Why Bump Testing Saves Lives (PDF) - Industrial Scientific

"Articles/Powerpoints/Bulletins" WHITE PAPER Why Bump Testing SAVES By: LIVES Dave Wagner, Global Director of Product Knowledge & iNet Product Manager, Industrial Scientific Corporation...

"Articles/Powerpoints/Bulletins" WHITE PAPER Why Bump Testing SAVES By: LIVES Dave Wagner, Global Director of Product Knowledge & iNet Product Manager, Industrial Scientific Corporation New data reveals the correlation between bump test intervals and gas detector failures Work This is a common response that many manufacturers and industry associations hear when they recommend “bump” testing gas detectors prior to each day’s use. In the past, the reasons for this may have been hard to understand. Without quantifiable evidence, the importance of bump testing was often lost in a deluge of other safety best practices and recommendations. A few years ago, misleading information about so-called “maintenance-free” gas detectors only added to the confusion. Over the past seven years, we have collected and monitored data from tens of thousands of gas detectors. A recent analysis of this data has produced some surprising results. Now, we have hard evidence that supports the need for routine bump testing. In this paper, we will explore these findings and demonstrate the life-saving importance of bump testing prior to each day’s use. Analysis powered by data from: 1 billion+ datalogged readings 4.7 million+ bump test records 2.5 million+ alarm events 1.1 million+ calibration records 27,000+ gas detectors 1,100+ customer sites Why Bump Testing Saves Lives | Page 1 WHITE PAPER Bump Test Defined Then confined space legislation went into effect in the United States in 1993 and later in the A “bump” test of a portable gas detector is UK in 1997. As a result, the use of portable gas performed in order to verify the functionality of detection instruments proliferated worldwide. sensor(s) and alarms. The test is performed by briefly With widespread use in virtually every industrial exposing the instrument to a known concentration(s) environment, performing calibration prior to use on of the target gas(es) and verifying that the instrument large fleets of gas detectors became onerous and responds accordingly. economically burdensome. The bump test is only a verification of functionality. The legislation required instruments to be calibrated It is not designed nor intended to measure a gas according to manufacturer’s recommendations. detector’s accuracy. Therefore, the concentration of This led to end user requests for manufacturers gas used in the exposure is not critical; but it should to reduce these requirements and ease their be higher than the alarm settings for each sensor. customers’ pain. This gave birth to the bump test as a way to ensure that instruments were tested prior Simply stated, bump tests verify the gas detector’s to use while reducing the recommendations for alarm functions by simulating alarm conditions for calibration; saving customers time and money. each sensor. Today, the term “bump test” is part of the regular BUMP TESTS VERIFY THE GAS DETECTOR’S vocabulary of every manufacturer and end user of ALARM FUNCTIONS BY SIMULATING portable gas detectors. ALARM CONDITIONS FOR EACH SENSOR. Analysis of Bump Test Failure Data This is necessary considering that the output of a Industrial Scientific Corporation collects data from typical gas sensor in clean air is zero. That’s the same portable gas detectors used in the field through as the output of a non-functional or dead sensor. So iNet, a premier fleet monitoring service. Collected exposing the instrument and sensors to gas is the data includes calibration and bump test records, only way to know that the sensor will respond to diagnostic test information, gas readings and alarm dangerous gas in the atmosphere. events uploaded from the datalogging memory of each gas detector. Bump Test History In all, the iNet database holds more than 1 billion In the pre-confined-space era of gas detection, datalogged gas readings, 4.7 million bump test portable gas detectors were characterized by analog records, 1.1 million calibration records and 2.5 million meter movements, LED indicators, and in some gas alarm events. This data has been uploaded from cases, crude digital displays tied to analog electronic more than 27,000 gas detectors used in over 1,100 systems. Instruments were used primarily for end-user locations. declassifying areas in hot work operations; or for detecting dangerous levels of methane or oxygen Analyzing this data has revealed that the incidence depletion in mining applications. of bump test failure in instruments tested on a daily basis is approximately 0.3%. That failure rate These instruments were considered to be more appears to be trivial. But in practical terms, it means analytical in nature and more precise than their that 3 gas detectors out of every 1,000 will fail to technology permitted. Therefore, many manufacturers respond properly to gas during a bump test on any recommended calibration prior to each day’s use to given day. The plot below shows that increasing the ensure functionality and accuracy. bump test interval to 20 days doubles the expected failure rate. Why Bump Testing Saves Lives | Page 2 WHITE PAPER FAILURE IS CREATED IN THE ENVIRONMENTS THAT THE INSTRUMENTS ARE USED IN AND THE MANNER IN WHICH THEY ARE USED. A further study combined this test data with an Portable gas detectors are used in harsh applications. analysis of how frequently gas detectors are exposed They are dropped from high places and subjected to to hazardous, alarming conditions. The study found extreme shock. They are exposed to extreme that, on average, one out of every 100 gas detectors temperatures and humidity, and to dust, water and not bump tested before use will fail to respond and mud. alarm properly to an actual gas alarm event every 25 days. Delicate sensors and electronics can be damaged by shock. Sensor membranes and openings can also be Why Bump Test Failures Occur blocked by debris preventing gas in the atmosphere Why do bump test and instrument failures occur? from reaching the sensors. Does the frequency of failure reflect poorly on the quality and reliability of the product? Most often, The damage to the instrument in these cases is not failure is not attributed to the gas detector or the always visible and may only be apparent when a gas sensors themselves. Failure is created in the bump test failure occurs. environments that the instruments are used in and the manner in which they are used. Probability of Bump Test Failure 0.014 0.012 0.01 Test Failures (%) 0.008 Probability of Failure 0.006 0.004 0.002 0 0 10 20 30 40 Bump Test Interval (Days) New data supports manufacturers’ recommendations for a daily bump test. This graph shows that the bump test failure rate in instruments tested on a daily basis is approximately 0.3%. Increasing the bump test interval to 20 days doubles the expected rate of failure. Why Bump Testing Saves Lives | Page 3 WHITE PAPER Why Bump Tests are Important On any given day, 1 in every 2,500 untested instruments will fail to respond to a dangerous Failure can also be attributed to improper maintenance concentration of gas. The daily bump test is the only as demonstrated in the following documented way to detect these failures before they occur. Don’t incident: Workers in a refinery control room noticed take your gas detector to the job and rely on it to save the smell of gas during a routine shift. They contacted your life without testing it first. their plant safety department, which sent a portable gas detector to test the atmosphere. After several Tools to Automate Bump Tests minutes, the instrument showed that no gas was Many organizations find it difficult to bump test gas present. detectors this frequently. They may also want these tests performed consistently and without operator With the odor from the gas strengthening, the error. workers decided to evacuate the control room. As they left the area, one of the workers ignited a blast Calibration stations and docking systems have made that catastrophically damaged the control center. these challenges easy to overcome. They also save Luckily, there were no fatal injuries. the time that it would take for an operator to perform the same function manually. ON ANY GIVEN DAY, 1 IN EVERY 2,500 UNTESTED INSTRUMENTS WILL FAIL Another option that has gained momentum in recent years provides Gas Detection as a Service. Industrial TO RESPOND TO A DANGEROUS Scientific’s iNet is the only choice that combines CONCENTRATION OF GAS. these automated functions with automatic equipment replacements. Plus, subscribers have full visibility into An investigation revealed why the gas detector failed their gas detection program. Hosted software shows to see the gas. An improper calibration prevented trends and data related to their gas detector alarms, the gas detector from responding to the hazard and exposure and usage. That way, safety managers have producing an alarm. the tools they need to address problems before they happen. If a simple bump test had been performed before the gas detector was used, the incident would have been avoided. Bump Test Gas Detectors Daily Portable gas detectors are precise electronic devices that play a critical role in protecting workers. Their ability to do their job properly is not always visually apparent. Why Bump Testing Saves Lives | Page 4 E David Dodson: The Art of Reading Smoke 6.27.2014 BY DAVID W. DODSON One of the “basics” that is gaining headway is the ability to “read smoke” to help predict fire behavior within a structure. The ability to read smoke has been around for many decades–the fire officers handling America’s fire epidemic in the 1970s became quite proficient at the skill. Unfortunately, these sound tacticians felt that the ability to read smoke was based on experience and intuitiveness and couldn’t necessarily be taught except for repeated practice at actual fires. Further, the skills these fire officers developed in reading smoke don’t readily apply to today’s fires. Low-mass synthetics and the consumer trend toward “big box” purchasing have led to a more volatile fire environment. To make matters worse, we are responding to fewer fires; the experience teacher is arguably diminished. To get back to the basics, we need to teach fire officers how to rapidly interpret smoke issuing from a building so that appropriate tactical choices can be made. For example, the first-due officer who can rapidly read smoke can make better decisions about aggressive fire attack or search and rescue priorities. While far from complete, this article will capture the essence of “reading smoke” and offer some tried and tested interpretations to help fire officers make better rapid decisions on the fireground. Reading smoke is not difficult–although for most fire officers, it will take an effort to break the “heavy smoke or light smoke” mentality that has come out of rapid “size-up” radio reports. “Smoke” leaving a structure has four key attributes: volume, velocity (pressure), density, and color. A comparative analysis of these attributes can help the fire officer determine the size and location of the fire as well as the potential for a hostile fire event like flashover. Before we can look at the meaning of each attribute, we must understand the underlying science behind what is seen in smoke. “SMOKE” DEFINED In a simpler time, smoke was viewed as the particulates (solids) that are suspended in a thermal column. Fire gases and aerosols were listed as separate products of the combustion process. In today’s world, that oversimplification is dangerous. When a fire officer sees smoke leaving a building, the smoke needs to be interpreted as an aggregate of solids, aerosols, and fire gases that are toxic, flammable, and volatile. The solids that are suspended in the thermal plume include carbon (soot), ash, dust, and airborne fibers. Concerning aerosols typically include a whole host of hydrocarbons (oils/tar). Fire gases are numerous with carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, acrolein, hydrogen sulfide, and benzene leading the list. The bottom line is, Hot smoke is extremely flammable and will ultimately dictate fire behavior. Fire officers who focus on the fire (flaming) to determine tactics are being set up for a “sucker punch.” Open flaming is actually a good thing–the products of combustion are minimized to basically carbon, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. Within a building, the heat from flaming is absorbed through materials (contents and the walls/ceiling). These materials break down and begin off-gassing without flaming (pyrolysis). It is here that smoke flammability begins. Within a box (room), the off-gassed smoke displaces air, leading to what is termed an “underventilated” fire. Underventilated fires don’t allow the open flaming to complete a reaction with pure air–leading to increasing volumes of CO as well as the aforementioned smoke products. The smoke is looking to complete what was started. Two triggers, the right temperature and the right mixture, may cause the smoke to ignite. Smoke gases above their flashpoint (with air mix) just need a sudden spark or flame to complete the ignition. Distal to the actual fire, a simple glowing ember or s failing light bulb can spark the ignition. Smoke gases above their ignition temperature just need a proper air mix. Ignition of smoke that has pressurized a room or “box” will likely result in an explosive surge. Ignition of accumulated smoke also changes basic fire spread dynamics–instead of flame spread across surfaces of contents, the fire spreads with the smoke flow. The fire officer who watches what the smoke is doing will make better decisions than the one focused on flaming, simply because the smoke will tell you how nasty the fire is about to become as opposed to how bad it currently is. A compartmentalized fire that is ventilation-limited is looking for air. Arriving firefighters who open the front door for an aggressive attack provide that air. As smoke leaves the door, a volume switch begins to take place. Air is now becoming available to the fire, and a sudden growth in fire spread becomes imminent. With this understanding, we can look at the four attributes of the smoke. ATTRIBUTES OF SMOKE The four attributes of smoke are volume, velocity, density, and color. Volume Smoke volume by itself tells very little about a fire, but it sets the stage for understanding the amount of fuels that are “off-gassing” within a given space. A hot, clean-burning fire will emit very little visible smoke, yet a hot, fast-moving fire in an “underventilated” building will show a tremendous volume of smoke. The changes in today’s contents (low mass) can develop large volumes of smoke even though little flame is present. The volume of smoke can help set an impression about the fire. For example, a small fast-food restaurant can be totally filled with smoke from a small fire. Conversely, to fill the local “big box” store full of smoke would take a significant fire event. Once a container is full of smoke, pressure begins building if adequate ventilation is not available. This can help us understand smoke velocity. Velocity The speed and flow characteristic of smoke that leaves a building is referred to as velocity. In actuality, smoke velocity is an indicator of pressure that has built up within the building. From a tactical standpoint, the fire officer needs to know WHAT has caused the smoke pressure. From a fire behavior point of view, only two things can cause smoke to pressurize within a building: heat and volume. When you watch smoke leave the building, know that pressure caused by heat will typically rise and slow gradually after it leaves the building. Pressure caused by volume saturation will immediately slow and balance with outside air flow. In addition to speed, smoke will have a flow characteristic: turbulent or laminar. If the velocity of the smoke leaving an opening is turbulent (other descriptions may include agitated smoke, boiling smoke, or “angry” smoke), a flashover is likely to occur. Turbulent flow is caused by rapid molecular expansion of the gases within the smoke and restriction of this expansion by the “box” (container). This expansion is being caused by radiant heat feedback from the box itself– simply, the box can’t absorb any more heat. This is the precursor to flashover. If the “box” is still absorbing heat, the heat of the smoke is subsequently absorbed, leaving a more stable or “laminar” smoke flow. Other words for laminar can include smooth or straight-line flow. The most important smoke observation is turbulent vs. laminar smoke flow. Smoke that is turbulent is ready to ignite and indicates a flashover environment delayed by improper air mix. Comparing the velocity of smoke at different openings of the building can help the fire officer determine the location of the fire: Faster smoke will be closer to the fire seat. Remember, however, that the smoke velocity you see outside the building is ultimately determined by the size of the exhaust opening. Smoke will follow the path of least resistance and lose velocity as the distance from the fire increases. To find the location of fire by comparing velocities, you must only compare like-size openings (doors to doors, cracks to cracks, and so on). A veteran commander of hundreds of fires once told me to find the fastest smoke from the smallest opening–that’s where the fire is. In my own experience, I’ve found this to be a pretty accurate shortcut. Density Whereas velocity can help you understand much about a fire (how hot and where), density tells you how bad things are going to be. Density of smoke refers to its thickness. Since smoke is fuel–airborne solids, aerosols, and gases that are capable of further burning–thickness tells you how much fuel is laden in the smoke. In essence, the thicker the smoke, the more spectacular the flashover or fire spread. Smoke thickness also indicates “fuel continuity.” Practically applied, thick smoke will spread a fire event (like flashover) farther than less dense smoke. We already know that turbulent smoke is a flashover warning sign, yet thick, laminar-flowing smoke can ignite because of the continuity of the fuel bed to a flaming source. One other point regarding smoke density: Thick, black smoke within a compartment reduces the chance of life sustainability because of smoke toxicology. A few breaths of thick, black smoke will render a victim unconscious and cause death within minutes. Further, the firefighter crawling through zero-visibility smoke is actually crawling through ignitable fuel. Modern fire tests are showing that smoke-cloud ignition can happen at lower temperatures than fires of even 10 years ago. We can thank plastics and low-mass materials for making our job more dangerous. Color Most fire service curricula teach us that smoke color indicates the “type” of material that is burning. In reality, this is only true for single-fuel or single-commodity fires. In typical residential and commercial fires, it is rare that a single fuel source is emitting smoke–the smoke seen leaving a building is a mix of colors. For a first-arriving fire officer, smoke color tells the stage of heating and helps us find the location of the fire within a building. Virtually all solid materials will emit a white “smoke” when first heated. This white smoke is moisture (natural products) and various vapors like ammonia and phenols (synthetics). As a material dries out and breaks down, the color of the smoke will change. Wood materials will change to tan or brown; plastics and painted/stained surfaces will emit a grey smoke. As materials are further heated, the smoke leaving the material will eventually be all black (carbonization). When flames touch a surface, the surface will off-gas black smoke almost immediately. Therefore, the more black the smoke, the hotter the smoke. Black smoke that is high velocity and very thin (low density) is indicative of flame-pushed smoke; the fire is nearby. Smoke color can also help you find the location of a fire. As smoke leaves a fuel that is ignited, it heats up other materials, and the moisture from those objects can cause black smoke to turn grey, or even white, over distance. As smoke travels, carbon and hydrocarbon content from the smoke will deposit along surfaces and objects, which also lightens the smoke color. That leads to the question, Is the dirty-white smoke you see a result of early-stage heating or late-stage heating smoke that has traveled some distance? To answer, just look at the velocity. White smoke that has its own pressure (push) is indicating distance. White smoke that is slow or lazy is most likely indicative of early-stage heating. One more important note about smoke color–namely, brown smoke. Unfinished wood gives off a distinctive brown smoke as it approaches late-stage heating (just prior to flaming). In many cases, the only unfinished wood in a structure is the wall studs, floor joists, and roof rafters/trusses. This can tell you that the fire is transitioning from a contents fire to a structural fire. Using our knowledge of building construction–especially lightweight structural components and gusset plates–the issuance of brown smoke from gable- end vents, eaves, and floor seams become a warning sign of impending collapse. Remember also that engineered wood products like oriented strand board (OSB) and laminated veneer lumber (LVL or “Micro-lam”) lose strength when heated. The glues of these products break down with heat and don’t necessarily need flames to come apart. Brown smoke from structural spaces containing OSB or LVL can indicate that critical strength has been already lost. Knowing the meaning of each attribute helps us paint a picture of the fire. By combining these smoke attributes, some basic observations about the fire can be made before firefighters enter a structure. Compare smoke velocity and color from various openings to help find the location of the fire. Faster/darker smoke is closer to the fire seat, whereas slower/lighter smoke is further away. Typically, you’ll see distinct differences in velocity and colors from various openings. In cases where the smoke appears uniform–that is, same color/velocity from multiple openings–you should start thinking that the fire is in a concealed space (or deep- seated). In these cases, the smoke has traveled some distance or has been pressure-forced through closed doors or seams (walls/concealed spaces), which “neutralizes” color and velocity prior to exiting the building. BLACK FIRE “Black fire” is a good phrase to describe smoke that is high- volume, turbulent velocity, ultra-dense, and black. Black fire is a sure sign of impending autoignition and flashover. In actuality, the phrase “black fire” is accurate–the smoke itself is doing all the destruction that flames would cause, charring, heat damage to steel, content destruction, and victim death. Black fire can reach temperatures of more than 1,000 degrees! Firefighters should treat black fire just as actual flames–vent and cool! Wind, thermal balance, fire streams, ventilation openings, and sprinkler systems change the appearance of smoke. All smoke observations must be analyzed in proportion to the building. For example, smoke that is low volume, slow velocity, very thin, and light colored may indicate a small fire–only if the building or “box” is small. This same observation from several openings of a “big box” store or large warehouse can indicate a large, dangerous fire. PRACTICING THE “READING SMOKE” SKILL Some firefighters may view the reading-smoke process as complicated or time-consuming. Trust me, once you capture the basics and start practicing, your ability to read smoke will improve exponentially–and you will be able to read smoke in mere seconds! As stated, you must practice! How do we practice reading smoke in an environment with fewer fires? The answer is grounded in desire and a bit of inventiveness. I use raw fireground video footage. These videos are available from several sources, and many can be found on the Web. The next time your crew meets for a meal, slip in a video and vocalize volume, velocity, density, and color observations. Be sure to compare the attribute differences around the building. One other technique I use to practice reading smoke may seem silly, but it works. I simply watch smoke coming from a restaurant grease hood, fireplace chimney, or smoke stack. Although it’s not difficult to understand the source of the smoke, the process of vocalizing what you see can improve your recognition speed. If you simply vocalize “how much, how fast, how thick, and what color,” you’ll build your speed and improve your smoke awareness. The faster you can recognize the attributes, the faster you can get a “read.” Remember, reading smoke is not a tactic but a tool to help you make better tactical choices. In essence, the “reading smoke” approach allows us to be more “intellectually aggressive” as opposed to arbitrary aggressiveness. In the end, we still need to make the “box” behave (vent), control the fire (cool the flames and hot smoke), and aggressively search for victims. With all the challenges and changes in our emergency service world, it’s easy to see why we’ve lost the ability to read smoke. Take this information, and move it up the on the training priority list. You’ll be amazed at how powerful it can be in predicting fire behavior, deciding tactics, and preventing firefighter injuries or deaths. Oh, and don’t forget to pass it on! Endnotes Fire Protection Handbook, 19th Edition, Volume II, Section 8, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2003. Quintiere, James G., Principles of Fire Behavior, Delmar Publishers, a Division of Thomson Learning, Clifton Park, NY, 1998.  Fire Protection Handbook, 19th Edition, Volume I ,Section 3, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2003. This author compared the Handbook 2003 fire behavior models to data presented in the 1980s. Recent National Institute of Standards and Technology and Underwriters Laboratories fire studies confirm this point. This is based on the author’s research in talking with numerous wood product manufactures as well as “backyard” testing with components during live-fire training. BIO DAVID DODSON is a fire service author and lecturer. He has 25 years of “street duty,” serving as a battalion chief, training/safety officer, and emergency manager for several Colorado fire departments. He is a past recipient of the George D. Post Fire Instructor of the Year award. He has served on national boards including the NFPA Firefighter Occupational Safety Technical Committee, International Society of Fire Service Instructors (ISFSI), and the Fire Department Safety Officers ‘Association (serving as president). He owns and instructs for Response Solutions, LLC, a company dedicated to firefighter safety through training, procedural development, and consulting.  IAFC BULLETIN August 1, 2022 Recommended Fire Department Response to Energy Storage Systems (ESS) Part 1 Events involving ESS Systems with Lithium-ion batteries can be extremely dangerous. All re crews must follow department policy, and train all sta on response to incidents involving ESS. Compromised lithium-ion batteries can produce signi cant amounts of ammable gases with potential risk of de agration and re. 1. If a commercial or utility install, follow pre-plan and do not enter structure. 2. Residential setting response, control power to the unit, ventilate the area, and protect exposures. 3. In all cases contact manufacture technical support as soon as possible. This guide serves as a resource for emergency responders with regards to safety surrounding lithium ion Energy Storage Systems (ESS). Each manufacturer has speci c response guidelines that should be made available to rst responders prior to activation. ESS systems come in many shapes and sizes. They may be a liated with renewable systems (wind, photovoltaic systems, etc) or used as standby power. ESS Systems can be installed in single family homes too large commercial and utility applications. INCIDENT ACTIONS Pre-Incident The re crew should allow the battery to burn itself out, during which it is recommended to apply water spray to neighboring battery enclosures and exposures to further mitigate the spread of the Modify or establish your department hazards rather than directly onto the burning unit. policy or standard response Applying water directly to the a ected enclosure will not stop the thermal runaway event, as the re guideline to ESS incidents. Include will be located behind several layers of steel material, and direct application of water has shown to guidelines for mitigation of the only delay the eventual combustion of the entire unit. event which may include a defensive Firefighters must wear full personal protective equipment, including SCBA with face-piece. operations such as non-intervention If identified in pre-incident plan, shut off the unit/system by operating any visible disconnects or E-stops and manage re propagation or (shutting off the disconnect does not remove the energy from the battery). To isolate any PV system and protect exposures. ESS in an emergency, multiple disconnects may need to be shut off. This could include circuit breakers, knife-blade disconnects, or other switches. Review installation procedures for Lithium ion batteries that are in thermal runaway or off gasing will create hazardous atmospheres. systems with the various code Firefighters must stay out of the vapor cloud and not rely on gas monitors (without consideration of of cials including Building, Fire, and cross contamination of the gas sensors) Electrical Due to construction of the unit, thermal imaging cameras may not give true thermal conditions. ESS systems must be installed per Events can occur from damage, exterior fire, or a malfunction. Smoke or suspicious odor from an ESS the adopted re and building codes system can be an indication of a hazardous condition. When batteries or cells enter thermal runaway, there in the region. is typically a period of smoke (may be under pressure). The smoke is most likely flammable and may ignite at any time. For the 2015 editions of the Responding to a venting ESS product International Fire Code and NFPA 1 Evacuate the area. Never open any doors or remove panels to ESS units. Fire Code and earlier editions the Contact vendor-specific technical support for assistance including BMS data. Residential units that are located inside a dwelling unit or garage, the space should be properly ventilated necessary safety requirements are with charged hand-lines in place. not present (Consider language in Maintain a safe distance from the ESS and monitor. A remote FDC may be present on larger commercial 2021 Fire Codes or NFPA 855). or utility ESS to support a sprinkler system inside the enclosure. Each manufacturer will have a recommended time for a battery pack to cool down. This can be near a Ensure pre-incident plans are full work cycle of 12 hours or more. covering location, type, disconnect, Defensive Firefighting, Water spray is the preferred agent for response to lithium-ion battery fires and other contact information (Lithium-ion is not water reactive). If a fire has not developed and only smoke is visible, take a defensive stance toward the system Pre-incident plans should provide and be prepared to apply water spray. rapid response resources for If a fire develops, take a defensive stance toward the burning unit and apply water spray to company of cers speci c to your neighboring battery enclosures and exposures. area and region including OEM Maintaining a safe distance from the unit involved (large commercial systems, at least 300’). Response crews should allow the battery to burn out. Water should be applied to adjacent battery emergency contact information enclosures and exposures (building). Train on department policy and perform practical scenarios which support the response plan International Association of Fire Chiefs 4795 Meadow Wood Lane Suite 100W, Chantilly, VA 20151 1 fl fi fi fi fi fi ff fi fi ff fl ffi fi fi fi fi fi  Response to Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) Vehicles  Same gas that is used for heat in households nationwide but is compressed for storage. Can be refrigerated to -260°F (-162°C) to be stored as a liquid (LNG). What is CNG Natural Gas has been used commercially as a fuel for cars, trucks, and buses since the 1970’s (Compressed Properties Lighter than Air Natural Non-Toxic Non-Corrosive Gas)? Odorless** (Odorant is added for leak detection) Colorless Tasteless Flammable Range 5%-15% Three Basic Hazards High Pressure (3600 PSI) Asphyxiation (Displaces Oxygen) Fire (High Ignition Temperature, 1000'F) Identification: Blue diamond decal with "CNG" in white letters located on right rear of vehicle. Additional Labeling: CNG Fuel System Components: Cylinders Manual Shut-off Valves Pressure Relief Devices (PRDs) Fill Receptacles Quarter Turn Shut-off Valve Pressure Regulator/Gauges CNG Fuel System Components: Fuel Cylinders -Typically found on roof, rear hatch, behind the cab or frame rails. -Type 3 or 4, pressure contained with composite wrap, no metal visible. FRAME RAIL ROOF CNG Fuel System Components: Fuel Cylinders cont. REAR HATCH BEHIND CAB  CNG Fuel System Components: Fuel Control Module with Quarter Turn Shut-off -Normally Located on Driver side between Steering and drive axle (Ride On Bus, passenger side rear)*** -Layout of FMM is NOT universal and may vary by manufacturer  CNG Fuel System Components: Pressure Relief Devices (PRDs) Designed to vent system pressure. Vehicle damage and position may modify venting gas direction. Venting gas may ignite, become a jet fire, extinguish itself and re-ignite several times. Thermally activated to vents gas between 212°F to 220°F (100°C to 104°C) All new PRD Vents are to be directed vertically up, but older styles that may still be found that vent sideways and down End Mounted  CNG Fuel System Components: High Pressure Fuel Lines -Stainless steel tubing or flexible high-pressure hose -Labeled with yellow identifying tag -DO NOT CUT through CNG hoses or tubing  CNG Vehicle Emergency Response (No Fire): Emergency Shut-Down Procedure: SET THE PARKING BRAKE TURN OFF THE ENGINE TURN OFF THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM TURN OFF THE CNG FUEL Damaged Vehicles and Gas Leaks If safe to do so, close the manual quarter turn valve at Fuel Control Module, and cylinder valves. Eliminate all sources of ignition Observe for any signs of gas leaks. CNG is odorized and will have a strong smell present if there is a leak. Leaking high pressure gas will cause ice or frost at leak source Use a combustible gas meter to monitor for potential fuel leaks. Allow gas to vent and watch for secondary exposures and hazards. Open vehicle doors to introduce fresh air to prevent natural gas accumulation. If the vehicle is indoors, open building windows and doors to allow ventilation and avoid turning on any lights or electronics which may create a spark. Pay attention to overhead ignition sources because natural gas will rise to the ceiling. Beware that residual gas may still leak from the storage system even after the ignition switch is off and manual shut off valves are closed.  CNG Vehicle Emergency Response (Fire): Attempt Emergency Shut-Down Procedure: SET THE PARKING BRAKE, TURN OFF THE ENGINE, TURN OFF THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM, TURN OFF THE CNG FUEL If a fire is not extinguished quickly, the pressure relief valves will activate, releasing all the gas from the cylinders to the atmosphere DO NOT apply water directly onto to CNG cylinders and PRDs because this will prevent the PRDs from activating and can result in a catastrophic cylinder failure (high pressure gas rupture). If the CNG cylinders are not involved in the fire, the fire on the vehicle may be extinguished with normal response tactics. For example, small blazes such as brake fire, passenger compartment fires and electrical fires. If fire is impinging on the CNG cylinders, the cylinders are on fire, or if the fire is fueled by an active leak, DO NOT APPROACH THE VEHICLE. Allow the fire to burn while watching for secondary hazards, such as other vehicles or structures, and protecting exposures. When a PRD activates, the result is often a jet fire which may go out and re-ignite several times. If it is safe to approach the vehicle, always approach at a 45-degree angle.  CNG Vehicle Emergency Response (Fire): During a fire event it is critical that water is NOT applied directly to CNG Cylinders. As previously mentioned, water will only cool the PRDs preventing them from activating and further damaging the cylinders. Water can be used to cool the common surfaces if it does not directly hit the cylinders and PRDs. (From inside trash compartment against the roof) Once the PRDs have activated, they will remain open until the tank is empty. Each cylinder has its own PRD, even though one has gone off there may still be pressurized cylinders in place. After the fire has been extinguished there may still be pressurized cylinders in place. The priorities once PRDs have activated are to affect any immediate rescues and protect exposures. Consideration should be given for air monitoring in any nearby or adjacent buildings. Top mounted cylinders venting in residential neighborhood Fire location indicates it possibly started as an engine, hydraulic, electrical or brake fire. Burn pattern on the side indicates load or cargo fire Additional CNG Vehicles:  Additional CNG Vehicles: (Ride On) All CNG Powered Ride On Buses have a "C" at the end of their stock number The Fuel Control Module is located on the passenger side rear corner. The Battery Disconnect is located on the driver side below the driver window.  CNG Fill Sites Typically supplied from Public Utility (I.e.- Wash Gas) Emergency Stop Devices (ESDs) located throughout compound/dispensing area. Typically equipped with heat/fire detection systems Operate 24 hours a day Call Emergency Phone Number to Vendor  Do not direct water streams at any of the cylinders. It may lead to catastrophic failure of the cylinder or cause them to launch! Pressure relief valves when activated may lead to a blowtorch effect when escaping gas is ignited. Key Takeaways Protect exposures if the vehicle is well involved or cylinders are involved in fire. **CALL FOR HAZMAT** QUESTIONS……………………. Contact a Hazardous Materials Officer Odor Fade in Natural Gas and Propane RECOMMENDATIONS The NIOSH Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program (FFFIPP) recommends that fire departments ensure all firefighters responding to natural gas or propane incidents:  use gas detection equipment and do not rely upon their sense of smell to determine if propane or natural gas is present  understand that the odorant in natural gas or propane can fade  are trained on the proper calibration, maintenance, and use of gas detection equipment to determine if a potential explosive atmosphere is present  recognize that the lack of odor can result from the natural gas or propane contacting soil, concrete, and Propane tank involved in the explosion described a wide variety of building materials such as drywall, in the FFFIPP Investigation Photo courtesy of Maine Fire Marshal wood, and new piping storage tanks FFFIPP INVESTIGATION On September 16, 2019, a fire department responded to a propane leak at a newly renovated office building. Several firefighters entered the building. The propane gas ignited and caused an explosion. The blast resulted in a line of duty death of a firefighter and the hospitalization of six other firefighters. The NIOSH FFFIPP investigated this incident and identified the odor fade of mercaptan as a key contributing factor. During this investigation, NIOSH FFFIPP investigators learned that some fire departments may not fully understand odor fade. They also may not recognize the subsequent explosion hazard that exists when responding to natural gas and propane incidents where there is not enough odorant in the released material to alert firefighters to its presence. QUESTIONS & ANSWERS on p. 2 Odor Fade in Natural Gas and Propane QUESTIONS & ANSWERS What is an odorant? Odorant is a volatile liquid that is added to natural gas and propane prior to distribution in pipelines as a safety precaution to make it smell. It helps detect a gas leak because natural gas and propane are odorless. The two most common odorants are methyl mercaptan (for natural gas) and ethyl mercaptan (for propane and n-butane). What is mercaptan? Mercaptan is a sulfur-containing compound added to Debris field from the propane explosion described natural gas, n-butane, and propane to give it a distinct in the FFFIPP Investigation odor. The odor is described as smelling like a rotten egg or Photo courtesy of Maine Fire Marshal rotten cabbage. Are there medical conditions that affect sense of smell? Anosmia (inability to smell), hyposmia (reduced sense of smell), and nasal inflammation can interfere with the ability to smell mercaptan odorant. How does odorant such as mercaptan fade? The odor of mercaptan may fade by absorption or oxidation when leaking natural gas or propane from underground lines passes through soil and concrete. Materials such as drywall and plywood may also cause odor fade. New piping for natural gas or storage tanks for propane can remove the odorant through adsorption of the odorant into the interior of the pipes or tank shell. Is odor fade more common in certain types of gas installations? Odor fade is generally most common in new large diameter steel pipes and storage tanks. However, odor fade can also occur in smaller diameter gas lines made of polyethylene. What can be done to ensure odor does not fade? For new natural gas or propane installations, many gas installation companies perform pipeline conditioning to saturate the new gas installations prior to use. Likewise, new storage tanks and new components of natural gas or propane installations should be conditioned prior to use. Are there ways to detect a natural gas or propane leak when there is no odor? Underwriters Laboratories (UL) and gas suppliers recommend personnel use gas detection equipment to detect natural gas or propane leaks. Page 2 Propane Propane (C3H8), sometimes referred to as LPG (liquified propane gas) is a clean burning fuel found in many homes as the primary home heating source. Other residential applications include water heaters, kitchen appliances, laundry appliances, fireplaces and generators. The gas is also used in smaller amounts to support outdoor cooking on grills. Commercial applications of propane include larger volumes of the product to support processes located at LPG supply facilities, fueling stations, construction sites, agricultural facilities, large commercial fleets, hospitality and manufacturing businesses. Responders should also be prepared to encounter LPG vehicles to include trash trucks, forklifts, large semi-trucks and even passenger vehicles. The UN ID Number for Propane is 1075 and the ERG Guide when responding to a transportation incident is 115. Important Characteristics Propane: ○ Is a colorless, odorless gas The smell associated with propane is an additive The additive can be stripped away in certain cases - (i.e. the ground) ○ Becomes a vapor at temperatures above -44°F ○ 1.5 times heavier than air ○ Has an expansion ratio of 270 to 1 1-gallon of liquid propane will convert to 270 gallons of vapor when released to atmosphere The ~4.75 gallons of propane in a home BBQ sized 20-pound cylinder can create a 1,274-gallon propane cloud ○ When you see a “vapor cloud” - the gas extends beyond that ○ Is a simple asphyxiant Metering Tips Our Ventis three gas meters are calibrated to methane. When looking for propane, a rough answer is to multiply the LEL by two. If you are getting a 5% LEL reading on the meter it is 10% LEL for propane Meter low first - propane starts on the ground Pay attention to the O2 sensor too! Low O2 means something else is in the air. The meter samples a volume about the size of softball - Just because your meter hasn’t found an ignitable mixture doesn’t mean it doesn’t exist somewhere. Slow down! You can meter “too fast” through an area where your readings are now for the area behind you. Consider calling for hazmat if: ○ LEL or O2 sensor in alarm ○ More than one sensor in alarm simultaneously All the characteristics assume that the propane is at 77 degrees F and 14.7 psi. Any change in temperature and/or pressure will change the characteristics of propane. Additional Resources Powerwall Emergency Response Guide Revision 1.1. © Copyright 2023 TESLA, INC. All Rights Reserved.  FIREFIGHTING MEASURES 5 Firefighting Measures WARNING: Response should only be performed by professionals trained in high voltage and arc flash emergencies. In the event of a response to a Tesla product fire or hazardous event, contact Tesla for guidance (Identification of Company and Contact Information on page 3). 5.1 Firefighter PPE Firefighters should wear self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) and structural firefighting gear. Industry testing has shown that standard structural firefighting gear provides adequate protection. 5.2 Responding to a Venting Powerwall Smoke or suspicious odor emanating from a Powerwall can be an indication of an abnormal and hazardous condition. Battery thermal runaway fires are preceded by a period of smoke. If fire, smoke, or suspicious odor is observed emanating from the product at any time, perform the following: 1. If possible, shut off the unit/system (see Shutting Down in an Emergency on page 14). 2. Evacuate the area of all non-emergency personnel. 3. If not already done, contact Tesla for assistance (Identification of Company and Contact Information on page 3). 4. If a Powerwall is actively on fire, use a wide stream fog nozzle to prevent extension to any attached structure and for cooling the casing of the battery. Do NOT pull from the wall or attempt to open the Powerwall. 5. Once the fire is extinguished, monitor temperature of the unit while cooling as needed: ◦ Use a thermal imaging camera to determine if there are signs of elevated temperature. ◦ If elevated temperature is detected in the unit, attempt to cool exterior casing with low-volume fog stream for 15 minutes and re-evaluate. ◦ Powerwall is considered stable if temperature is ambient with no elevation for a minimum of 45 minutes. 6. Contact Tesla for next steps (Identification of Company and Contact Information on page 3). 5.3 Responding to a Structure Fire with a Powerwall If there is a structure fire with a Powerwall not affected by the fire, treat it as a standard structure fire. Perform the following steps: 1. Announce presence and location of any alternate power sources, including Powerwall and solar, to command during size-up. NOTE: Building and fire codes require labeling to alert emergency personnel. This is typically found at the main electrical service location. 2. Shut down the Powerwall (Shutting Down in an Emergency on page 14), as you would with any utilities during a building fire. DO NOT pull Powerwall from its mounting. 3. If the fire is in close proximity to the Powerwall, monitor its temperature during overhaul for any elevation. 4. Contact Tesla as early as practicable (Identification of Company and Contact Information on page 3). Powerwall Emergency Response Guide 13  SHUTTING DOWN IN AN EMERGENCY 6 Shutting Down in an Emergency WARNING: Shutting off power to the product does not de-energize the battery, and a shock hazard may still be present. WARNING: If smoke or fire is visible, do not approach or attempt to open the product. WARNING: In case of flooding, stay out of the water if any part of the product or its wiring is submerged. To shut the product down in an emergency, perform the appropriate steps below and then contact Tesla (Identification of Company and Contact Information on page 3): If Safe to Access Switches and Breakers 1. If there is solar generation on-site, turn off the AC breaker for each inverter. 2. If an E-Stop button or external shutdown switch is present, engage it. 3. If it is safe to access the Powerwall(s), turn off each Powerwall using its on/off switch. Figure 3. Powerwall+ On/Off Switch NOTE: The Powerwall 2 switch is in the same location as the Powerwall+ switch. Powerwall Emergency Response Guide 14  SHUTTING DOWN IN AN EMERGENCY Figure 4. Powerwall 3 On/Off Switch 4. Turn off the AC breaker for each Powerwall. 5. If there is a Backup Gateway installed, turn off the Backup Gateway breaker. Figure 5. Powerwall+ and Backup Gateway 2 6. If the emergency affects the rest of the site, turn off the entire site by opening the main service disconnect(s). Powerwall Emergency Response Guide 15  SHUTTING DOWN IN AN EMERGENCY 6.1 If Unable to Access Switches and Breakers WARNING: Pulling the utility meter or Backup Switch from the meter socket is NOT a means of shutting down the Powerwall system. Do not pull the utility meter unless authorized to do so by the utility that owns it. Do not pull the Backup Switch unless authorized by Tesla. To shut down the system in the event that Powerwall switches and/or breakers are not safely accessible: 1. If safe to do so, loosen the three (3) captive screws on the Backup Switch conduit hub and remove the conduit hub. 2. Pull the green low-voltage (