Ocean W- Ural Mountains, Caspian Sea, Black Sea and Aegean Sea It is separated from N. America by the narrow Bering Strait and from Africa by Suez Canal. In SE, it is connected by tropical islands to Australia. GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS 1. CENTRAL NORTH ASIA -Afghanistan, Mongolian People’s Rep. and Siberia and Soviet Central Asia 2. SOUTH ASIA- centered on Indian Sub-continent that comprises: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, Sikkim and Maldives 3. EAST ASIA- called as FAR EAST by the westerners, because it is part of Asia which is farthest east of Europe. This includes China, Taiwan (formerly FORMOSA), Korea and Japan. 4. SOUTHWEST ASIA OR MIDDLE EAST – It is also called by Europeans as NEAR EAST due to its nearest location to Europe. Sometimes they called this as MIDDLE EAST for it is midway between Europe and East Asia. South West comprises: Iran (Persia), Iraq(Mesopotamia), Syria, Lebanon (Phoenicia), Turkey (Asia Minor), Jordan, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait (former prov. of Iraq), Bahrain, (Garden of Eden ) Qatar, U.A.E., Oman, and Yemen. SOUTH EAST ASIA It covers: Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand (Siam), Burma(Myanmar), Cambodia (Kampuchea), Brunei Darussalam, Laos and Vietnam. ASIAN ASIA The part of the continent that has significant historical, cultural, agricultural and climatic criteria that set it apart from other continental areas despite the elements of cultural convergence that characterize the various worldwide processes of modernization. SOVIET ASIA The part of Asia that is culturally oriented to and identified with Europe and therefore not Asian. ASIA IN WORLD HISTORY ASIA was the seat of the world’s civilization. Early civilization developed in the river valleys of the ff: - TIGRIS & EUPHRATES - Iraq - INDUS – India - YELLOW RIVER - China  GROUP 1 REPORTING (CIVILIZATION IN EAST ASIA) JAPAN Island nation in east asia Was known for its rich culture, technological advancements and its capital tokyo JAPAN PHILOSOPHIES BUDDHISM Buddhism is considered to have been officially introduced to Japan in A.D. 538 Buddhism originated in India in the 6th century BC. It consists of the teachings of the Buddha, Gautama Siddhartha. Of the main branches of Buddhism, it is the Mahayana or "Greater Vehicle" Buddhism which found its way to Japan. 3 KINDS BUDDHISM ZEN BUDDHISM ❖ The essential element of Zen Buddhism is found in its name, for zen means “meditation.” Zen teaches that enlightenment is achieved through the profound realization that one is already an enlightened being. ❖ meditation involves observing and letting go of the thoughts and feelings that arise in the mindstream, as well as developing insight into the nature of body and mind. ❖ main principles of Zen philosophy are the denial of the ego, the focus on interconnectedness in the universe, the recognition of attachment as a source of suffering, and the realization that human perception is faulty. PURE LAND BUDDHISM ❖ a tradition which is primarily focused on achieving rebirth in a Buddha's "pure land" or buddha-field, which generally speaking is a Buddha's field of influence. ❖ The main practice of those who follow the Pure Land teachings is not the study of the texts or meditation on the Buddha but rather the constant invocation of the name Amitabha, a practice based on the 18th vow of Dharmakara. ❖ the attainment of nirvana is not the most prominent goal; it is rather to become reborn in the Pure Land of Amitabha. ❖ the name Amitabha—called nembutsu in Japanese and nianfo in Chinese—became popular in China and Japan, where it was believed that the world had reached the decadent age, the so-called “latter days of the law” in which Buddhist doctrines were unclear and humans lacked the purity of heart or determination to attain salvation by their efforts. NICHIREN BUDDHISM ❖ Nichiren Buddhists specifically believe that everyone can change their destiny and bring about the effects they desire. Followers are encouraged to write their personal goals down on a piece of paper and have it in front of them while chanting. The aim of the practice is to establish high states of self-development. ❖ Nichiren believed that the quintessence of the Buddha’s teachings is contained in the Lotus Sutra (Sanskrit: Saddharmapundarika-sutra; “The Scripture of the Lotus of the Good Law”). According to him, the other sects then existing in Japan misunderstood the truth, and he vehemently denounced them and the government that supported them. ❖ Nichiren Buddhism generally sources its basic doctrine from the Lotus Sutra claiming that all sentient beings possess an internal Buddha-nature capable of attaining Buddhahood in the current life. There are three essential aspects to Nichiren Buddhism: 1. The faith in Nichiren's Gohonzon 2. The chanting of Nam Myoho Renge Kyo with varying recitations of the Lotus Sutra 3. The study of Nichiren's scriptural writings, called Gosho SHINTOISM indigenous religious beliefs and practices of Japan. The word Shintō, which literally means “the way of kami” (generally sacred or divine power, specifically the various gods or deities), came into use in order to distinguish indigenous Japanese beliefs from Buddhism, which had been introduced into Japan in the 6th century ce. Shintō has no founder, no official sacred scriptures in the strict sense, and no fixed dogmas, but it has preserved its guiding beliefs throughout the ages. SHINTO TEMPLE Shintō religion of Japan that focuses on worship in public shrines, in contrast to folk and sectarian practices ( Kyōha Shintō ) the successor to State Shintō, the nationalistic cult disbanded by decree of the Allied occupation forces at the end of World War II and subsequently in the Japanese constitution. Shinto shrines (神社, jinja) are places of worship and the dwellings of the kami, the Shinto "gods". Sacred objects of worship that represent the kami are stored in the innermost chamber of the shrine where they cannot usually be seen by anybody. There are four affirmations in Shinto: tradition and family, love of nature, physical cleanliness, and matsuri (festivals in which worship and honor is given to the kami). JAPAN SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Social stratification refers to a society's categorization of its people into rankings of socioeconomic tiers based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power. SAMURAI the warrior class who held the most power and serve as military and government leader FARMER valued for producing food, they were just below in samurai status ARTISAN skilled craftsmen who made essential goods like tools and weapon MERCHANTS though often wealthy they are at the bottom of the hierarchy because they were seen as contributing less to society core needs CHINA country of East Asia. It is the largest of all Asian countries. Occupying nearly the entire East Asian landmass, it covers approximately one-fourteenth of the land area of Earth, and it is almost as large as the whole of Europe. has 33 administrative units directly under the central government; these consist of 22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities (Chongqing, Beijing, Shanghai, and Tianjin), and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau) POLITICAL INSTITUTES OF CHINA China usually had an imperial government Imperial means that it was ruled by an emperor Emperor is a political leader Dynasty the line of rulers from the same family China believes that religion affects government China was using bureaucracy of government officials Bureaucracy is a group of workers SOCIAL STRUCTURE From the Qin dynasty to the late Qing dynasty (221 B.C.E.- C.E. 1840), the Chinese government divided Chinese people into four classes: landlord, peasant, craftsmen, and merchant. Landlords and peasants constituted the two major classes, while merchants and craftsmen were collected into the two minor.  Shi (士): This class consisted of scholars, government officials, and intellectuals. The "Shi" were considered the most prestigious class, as they were associated with knowledge, governance, and moral leadership. Confucianism emphasized the importance of education, making the scholar class central to the society's order and stability. Nong (农): This class represented the farmers and agricultural workers. In an agrarian society like ancient China, farming was highly valued, and the "Nong" were respected for their role in producing food and maintaining the sustenance of the population. Gong (工): This group included artisans and craftsmen. The "Gong" were skilled workers responsible for creating the tools, clothing, and buildings essential for society. They were respected for their craftsmanship and the practical contributions they made. Shang (商): The merchant class. Despite the importance of trade in generating wealth, the "Shang" were traditionally ranked lower because Confucian ideology saw the pursuit of profit as less virtuous than other professions. Merchants were often perceived as being concerned primarily with personal gain rather than contributing to society's overall well-being. RELIGION (CONFUCIANISM) the way of life propagated by Confucius in the 6th–5th century bce and followed by the Chinese people for more than two millennia. Although transformed over time, it is still the substance of learning, the source of values, and the social code of the Chinese. Its influence has also extended to other countries, particularly Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. The story of Confucianism does not begin with Confucius. Nor was Confucius the founder of Confucianism in the sense that the Buddha was the founder of Buddhism and Jesus Christ the founder of Christianity. Rather, Confucius considered himself a transmitter who consciously tried to reanimate the old in order to attain the new.  KEY ASPECTS OF CONFUCIANISM INCLUDE: ❖ Virtues - Confucianism emphasizes virtues such as humaneness, rites, loyalty, and filial piety. ❖ Social order - asserts that the way individuals behave affects the social order at the family and wider social levels. ❖ Individual responsibility -it emphasizes the idea that individuals are spiritually responsible for their actions. ❖ Family and harmony - emphasizes the importance of family and social harmony. ❖ Civil religion- is often characterized as a "civil religion" because its institutions are not separate from society, family, school, and state. ❖ Humanistic - humanistic in that it focuses on the importance of family and social harmony, rather than an otherworldly source of spiritual values. TAOISM indigenous religio-philosophical tradition that has shaped Chinese life for more than 2,000 years. In the broadest sense, a Taoist attitude toward life can be seen in the accepting and yielding, the joyful and carefree sides of the Chinese character, an attitude that offsets and complements the moral and duty-conscious, austere and purposeful character ascribed to Confucianism. Taoism is also characterized by a positive, active attitude toward the occult and the metaphysical (theories on the nature of reality), whereas the agnostic, pragmatic Confucian tradition considers these issues of only marginal importance, although the reality of such issues is, by most Confucians, not denied. The Tao - The fundamental principle of Taoism which is the interplay between the five elements and the interdependence of the macrocosm and microcosm. The Tao Te Ching - is a short collection of 81 prose poems that summarize the key concepts of Taoism. It is believed to have been written by the philosopher Lao Tzu around 500 B.C.E. Harmony - Taoism promotes living in harmony with nature and with each other  Humility and pacifism- Taoism encourages humility and pacifism. Spiritual immortality- Taoists believe in spiritual immortality, where the spirit of the body joins the universe after death. No gods or afterlife - Taoism is unique among major world 2 religions because it doesn't have any concepts of gods, an afterlife, or other supernatural beliefs. Influence - Taoism has influenced traditional Chinese religious beliefs and Buddhism. GROUP 2 REPORTING (CIVILIZATION IN NORTH ASIA) Emergence of Warrior Organizations Warrior organizations The region of North Asia has been home to several ancient civilizations, some of which developed warrior organizations as part of their societal structures. The emergence of warrior organizations in North Asia was closely tied to the nomadic lifestyle of the inhabitants of the region. The vast expanses of the Eurasian Steppe required a strong military presence to protect against neighboring tribes and invaders, leading to the development of highly organized and disciplined warrior societies. Scythians It’s a group of Iranian nomads who inhabited the Eurasian Steppe during the 8th to 4th centuries BC. The Scythians were highly skilled warriors and were known for their prowess in archery and horsemanship. They organized themselves into powerful warrior organizations and were feared by neighboring civilizations such as the Persians and Greeks. Steepe warriors The steppe warriors were nomads, who moved from one settlement to the next to accommodate their pastoral means of subsistence. The Steppe people originate from a number of different areas found in Europe and Asia. Many of the Steppe people were Chinese, including clans from Mongolia, and others were European from areas including Russia and Hungary The Huns & Hsiung Nus Huns The Huns were nomadic warriors who terrorized much of Europe and the Roman Empire in the 4th and 5th centuries A.D. They were impressive horsemen best known for their astounding military achievements. As they plundered their way across the European continent, the Huns acquired a reputation for being ruthless, indomitable savages. By 370 AD, the Huns had arrived on the Volga, causing the westwards movement of Goths and Alans. By 430, they had established a vast, but short-lived, empire on the Danubian frontier of the Roman empire in Europe. The Huns were equestrian masters who reportedly revered horses and sometimes slept on horseback. Most Hun soldiers dressed simply but regally outfitted their steeds with saddles and stirrups trimmed in gold, silver and precious stones. The Huns took a unique approach to warfare. They moved fast and swiftly on the battlefield and fought in seeming disarray, which confused their foes and kept them on the run. They were expert archers who used reflex bows By 432, the leadership of the various groups of Huns had been centralized under a single king, Rua, or Rugila. When Rua died in 434, he was succeeded by his two nephews, Bleda and Attila. The joint rulers negotiated a peace treaty at Margus with the Eastern Roman Empire  About 445 Attila murdered his brother Bleda and in 447, for unknown reasons, made his second great attack on the Eastern Roman Empire. He devastated the Balkans and drove south into Greece as far as Thermopylae. Xiongnu A pastoral nomadic people wandering in search of grazing lands for their herds of horses, cows and sheep. They had no walled cities and did not engage in agriculture, and that the men were formidable warriors, trained from an early age to hunt on horseback with bow and arrow. At the end of the 3rd century BCE, they formed a great tribal league that was able to dominate much of Central Asia for more than 500 years. Their repeated invasions prompted the small kingdoms of North China to begin erecting what later became the Great Wall. The Mongols Brief Background Before the Mongolian Empire, the Eurasian Steppes is constructed of different nomadic tribes. These Nomadic Tribes practices Pastoralism and set up their Yurts (tent) if they find pastures. As resources are scarce, they often engaged in combat with each other to plunder the resources in a land. This is a common occurrence until the unification and the establishment of the Mongolian Empire. 1162 On this year, Temüjin was born or widely known as Chinggis/Genghis Khan (Universal Ruler, Khan of all Khans, The Great Ruler). 1171  The Father of Temüjin, Yüsegei, was poisoned by a rival nomadic tribe named Tatars. 1195 Temüjin was able to rise up from the ranks and were able to form loyal allies through equal shares of plunder. 1206 Temüjin rescued his wife from the Merkits and after that, formed a temporary allience with the Khereids to defeat the Tatars. It is also in this year that the Khans’ (Chieftain of different nomadic tribes) held a Kurultai (General Assembly) to formally elect and endowed the title of Chinggis/Genghis Khan to Temüjin, thus the beginning of a unification and the Mongolian Empire. 1209 Temüjin conquered the northern part of China (Tangut Dynasty) by staying and setting up their yurts (tent) and staying there for quite a while until eventually the king of the Tangut Dynasty form an allegiance with the Mongols. 1215 Genghis Khan was able to subdue the walls of Jin Dynasty through the help of Chinese engineers by creating tools for sieging the high walls and with this the fall of Beijing. 1219 - 1221 Genghis Khan send his Muslim emissaries in order to form trade relations with the Khwarezm Empire, however, the Sultanate of the Empire thought they were spies and killed them, this lead to a war decimating Bukhara, Samarkand, and Urgech (Capital). The Silk Road is a vast trade route where all the traders past in order to deliver their goods in other countries. 1226 - 1227 Genghis Khan returned furiously to the Tangut Dynasty (Xi Xia) to exact his anger because the King of Xi Xia refused to help with the subjugation of the Khwarezm Empire. During this time, Genghis Khan died. MONGOL EMPIRE IMPACT OF THE MONGOL INVASION Roughly 40 million died during the conquest of Genghis Khan. During conquest, the villages of the settlers were burned and irrigation systems were destroyed. Displacement was a common occurrence when news of a Mongol Invasion reach the settlers of a territory. The Ottoman Turks The Ottoman Turks were members of the Ottoman Empire, a vast and powerful empire that emerged in the late 13th century. For more than 600 years, the Ottomans ruled over a multicultural and multi-ethnic empire that stretched all through Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa. The Ottoman Turks trace their origins to the region of Anatolia (Turkey) The empire's founder, Osman I led a small Turkish principality around the town of Söğüt. The Ottomans gradually expanded their territory by unifying other Turkish principalities and conquering Byzantine territories. Grew into one of the most powerful political entities in the region, their early success was marked by a strong military and administrative structure. Foundation and Expansion (1299-1453) Under Osman's successors, the Ottoman Empire expanded throughout Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. The most significant early conquest was Mehmed II's invasion of Constantinople in 1453, which marked the fall of the Byzantine Empire. Golden Age (1453-1600s) Suleiman expanded the empire's territory further into Europe, Africa, and Asia. The Ottomans became leaders in art, architecture, science, and administration, such as the Süleymaniye Mosque and the Topkapi Palace.  The empire was known for its advanced legal system, military prowess, and rich culture. Decline (1600s-1800s) The empire started to face challenges by the late 17th century. The wars with European powers like the Habsburgs, the Russians, and internal revolts weakened its hold over its territories. By the 19th century, it was often referred to as the "sick man of Europe." End of the Empire (1900s) The final blow to the Ottoman Empire came during World War I when it sided with the Central Powers. Following their defeat in 1918, the empire was carved up by the victorious Allied powers under the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920. In 1923, under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the Ottoman Empire was officially dissolved, and the Republic of Turkey was established. Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire collapsed after World War I. The territories that were once part of the empire were divided among European powers, and led to the creation of several modern nation-states, including Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and others. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk reformed Turkey into a secular, modern republic, stripping away the remnants of the Ottoman political and social system. Contributions Cultural and Architectural Legacy - The Ottomans left behind a rich cultural and architectural heritage cities like Constantinople, are home to grand mosques, palaces, and bazaars that still stand today. Structures like the Hagia Sophia converted into a mosque during the Ottoman period and the Blue Mosque are iconic symbols of the empire's architectural innovation.  Legal and Administrative Reforms - The Ottoman Empire developed a sophisticated legal and administrative system that balanced the needs of its diverse population. Wherein the millet system allowed only religious minorities, such as Christians and Jews, to govern their own affairs while paying a special tax, which ensured some degree of autonomy. Muslims were at the top of the hierarchy, with Turks forming the elite ruling class. Non-Muslims, while protected under the millet system, were considered second-class citizens and subject to certain restrictions, such as the payment of the jizya tax. Slaves were also a significant part of Ottoman society, and while they had few rights, many slaves especially those within the Sultan’s palace or military could rise to prominent positions of power. Advances in Science and Medicine - During its golden age, the Ottomans made significant contributions to science, mathematics, and medicine. There are the scholars who translated and preserved ancient texts, while also making their own advancements in fields such as astronomy, geography, and surgery. Trade and Global Influence - As a hub of trade between Europe, Asia, and Africa, the Ottoman Empire had an impact in global commerce. There empire controlled important trade routes, including the Silk Road, which facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies between the East and West. Culinary Influence - The Ottomans also had a lasting impact on world cuisine. Dishes such as baklava or breads, Turkish coffee and various kebabs have spread far beyond the borders of the former empire. Tamerlane Tamerlane, also known as Timur or Timur the Lame (1336–1405), was a Central Asian conqueror and the founder of the Timurid Empire. His legacy is marked by military campaigns across Central Asia, the Middle East, and parts of South Asia. Creation of the Timurid Empire:  Which at its height spanned from modern-day Turkey to India and from southern Russia to Iran. His empire was known for its cultural diversity and administrative sophistication. His capital was Samarkand, which he transformed into a major center of Islamic culture. Military Conquests: Tamerlane had a profound influence on the Islamic world. His rule left a lasting impact on the Islamic world, contributing to the spread of Islamic culture and architecture. He led military campaigns across Asia. Defeat of the Golden Horde (1395) - Tamerlane defeated the Golden Horde, a powerful Mongol state in Russia, destabilizing their control over the region. Invasion of India (1398) - Tamerlane sacked Delhi, which led to the weakening of the Delhi Sultanate. His campaign in India was particularly brutal and resulted in large-scale destruction Campaigns against Persia and the Middle East - He captured major Persian cities like Herat, Shiraz, and Isfahan, defeating several Persian dynasties. Battle of Ankara (1402) - He defeated the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I, capturing him and temporarily halting Ottoman expansion. Cultural Patronage and Legacy Tamerlane, a conqueror and patron of art, architecture, and science, brought craftsmen and artists to Samarkand, creating grand structures like Gur-e-Amir mausoleum and Bibi-Khanym Mosque. Russia Russian civilization A country that expands from Eastern Eyrope to Northern Asia. Was once the Union Soviet of Socialist Republic.  After the decline of the Ottoman Empire, Russian civilization experienced significant expansion and transformation, particularly under the Romanov dynasty. The 18th and 19th centuries saw the Russian Empire aggressively colonize North Asia, driven by economic interests, resource exploitation, and strategic expansion. Key factors included the establishment of trade routes, military campaigns against indigenous populations, and the promotion of settlements. This period ultimately reshaped Russia's demographics and economic landscape and it's transition to the USSR or Soviet Union. Cultural Preservation and National Identity Emphasis on Orthodox Christianity - The Russian Orthodox Church plays a central role in preserving the spiritual and moral values of Russian civilization. Language and Literature -- Protecting the Russian language and promoting literary heritage (e.g., Tolstoy, Dostoevsky) to sustain cultural pride. Defending Traditional Values - There is a strong emphasis on resisting perceived Western cultural influences and promoting traditional family structures and societal roles. Geopolitical Influence and Sovereignty Asserting Global Influence - Russia aims to maintain its status as a great power, balancing against Western powers (like the U.S. and EU) and promoting a multipolar world order. Securing Borders and Buffer Zones - Historically, Russia has aimed to control or influence surrounding regions (e.g., Central Asia, Eastern Europe) to maintain strategic security. Economic Stability and Resource Management Energy as Leverage - Russia seeks to utilize its vast natural resources, especially oil and gas, both as a tool for economic development and as a geopolitical asset.  Economic Self-Sufficiency - In response to sanctions and external pressures, Russia has focused on import substitution and developing domestic industries. Unity through Eurasianism Eurasian Integration - The concept of Eurasianism emphasizes Russia’s unique position between Europe and Asia, encouraging the creation of alliances like the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). Multinational Cohesion - Russia has historically integrated diverse ethnic and religious groups within its borders, fostering unity under the idea of a common Russian civilization. Historical Continuity and Legacy Reviving Imperial and Soviet Legacies - There is pride in both the achievements of the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union, often framed as periods when Russia was strong and influential. Restoring Lost Influence - Efforts to re-establish influence in regions formerly part of the Soviet Union (e.g., Ukraine, Georgia) reflect a belief in Russia’s civilizational mission.  GROUP 3 REPORTING (CIVILIZATION IN SOUTH ASIA) Religio-Philosophical Beliefs of South Asia Brahmanism Origin: Brahmanism evolved from early Vedic beliefs introduced by Aryans in the Indus Valley. The teachings of the Vedas, considered eternal truths, were "heard" and transcribed by ancient sages. Traditions and Cultures: Brahmanism focused on rituals conducted by Brahmin priests, who recited the Vedas in Sanskrit. Most common people could not understand the language, which created distance between the spiritual leaders and the general populace Beliefs and Practices: It centers around the belief in Brahman, the ultimate reality, and the idea that the universe is governed by eternal laws (rita). The Vedas, hymns, and chants were core to religious practices, along with rituals to maintain cosmic and social order. Religious Significance: Brahmanism formed the foundation of Hinduism and significantly influenced the development of early social hierarchies, like the caste system. Hinduism Origin: Emerging from Brahmanism, Hinduism became a more complex and varied system of beliefs over time, integrating local customs with Vedic teachings. The core concept of Brahman, the universal soul, continued as a major focus. Traditions and Cultures: Hinduism, known to its followers as Sanatan Dharma or the Eternal Order, is a monotheistic, polytheistic, and even henotheistic religion depending on interpretation. The Vedas are seen as eternal, while other scriptures like the Mahabharata and Ramayana also became central texts.  Beliefs and Practices: Hindus believe in karma (action), dharma (duty), and moksha (liberation from the cycle of rebirth). Key practices include rituals, meditation, and yoga aimed at achieving a higher understanding of the self and the universe. Reincarnation is also a central belief. Religious Significance: Hinduism shaped the cultural, social, and political dynamics of South Asia, including the caste system and societal duties. Buddhism Origin: Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) in the 6th century BCE as a response to the ritualistic nature of Brahmanism. Traditions and Cultures: The Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as ways to transcend suffering caused by desire and attachment. The religion focused on enlightenment (nirvana) and the impermanent nature of life. Beliefs and Practices: Buddhism rejects the Vedas' authority and is a non-theistic religion. Core practices include meditation, mindfulness, and ethical living to avoid samsara (the cycle of rebirth). The Buddhist path emphasizes personal responsibility for overcoming suffering through wisdom, ethical conduct, and mental discipline. Religious Significance: While Buddhism initially remained a minor belief system, it gained significant prominence under Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire, helping spread the faith across South and Southeast Asia. FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS AND EIGHTFOLD PATHS- BUDDHISM Life is suffering (dukkha), Suffering is caused by desire and attachment, Suffering can end when desire is overcome, and The way to end suffering is by following the Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path is a practical guide to living a moral life and includes steps like right understanding, right intention, right speech, and right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration Jainism Origin: Jainism is one of the oldest religions, originating in Northern India. Its teachings are traced to 24 sages known as tirthankaras, with Mahavira (599-527 BCE) being the last and most influential. Traditions and Cultures: Jainism is a non-theistic religion that rejects belief in a creator god but acknowledges higher beings (devas). It emphasizes strict non-violence (ahimsa) and spiritual discipline as ways to free oneself from karmic bondage and the cycle of rebirth. Beliefs and Practices: Key teachings include the Five Vows: non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, chastity, and non-attachment. Jainism teaches that all living beings possess an immortal soul that can be liberated through ethical and spiritual discipline. The goal is to achieve liberation (moksha) by becoming a spiritual conqueror (jina). Religious Significance: Jainism has had a significant influence on South Asian culture, particularly through its emphasis on non violence, vegetarianism, and respect for all life forms. FIVE VOWS- JAINISM Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (chastity), and Aparigraha (non-attachment). Sikhism Origin: Sikhism was founded in Northern India in the 15th century by Guru Nanak Dev Ji. It is a distinct religion that emerged from the region's religious and cultural landscape, blending elements of Hinduism and Islam. Traditions and Cultures: Sikhism is a monotheistic faith centered around the belief in one God. Sikhs reject the caste system, emphasize equality of all people, and encourage devotion to God, service to humanity, and honest living. Beliefs and Practices: Sikhs practice meditation, prayer, and community service. The Five Ks (articles of faith) symbolize a Sikh’s devotion and include unshorn hair, a comb, a steel bracelet, a sword, and knee-length breeches. Sikhism rejects ritualism and encourages direct devotion to God. Religious Significance: Sikhism's emphasis on equality, social justice, and community welfare has greatly contributed to the cultural and political landscape of the region, particularly in Punjab. FIVE Ks- SIKHISM Kesh (unshorn hair), symbolizing acceptance of God's will, Kanga (a wooden comb), representing cleanliness, Kara (a steel bracelet), symbolizing restraint and connection with the divine, Kirpan (a small ceremonial sword), symbolizing the duty to protect the weak, and Kachera (knee-length breeches), symbolizing self-control and modesty.