Herd Management Practices for Cattle PDF

HERD MANAGEMENT Herd Management Practices for Cattle Herd Division ▪ Ensures the appropriate nutrition and management of beef cattle ▪ Nutritional requirements vary with age ▪ Young animals disadvantaged in one-herd system -- Adult animals eat more digestible and palatable feed -- Calves left...

HERD MANAGEMENT Herd Management Practices for Cattle Herd Division ▪ Ensures the appropriate nutrition and management of beef cattle ▪ Nutritional requirements vary with age ▪ Young animals disadvantaged in one-herd system -- Adult animals eat more digestible and palatable feed -- Calves left with less digestible feed ▪ Premature breeding is difficult to control in mixed-age herds ▪ Higher abortion rate due to butting and fighting between the animals ▪ Benefits of herd division: -- Improved nutrition for all age groups -- Reduced premature breeding -- Reduced abortion rate -- Easier management of herd ▪ Animals may be divided into the following herds. -- Pregnant herd ▪ Composed of pregnant females. ▪ Cows are grouped in the breeding herd during the breeding season. -- Breeding herd ▪ Consists of dry cows and heifers ready for breeding. ▪ After the breeding season, pregnant animals are transferred to the pregnant herd. ▪ Animals may be divided into the following herds. -- Heifer herd ▪ Composed of heifers not yet ready for breeding. -- Steer, feeder or fattener herd ▪ Consist of growing cattle and those to be fattened for slaughtering. -- Bull herd ▪ Consist of mature males kept mainly for servicing the breeding cows/ heifers. Management of Breeding Females ▪ Daily Feed Requirements of Pregnant Cows -- Important to meet and support nutritional needs of both mother and offspring -- The following table shows the recommended daily feed requirements for a pregnant cow: ▪ Pregnant Cows -- Separate pregnant cows from herd ▪ Avoid injury and abortion from riding, butting, and fighting -- Provide small grass paddocks for cows due to calve within two weeks -- Paddocks should be accessible to caretaker ▪ Gestation period: 283 days (275-298 days) ▪ Gestation period varies by breed ▪ Signs of pregnancy -- Cessation of Estrus or Heat ▪ not in-heat after 24 days = pregnant -- Enlargement of the Abdomen and Udder ▪ good sign but not 100% accurate -- Palpation ▪ manual examination of the reproductive tract ▪ more reliable; done after 60-90 post-breeding ▪ Calving -- natural process, usually takes place without help -- close observation required, especially for first-time calvers (heifers) -- Signs of calving: ▪ increased belly size, especially on the right flank ▪ filling up of udder and stiffening of teats ▪ Reddening of vulva, and swelling accompanied with the presence of mucous and blood colored fluid ▪ restlessness ▪ appearance of water bag at the vulva -- Normal calving ▪ Water bag appears through vulva ▪ Cow strains more ▪ Calf\'s head and front feet appear ▪ Takes 4-6 hours to reach this stage (longer for heifers) ▪ Calf starts to breathe as its chest comes through vagina ▪ Best to leave cow alone to calve naturally ▪ If you help, gently pull calf by feet ▪ Cut navel cord with clean sharp knife or scissors, apply tincture of iodine or alcohol at the end of the navel cord ▪ Back feet may appear first: soles of feet uppermost, look for tail and hock joints -- Difficulties in Calving ▪ Ask veterinarians if any of the following occurs: -- 1) Only the head of the calf has appeared -- 2) The head and one foot has come out -- 3) Two front feet showing but no head ▪ water bags sometimes burst without the head or feet appearing -- call the veterinarian immediately -- Caring for the Cow after Calving ▪ give clean water immediately after calving ▪ water bag (or afterbirth) comes out naturally, but can be removed manually by gently pulling it -- expelled 24 hours after calving -- cause infection if it remains in the uterus Lactating Cows and Newborn Animals ▪ Caring for the Lactating Cows -- Tips to understand suggested practices: ▪ Feed green succulent forage and leguminous hay or straw to the animal. ▪ Provide enough forage to meet the animal\'s maintenance requirements. ▪ Provide extra concentrate at the rate of 1 kg for every 2 to 2.5 liters of milk. ▪ Provide salt and mineral supplements to maintain lactation. ▪ Never frighten or excite the animals. Always treat them gently and with kindness. ▪ Proper feeding and care can help a cow come to heat within 16 days of calving. ▪ Caring for the Lactating Cows -- Tips to understand suggested practices: ▪ Breed a cow as soon as possible after she shows signs of heat. ▪ Shorter intervals between calving make cows more efficient milk producers. ▪ Keep breeding and calving records to ensure a steady flow of milk. ▪ Feed each animal according to its production. ▪ Keep individual production records. ▪ Feed regularly. ▪ Feed concentrate mix before or during milking, and roughage after milking. This will avoid dust in the shed. ▪ Provide water frequently, especially if the animal is eating only paddy straw. ▪ Milk cows regularly, at least three times a day, to increase milk production. ▪ Use rapid, continuous, and dry hand milking without jerking the teats. ▪ Train cows to let down milk without calf suckling. ▪ Provide shelter during the hot part of the day and allow cows to exercise freely. ▪ Groom cows and wash them before milking to produce clean milk. ▪ Spray cows with water in the summer to keep them comfortable. ▪ Detect and treat common ailments and vices. ▪ Provide a 60--90-day dry period between calving's. ▪ Vaccinate cows against important diseases and protect them from insects and pests. ▪ Number cows and record their milk production, fat percentage, feed intake, breeding, drying, and calving dates. ▪ Check for mastitis regularly. ▪ Caring for the Newborn Calf -- handle calves carefully -- clean the mucous (sticky fluid) from the nose and mouth -- check that the calf is breathing normally -- if not breathing, immediately do: ▪ pumping the chest with the palm of your hand. ▪ keep the calf\'s head lower than its back. ▪ insert a straw into its nose in an attempt to make it sneeze and start breathing. -- allow the calf to suckle from its mother as soon as possible ▪ You must allow the calf to take colostrum for at least four days after its birth. ▪ Open Cows and Replacement Heifers -- provide open and non-pregnant cows and replacement heifers with the right amount of feed daily to maintain good body condition. -- cull animals with reproductive problems and those that failed to settle after breeding. Management of Calves, Weaners, Growers and Fatteners ▪ Calves -- calves should suckle colostrum from their mothers within 3-4 hours of birth. -- if a calf has not suckled within 5-6 hours, lead it to the mother\'s udder. -- in bad weather or if the calf is weak, bring the calf and mother to the barn. -- orphaned calves can be raised on cow\'s milk or milk replacers. -- give calves concentrates at an early age for faster growth. ▪ Weaners -- calves are weaned between 8-10 months ▪ depends on feed availability and cow condition ▪ Growers -- weaners and yearlings which are not to be fattened immediately -- handled to maximize growth at lowest possible cost -- growing period starts from weaning to fattening or replacement stage -- Pasture-raised with little attention -- Supplement with salt, minerals, and concentrates (if confined) ▪ Fatteners -- require short feeding period before reaching slaughter weight -- generally bigger and more mature -- 200-300kg more preferred -- may be fattened in feedlot, pasture, or both Management of Breeding Bulls ▪ should be selected as a pure breed -- 50% of genetic make-up of offspring ▪ should be in good condition at the start of the breeding season -- regular exercise should be given to keep their aggressiveness ▪ allowed to breed if they are at least 2- years of age ▪ given supplemental feeding of grains or concentrates 60 to 90 days before and after breeding period ▪ should be housed separately from the herd to prevent inbreeding ▪ min. 30cm of testicular circumference of young bull greatly contributes to the bull's fertility index (recent study result) Housing Management ▪ house is best kept simple ▪ primary purpose -- provide shelter from extreme weather conditions -- cattle can be kept outside if they have protection ▪ consider actual usable lying space rather than total size of barn -- deduct waterer and feeder space -- deduct alley space and space next to the feeders that is not suitable for resting ▪ Barn space requirements of calves and finishers ▪ Feeder space requirements of calves and finishers Grazing Management ▪ Pasture-based cattle production system: -- complex system (plant-soil-animal) -- productivity depends on balance among components -- goal: highest possible beef weight in shortest time -- sound pasture management ensures herbage is maintained without sacrificing animal nutrition Grazing Management ▪ Pasture-based cattle production system: -- complex system (plant-soil-animal) -- productivity depends on balance among components -- goal: highest possible beef weight in shortest time -- sound pasture management ensures herbage is maintained without sacrificing animal nutrition ▪ Dehorning -- animals become quiet and do not fight -- best time: less than one week old -- advantages of dehorned animals: ▪ requires less spaces in feedlots ▪ occupy less space in transit or shipment ▪ more uniform in appearance ▪ less risk of injury to handlers and other animals -- achieved through: ▪ Use of caustic soda or dehorning paste -- applied to young calves whose horn buttons grew a little ▪ Dehorning iron -- applied to calves with horn buttons not over 1.5-2.0 cm long ▪ Metal spoons, Barnes dehorner, dehorning clipper and hand/electric saws -- applied to older animals ▪ Record Keeping -- list the genetically-superior cattle for breeding -- identify slow-gaining heifers, bulls that produce undesirable hereditary traits, and those that do not perform satisfactory despite good feeding and management ▪ culled or removed to improve the herd quality and to increase profit in beef production. ▪ Selection and Culling -- poor performing breeders should be culled -- criteria: ▪ Cow -- calves every 1/2 to 2 years. -- produces a little amount of milk and raises a small calf despite good feeding and management. ▪ Small, weak, and unhealthy animals -- susceptible to diseases and may become the source of infection ▪ Heifers -- do not come in heat in spite of proper age, good size, healthy condition, vigor and strength. -- fail to meet the standard set for the breeding herd. ▪ Bulls and cows -- have undesirable hereditary defects such as inverted teats, hernia, dwarfism, bull dog, cryptorchidism (failure of one or both testicles to descend normally), and the like. CATTLE NUTRITION Introduction ▪ Ruminants can survive on highly fibrous diets, e.g., grasses, legumes, tree leaves -- Effectively utilize farm by-product concentrates -- Possible due to 4 chamber stomachs ▪ Reticulum ▪ Rumen ▪ Omasum ▪ Abomasum ▪ Reticulum + rumen = fermentation region -- Reticulum -- receives feed from esophagus; ingesta from rumen to delivery back to mouth during rumination -- Rumen -- 70% of the compound stomach; ingesta is ruminated and masticated several times to reduce particle size for more efficient digestion by microbes ▪ Rumen fluids contain lots of bacteria, fungi, and protozoa -- Responsible for continuous digestion of nutrients ▪ Carbohydrates -\> volatile fatty acids (VFA), carbon dioxide, methane ▪ VFA -- made up of acetic, butyric and propionic acids; produce major energy source ▪ Protein -\> NH3 (ammonia) and carbon dioxide -- Ammonia -- absorbed across rumen wall then enter circulatory system; converted to urea in the liver -- Dependent on particle size of feed, chemical structure of cell wall, nutrient deficiency -- acids are constantly produced; Saliva keeps pH inside neutral ▪ Omasum -- filled with lamella -- Increase the surface area for absorption of water, VFA, and bicarbonate -- Unabsorbed nutrient goes to abomasum ▪ Abomasum -- site of initial digestion of protein into polypeptides -- Highly acidic -- Chyme flows to duodenum were secretions from liver, pancreas and intestine breakdown the nutrients further to simple compounds for easier absorption Water ▪ One of the components of feed, together with dry matter -- DM contains the organic material and inorganic elements ▪ Essential for transport of metabolic products and waste -- Requirement for many bodies chemical processes ▪ Amount consumed by animal -- depends on feed moisture content, body size of animal and environmental temperature ▪ Low water intake -\> lower feed intake Energy ▪ Required for body maintenance, growth, work, and production ▪ Amount required -\> varies with size, level of production, and physiological state ▪ Carbohydrates -- most common source for energy of ruminants -- Soluble (starch and sugars) -- Structural (cellulose and hemicellulose) ▪ Lipids and proteins are the other sources from plants ▪ Unit of measure = digestible energy (DE) or total digestible nutrients (TDN) -- DE = gross energy of the feed intake measure from feces -- TDN = sum of digestible carbohydrate, protein, fiber and fat ▪ 1 kg TDN = 4.2 kcal of DE Protein ▪ Utilized first by the microbes in the rumen for growth and reproduction ▪ Protein fermentation -\> NH3 and CO2 ▪ Undigested feed proteins and mcgs from the rumen are passed to the lower gastrointestinal tract, and enzymatically digested and absorbed as amino acids -- Microbial protein -\> excellent source of amino acids ▪ Protein requirement = influenced by microorganisms in the rumen -- Feed proteins must have rumen-soluble protein (for microbes) and rumen-insoluble protein (for ruminants) Minerals ▪ Influenced by the mineral status of the soil ▪ In PH, phosphorus (P) is the single most limiting mineral -- Soil is lacking in this element -- Deficiency results to low feed intake, low production levels, and osteoporosis (in severe cases) ▪ Salt is deficient in grasses and forage -- Best provided ad libitum as salt blocks or loose form ▪ Calcium, magnesium, and potassium -- normally sufficient in grasses -- Concentrate and/or grain feeding may require supplementation of these minerals ▪ Cobalt, iron, iodine, copper, manganese, zinc and selenium -- provided in small amounts if soil is deficient in any Vitamins ▪ Vitamin C -- synthesized in the rumen by mcgs ▪ Vitamin K -- synthesize in the rumen by bacteria ▪ Vitamin E -- found in most feeds ▪ Vitamin D -- synthesized in the skin during sunlight exposure ▪ Vitamin A -- synthesized from carotene from young fresh grass, but devoid in mature grasses, most crop residues, and some grains -- Low dietary intake may be tolerated if there is sufficient amount stored in the liver Deficiency problems ▪ Not enough water, protein, carbohydrates, or fats -- Animals cannot grow properly -- Lose weight -- Drop in milk production -- Pregnancy and calving problems ▪ Lack of minerals -- Failure to come into heat -- Poor bone growth -- Loss of hair or wool ▪ Lack of vitamins -- Blindness -- Swollen joints Common feeds for ruminants ▪ Forages -- Natural and cheapest -- Pre-flowering grass (8%), legumes (\~20%), mature grasses (4%) -- Grass-legume pasture is ideal to meet dietary requirements of ruminants ▪ By-product roughage -- Highly fibrous materials (e.g. rice straw, corn stover, corn cobs, sugar cane tops) -- Low in CP -- Poor digestibility -- Concentrate supplementation is needed if used Concentrates -- Locally, limited amount of grains fed to ruminants -- By-product concentrates constitute the bulk of supplements to roughages ▪ Copra meal, rice bran, wheat pollard, molasses (\~75% TDN; vary widely in CP = 0% in molasses to 21% in copra meal) ▪ Use of urea in ruminant ration -- Used as partial protein source in other countries -- Converted to ammonia ▪ High concentration = toxic and fatal to ruminants -- Urea supplements must be used with caution -- Guidelines: ▪ Add fertilizer grade urea at not more than: -- 1% of the ration (DM basis) -- 2-3% of the concentrate mixture (air-dry basis) -- 25-30% of the total dietary protein ▪ Adequate source of energy (molasses, corn, etc.) must be fed with urea ▪ Sufficient amount of minerals, S in molasses for example, must be available ▪ Small amounts in multiple feeding throughout the day than in one feeding ▪ Whether fed in granules or dissolved in water, mix well ▪ Processed/preserved feeds for ruminants -- Hay making -- drying roughage by sun or artificially till MC of 10-15% ▪ Procedure: -- Dry the materials by spreading these on the dry ground under the sun. -- Turn over after half day of drying. -- Continue sun drying for 2 to 3 days depending on the moisture level. The finished product should have at least 10 to 15% dry matter. -- Pile the dried materials and compress into desired weight. -- Tie the compressed hay for storage. ▪ Processed/preserved feeds for ruminants -- Silage making -- fermenting the roughages prior to feeding, lactic acid formation will serve as preservative ▪ Procedure: -- Wilt the grass to an estimated of dry matter content of 30 to 35% and chop it to about 2-3 cm (hand squeeze test). -- Transfer the chopped materials to the drum lined with plastic. -- Cover and seal the fitted drum by tying the plastic top. Put some weight to compress the chopped materials inside. -- Leave undisturbed and protect from moisture. -- After 21 days, silage is ready to feed to animals ANIMAL HEALTH PROGRAM HERD HEALTH MANAGEMENT ▪ Must integrate livestock medicine with modern production technology ▪ Veterinarians devise programs for health, care, and disease control while raisers implement the programs -- Objective: attaining healthy and productive animals -- Diseases and abnormalities may still occur ▪ Immediately report for early suppression and treatment ▪ Slow growth of cattle industry even with increased number of species -- May be attributed to: ▪ Low conception rate (\10%) ▪ Annual death losses in mature cattle (\>2%) -- Expectedly high due to ineffective disease control program -- Readily identifiable causes of death are due to: ▪ Infection ▪ Lacking in nutrition ▪ Parasitic diseases Suggested disease preventive measures ▪ Starting with healthy stocks -- Animals to be purchased should be examined for abnormalities, defects or signs of illnesses -- Buy from reliable sources of known sturdy parental stocks -- Isolate for a minimum of 30 days prior to introduction to herd ▪ Parasite and diseases control through deworming, deticking, and immunization during isolation period -- For unconfined or pastured animals, apply same programs. In areas with high incidence of liverfluke, deworming with effective flukicides every 3-4 months -- Detick with effective chemicals ▪ Provide proper ration -- healthy cows are more resistant ▪ Provide proper housing and clean water supply -- Individually confined animals or herd division: sanitize pens ▪ Include prompt waste disposal -\> eliminates pests and insects ▪ Graze in pasture free from parasites ▪ Snail control and pasture management should compliment regular deworming ▪ Deworm regularly as mature stocks may serve as carriers of parasites -- High nematode incidence= deworm 3-4x a year/as recommended ▪ Cull unproductive breeding stocks and replace with good breeders ▪ Conduct regular checks for parasitism -- Random fecal examination at regular intervals may help ▪ During disease outbreaks or when animal is ill: segregate immediately and seek veterinary assistance ▪ Immunize regularly against diseases prevalent in the area ▪ Segregate animals according to their species to avoid intertransmission of diseases HEALTH PROGRAM FOR CATTLE BEFORE BREEDING ▪ Selecting breeders: -- Pick accordingly according to physical characteristics, temperament, or previous productive performance; pedigree too if known ▪ Test for brucellosis and leptospirosis, especially in areas these are prevalent ▪ Deworm with wide spectrum anthelmintics ▪ Inject vitamin ADE to improve reproductive performance ▪ Vaccinate against diseases prevalent in the area -- Accomplish prior to breeding or pregnancy PREGNANCY PERIOD ▪ Maintain high plane of nutrition -- Provide nutritional supplements if necessary ▪ Deficiencies linked to increased mortality and poor livability of calves ▪ Inject vitamin ADE during 2nd and 3rd trimester ▪ Provide bacterins at 7-8 months pregnancy -- Protects both cow and calves through passive immunity from colostrum ▪ At 2-3 weeks of pregnancy, deworm cows against common intestinal roundworms using wide spectrum dewormers CALVING AND POST-CALVING ▪ Segregate expectant cows at least 1 week before calving -- Avoid unnecessary stress and provide adequate and comfortable quarters ▪ Prepare calving area -- small, clean and dry; free from build-up of filth and manure -- Use clean straw as bedding -- Wash genital area and udder before calving ▪ Reduces contamination and/or infection of during sucking ▪ Cut umbilical cord and apply tincture of iodine ▪ May insert antibiotic boluses in the vagina to prevent uterine infection CALVES UPTO WEANING ▪ Deworm calves as early as 4-5 weeks if in areas with high internal parasitism incidence; repeat after 30d ▪ If appears weak, supplement with multivitamin/mineral preparation, preferable vitamin B complex -- Water soluble nutritional supplements may be made available all times to the calves ▪ Spray with insecticides -- necessary as calves are susceptible to ticks and other external parasites -- Potentially poisonous if not properly applied -- Seek technical advice for proper dosage, formulation and interval of application ▪ Cattle ticks: interval of 3 weeks for 5 consecutive times CALVES UPTO WEANING ▪ Vaccinate at 6months old, preferable before weaning ▪ Deworm again at 2-3months before weaning ▪ Practice creep feeding prior to weaning -- reduces separation stress -- Leave calf in pasture or corral where creep is until final weaning is done YEARLING TO GROWING PERIOD ▪ Vaccinate again after previous has lapsed ▪ Repeat tick control as instructed ▪ Treat against liverfluke by flukicide treatment every 3 months -- Especially in areas it is common -- If infection is reduced, do it twice a year after ▪ Consult veterinarian once there is a disease outbreak for proper treatment and control