ARM deel A Samenvatting PDF

lOMoARcPSD|5196404 ARM deel A samenvatting Advanced Research Methods (Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen) Scannen om te openen op Studeersnel Studeersnel wordt niet gesponsord of ondersteund door een hogeschool of universiteit Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 Lecture 1 RESEARCH PARADIGMS – A DEFINITION "the basic belief system or worldview that guides the investigator” (Guba & Lincoln (1994) It defines the way we see the world and our fundamental assumptions about the world. It guides our decisions and our understanding. It guides our understanding of “good” research. Research paradigms describe the ontological and epistemological foundation of any researcher and research. KEY KONCEPTS: ONTOLOGY AND EPISTEMOLOGY Ontology, the philosophy of being The properties of "reality" (is there an objective reality outside our perception?). Positions range between radical realism (yes, there is an objective reality) and radical nominalism ("reality" exists only in thoughts and has no counterparts in "reality"). Epistemology, or theory of knowledge or science Our assumptions about how knowledge production, ‘good’ research, research goals and limitations. What is the relationship between the knower and knowledge? Two extremes: positivism (dualism between knowledge and knower, knowledge can be formulated in general propositions "how things are") and anti-positivism (knowledge emerges from the interpretation and language systems of researchers only, it emerges in the interaction between the researched and the researchers). RESEARCH PARADIGMS AND METHODS - SAME OR DIFFERENT? In Business Administration, quantifying social research corresponding to the natural sciences (positivism) was predominant for many years. The current diversity of paradigms is fed by the critique of positivism. The critique is not a critique of the (mostly quantitative) methods, but more fundamentally a critique of the underlying assumptions about the social world and how it is studied. Different paradigms all have a different view of the world (ontology) and how this is studied (epistemology). This is far more than the division between quantitative and qualitative. Therefore, qualitative research, according to Guba & Lincoln, is NOT a paradigm in itself but different qualitative methods are grounded on different paradigmatic underpinnings or can be carried out in in different paradigmatic ways. RESEARCH PARADIGMS – WHY IT IS RELEVANT? It has practical consequences for... What you are interested in What you think is “good” research Focus of study What you see as “data” How you collect data How you write up your research How you account for the quality of your research RELEVANCE IN A NUTSHELL Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 “It is better to choose a philosophy of science than to inherit one by default” (Bechara & Van de Ven, 2007) CENTRAL PARADIGMS WITH RELEVANCE FOR BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION postpositivism is dominant in business administration, many students lean also to critical theory. the more going to the right, the more questions you ask about reality. RELEVANCE FOR METHOD CHOICE CONSEQUENCES FOR ME DOING RESEARCH Do I have an irrefutable position and view of the world? Is it important for me that I assign myself to a paradigm or is it possible to switch? Is it possible to have different positions for different research projects? Or do I have to conduct my research from only one point of view in order to "stay true" to myself and my view of the world? My very personal answer (teacher) Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 For me, no irrefutable position needed. Question of research project and paradigm are inevitably connected. If questions differ, paradigmatic positions and methods do accordingly. While interested in a specific phenomenon (organizational change towards lower environmental footprint), I want to study this from different perspectives. EXAMPLE OF THE LINK BETWEEN QUESTION, PARADIGM, METHODS - A researcher explores different aspects of how actors perceive and shape their work in a meaningful way. To do this, she conducts interviews and observes everyday work in different companies. - The same researcher wants to find out, among other things, in which positions in companies there are how many women. Based on her qualitative insights, she formulate hypothesis. She defines her sample and sends out a standardized questionnaire. EXAMPLE OF THE LINK BETWEEN QUESTION, PARADIGM, METHODS (II) SUMMARY RESEARCH PARADIGMS Paradigms describe how we view the world and our fundamental assumptions about "reality", "objectivity" and the nature of "meaningful" research. Paradigms are logically superior to the choice between qualitative and quantitative research. No position within this "coordinate system" is right or wrong! But they are different! Your own position has relevant implications for how you conduct research. You should therefore make sure to know your own position Literature lecture 1 Guba, Egon G. & Lincoln, Yvonna S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In: Denzin, Norman K. & Lincoln, Yvonna S. (Eds.). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage: 105-117. Various paradigms shape qualitative research. Key points from the article: Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 1. Paradigms in Qualitative Research: Guba and Lincoln highlight the existence of competing paradigms in qualitative research, which represent different worldviews and philosophical underpinnings that guide researchers in their approach to understanding and interpreting the social world. 2. Four Paradigms: The authors outline four major paradigms that have been influential in qualitative research: a. Positivism: This paradigm is characterized by an emphasis on objectivity, measurement, and causality. Researchers in this paradigm seek to discover and explain objective reality through empirical observation and quantifiable data. b. Post-Positivism: This paradigm acknowledges the limitations of positivism and the role of subjectivity in research. Researchers in this paradigm combine empirical observation with a recognition of multiple perspectives and interpretations. c. Critical Theory: This paradigm is rooted in social critique and seeks to understand and challenge power dynamics, inequalities, and injustices. Researchers adopt a critical perspective to analyze and transform societal structures. d. Constructivism: In this paradigm, researchers focus on the subjective and contextual nature of reality. They explore how individuals construct meaning and understanding based on their unique experiences and social context. 3. Compatibility and Incompatibility: Guba and Lincoln discuss the compatibility and incompatibility of these paradigms. While some paradigms are more aligned with each other (e.g., positivism and post-positivism), others are fundamentally incompatible (e.g., positivism and critical theory). 4. Pragmatism and Paradigmatic Pluralism: The authors suggest that researchers may need to adopt a pragmatic stance by choosing the paradigm that best fits their research question and purpose. They also emphasize the importance of paradigmatic pluralism, where researchers can draw from multiple paradigms to enrich their understanding of complex phenomena. 5. Reflexivity and Paradigm Choice: Guba and Lincoln encourage researchers to be reflexive about their paradigmatic choices. They should be aware of the implications of their chosen paradigm and be transparent about their assumptions, biases, and the impact of their choices on the research process. Overall, Guba and Lincoln's article provides valuable insights into the philosophical foundations of qualitative research and the role of different paradigms in shaping the research process. It underscores the importance of being conscious of one's paradigmatic choices and open to the potential benefits of embracing multiple paradigms when conducting qualitative research. Lecture 2 DESIGNING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH MAIN IDEA OF THE COURSE – BE ABLE TO HAVE A PROPER RESEARCH DESIGN Draw on what you already learned about qualitative research in your undergraduate program Link the different parts together to a proper research design Understand the relevance of the link between the different parts of qualitative research Understand the differences between various research designs Be enabled to create a very good qualitative research design for your master thesis Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH – AN OVERVIEW Flick (2007) suggests that qualitative research has a research design. Yet, as such it is not uniform or standardized. Roughly it is the "order, system, and consistency" (Becker et al., 1961) of the individual elements of a study (question, data, data collection, method of analysis). Describing and LINKING these elements can be described as the research design in the vast majority of cases. Moreover, the research design is not the same at the beginning and at the end of a study. Qualitative research is recursive! There may be an idea at the beginning. The concrete procedure, however, can only be described afterwards. Both comprise the design. DEFINITION ITERATIVE PROCESS KEY IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN Discuss: How to integrate the idea of a research design as depicted by Flick in figure 4.7 (page 40, if you are reading the online version from 2011) and the iterative process of qualitative research? WHAT IS PART OF A RESEARCH DESIGN? Epistemological and theoretical positioning Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 Research questions, possibly sub-questions or hypotheses Research context and units Data collection methods Methods of data analysis and data interpretation Writing up Attention! Often one decision goes hand in hand with many of the other decisions! For example, if you want to conduct a critical discourse analysis, certain research questions are more obvious as well as certain methods of data collection and data analysis. ROUGH BREAKDOWN INTO FOUR DESIGN TYPES PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN IN STUDIES Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 RESEARCH QUESTION “A research question is the main input into the theorizing process. Without a research question, there is nothing to theorize about.... One obvious way to make a contribution to theory is to change the research question, either by asking a new question, modifying an existing question in some way, or applying an existing theory to address a different question. Finding a good question is often the most difficult aspect of new theory.” (p. 1533) WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD RESEARCH QUESTION - What, specifically, do you want to understand by doing this study? - What do you not know about the phenomena you are studying that you want to learn? - What questions will your research attempt to answer, and how are these questions related to one another? (Maxwell 1996, p. 5). Good research questions Open question Clear and unambiguous Specific Answerable Relevant Embedded in existing literature Prerequisites for good questions Confinement of the theoretical and/or empirical problem Good operationalization of theoretical concepts and terms TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS Types of questions Descriptive questions (e.g. for type formation) Questions that aim at connections (how) Questions aiming at causalities (why) Typically one to two questions per paper! Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 Derived from the research goal (i.e. also oriented towards it). Yin 2009: Who, what, where, how, why Research question ≠ Hypothesis ≠ Preposition! EXAMPLE QUALITATIVE DATA SOURCES ROUGH OVERVIEW DISTANCE AND ENGAGEMENT IN DIFFERENT DATA TYPES ETHICS ETHICS IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Ethics: ’code of behavior in relation to the rights of those who are subject to the research or affected by it’ ( Wells, 1994: 284). Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 Principles of acceptable behavior and practice because of the involvement of people, potentially having consequences. Accuracy of information Confidentiality/anonymity of personal information Equal opportunities and non-discriminatory practices Fair dealing in the treatment of individuals Professional behaviour: collecting and interpreting data in a careful and appropriate way Responsible re privacy, no pressure to participate Clarity about the expectations and implications of participants CODE OF CONDUCT Most research communities such as the NWO (Dutch Research Council) or the Academy of Management have their own codes of ethics. These codes have become even more important in recent years, often in response to misconduct by members. Two examples at the University of Tilburg or the University of Groningen CODE OF CONDUCT – ACADEMY OF MANAGEMENT Academy of Management (AoM) Code of Ethics: https://aom.org/About-AOM/AOM-Code-of-Ethics.aspx Moreover, the Academy offers video clips on diverse ethical issues in academic life and research. VIRTUES OF RESEARCH AND STUDYING PRACTICE Your ideas? Deliberative, modest, inclusive conversation Sensitivity of language and behaviors within different institutional settings Cautiously handle relationships/data Honesty Learning from mistakes THE ROLE OF (SELF-)REFLEXIVITY DEFINITION Reflexivity is “an awareness in the researcher’s role in the practice of research and the way this is influenced by the object of the research, enabling the researcher to acknowledge the way in which he or she affects both the research processes and outcomes” (Haynes, 2012, p. 72) REFLECTION AND REFLEXIVITY? Reflection: a mirror image which allows us to observe or examine of our ways of doing; Reflexivity: more complex, involving thinking about our experiences and questioning our ways of doing. A form of ‘interpreting the interpretated’. Always involves the position of the researcher him/herself. REFLEXIVITY -METHOD OF LOCATING THE SELF’S POSITION how one’s frame of reference is situated “situated”: located in a particular historical, local, and political place Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 SO WHAT DO YOU DO (REFLEXIVITY)? Be aware: Think about you as a person: where do you come from, what was relevant for your understanding of the world, what do you (dis)like (you started this in assignment 1) Write down (theoretical) assumptions, and reflect on this during the research (and perhaps revise) Consider how it affects your research conduct (how you understand it, how you frame it) Keep a research diary, also of your own reflections and emotions Discuss the outcomes with colleagues Be transparent about your own self in the research process ENGAGED SCHOLARSHIP PROBLEM DRIVEN SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH Problem formulation Situate, ground, diagnose and infer the problem up close and from afar Doing it “engaged” means: Engage those who experience and know the problem And Engage with those who know much about that topic to interpret meanings and uses (instead of the researcher as a person who always knows best!) Criterion= relevance Literature lecture 2 Flick, U. (2007). From an idea to a research question. In Designing qualitative research (pp. 16-24). SAGE Publications, Ltd, https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781849208826.n2 The author discusses the process of formulating a research question in qualitative research. Here's a summary of the key points from this section: 1. The Research Process: Flick emphasizes that qualitative research begins with an idea, a general area of interest, or a topic. Researchers must refine this initial idea into a specific research question that can guide their study effectively. 2. Defining the Research Question: The research question is the central element of any research project. It should be clear, concise, and specific. Flick suggests that a good research question should address a particular issue or problem, relate to the existing body of knowledge, and be answerable through qualitative research methods. 3. Relevance and Interest: Researchers should consider the relevance and personal interest they have in the research question. A compelling and personally interesting question is more likely to lead to a successful and motivated research process. 4. Literature Review: Before finalizing a research question, it's crucial to conduct a thorough literature review to understand what is already known about the topic. This helps in refining the question and avoiding redundancy in research. 5. Theoretical Framework: Flick recommends considering the theoretical framework that will guide the research. Researchers should be aware of the theoretical perspectives and concepts relevant to their question, which can inform the study's design and analysis. Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 6. Feasibility: Assessing the feasibility of a research question is essential. Researchers need to consider available resources, time constraints, and ethical considerations. The research question should be realistic given these constraints. 7. Research Methods: The chosen research methods, whether interviews, observations, or content analysis, should align with the research question. Researchers should think about how they will collect and analyze data to address the question effectively. 8. Flexibility: Flick stresses that research questions are not set in stone. They can evolve and change as the research process unfolds. Researchers should remain open to adjustments based on emerging findings and insights. 9. Practical Steps: The author outlines practical steps for refining a research idea into a research question, which includes brainstorming, consulting with colleagues, and piloting research instruments to test their viability. Overall, Flick's section on developing a research question highlights the importance of careful consideration, theoretical grounding, and feasibility when moving from a broad idea to a well-defined and researchable question in qualitative research. The research question serves as a critical guide throughout the research process, helping researchers maintain focus and direction. Flick, U. (2007). Qualitative research designs. In Designing qualitative research (pp. 36-50). SAGE Publications, Ltd, https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781849208826.n4 The author discusses various qualitative research designs and their characteristics. Here's a summary of the key points from this section: 1. Introduction to Research Designs: Flick begins by emphasizing the importance of selecting an appropriate research design in qualitative research. He explains that the choice of design should align with the research question and the goals of the study. 2. Case Studies: Flick discusses case studies as a common qualitative research design. Case studies involve an in-depth exploration of a single case or a few cases. Researchers examine context, processes, and unique aspects of the cases to gain a deep understanding of a specific phenomenon. 3. Grounded Theory: Grounded theory is another qualitative research design that focuses on developing theory based on the data. Researchers collect and analyze data systematically to generate concepts and theories that emerge from the data itself. 4. Ethnography: Ethnographic research involves the immersion of the researcher in the natural settings of the participants. Researchers seek to understand and describe the cultural, social, and contextual factors that influence the behavior and experiences of individuals or groups. 5. Narrative Research: Narrative research explores how individuals construct and convey their personal stories. Researchers analyze the narratives of participants to uncover underlying themes, structures, and meanings in their life stories. 6. Biographical Research: Biographical research centers on the life histories of individuals. Researchers collect and analyze biographical data, such as interviews and personal documents, to understand the life course, development, and experiences of the participants. Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 7. Action Research: Action research is a design that focuses on addressing practical issues or problems in real-world settings. Researchers work collaboratively with participants to develop solutions and bring about positive change. 8. Framework Analysis: Flick introduces framework analysis as a systematic and structured approach to data analysis. It involves a step-by-step process of data reduction, data display, and drawing conclusions. 9. Cross-Case Analysis: Cross-case analysis is a design that involves comparing and contrasting multiple cases to identify patterns, commonalities, and differences across cases. This approach is particularly useful for generalizing findings. 10. Selecting a Research Design: Flick suggests that researchers should carefully consider their research question, the nature of the data they intend to collect, and the desired level of analysis when choosing a research design. The design should be a good fit for the research objectives. 11. Mixing Research Designs: The author also mentions that researchers can mix and match different research designs in a single study, creating a more comprehensive and layered understanding of the research topic. Overall, Flick's section on qualitative research designs provides an overview of various qualitative approaches, highlighting their characteristics, purposes, and considerations when selecting a design. The choice of research design is crucial in qualitative research, as it shapes the methodology and data collection processes to effectively address the research question. Lecture 3 Brief recap previous lectures: Research paradigms Research paradigms - Questions of the method are secondary to questions of paradigm - Paradigm = the basic belief system or worldview that guides the researcher - Paradigms as basic belief systems based on ontological, epistemological, and methodological assumptions Four different paradigms: positivism, post-positivism, critical theory, and constructivism (Guba & Lincoln, 1994) Research paradigm (or sometimes Epistemology) might be a (first) paragraph in your method section Research design Research paradigm informs your research design Research design - Order, system and consistency between different elements of your study (research question, context, data collection, method of analysis; quality criteria;...) - How you are designing your research: complete plan to carry out your research Alignment is important (in ARM assignment and your Master Thesis (!!)) - Research design should fit the aim of your research; - Which data collection methods fit best to answer your research question.~ Research design is a paragraph in your method section describing and linking different Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 elements (likely the first paragraph; sometimes also including your research paradigm) > Make your design as explicit as possible: tailored to your research Brief recap previous lectures: Iterative process Brief recap previous lectures: Iterative process Today: the plurality of qualitative research designs - Research designs in qualitative research are not uniform or standardized. - You Can Always Try To Answer The Following Questions: 1) What do I want to know? What do I want to research? What do I want to study? 2) What is the context of my study? What could be my case or cases? What is my unit of analysis*? 3) What will be the research aim and my (preliminary) research question (relates to what I want to know and study; alignment!) 4) What research design is most appropriate to answer this research question? *unit of analysis = the ‘who’ or the ‘what’ that you are analysing for your study (individual, group, organization) Case study design - Case study designs are well established in organizational research, but not universally accepted (i.e. lack of a boilerplate) - A case study facilitates the analysis of complex and little understood phenomena and is well suited to examine the how and why of dynamic processes in real-life organizational contexts (Yin, 2009). - There is no single correct answer to the question of ‘What makes a case?’ Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 - Single cases, nested cases, multiple cases - Descriptive, exploratory, explanatory. - Unit of analyses: organizations, change processes, decision processes, events, routines, discourses, practices,...... - Case studies may rely on single method for collecting data, but more often multiple methods interviews, (direct/particpant) observation, documentation, archival records, physical artefacts, (organization) websites, mission statements/annual reports, films, photographs,..., etc. Example What is the ‘case’ and what is the ‘unit of analysis’ in the following example research questions? 1. How does a church change its mission and activities over a longer period of time? 2. How did decisions taken by Kennedy et al in 1962 during the Cuban Missile Crisis prevent a nuclear holocaust? Case study research: (again) Iterative process What you want to analyse, drives your decisions in picking a case for your case study; your case study might (inductively) present new phenomena not known to the research yet which alters the unit of analysis along the research process (often during data analysis) Langley & Abdallah (2011): on templates and turns Langley & Abdallah: discuss four different approaches !! Do not confuse with four different research paradigms discussed by Guba & Lincoln (1994) Langley & Abdallah: – Two well-established“templates” – Tworecent*“turns” (*Note: article published in 2011...) These different qualitative research designs are associated with different epistemological assumptions/underpinnings Focus on the study of strategy processes (“process data”) Variance vs process data Variance theory/ research models - Seeking explanations for differences between cases - What are the antecedents? Process theory / research models - Looking for regularities in temporal patterns across cases - How does the issue emerge, develop, grow or terminate over time? Qualitative research: lack of a boilerplate - Process data collection: - Real-life (in vivo) observations (meetings, conversations, events, shadowing, etc.) - Memories and interpretations (real-time or retrospective interviews, focus Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 groups, questionnaires, diaries, etc.) - Artifacts (minutes, plans, reports, archival records, etc.) “The key challenge of doing qualitative research on organizational processes lies not so much in collecting these data but in making sense of them to generate a valuable theoretical contribution. The data tend to be complex, messy, eclectic, and with varying degrees of temporal embeddedness.” (Langley & Abdallah, 2011) - ‘‘For the lack of a boilerplate’’ (Pratt, 2009) - Different epistemological assumptions/underpinnings - No standardized language, or accepted template for writing up qualitative research - No magic number of interviews or observations that should be conducted in a qualitative research project; or single answer what makes a case The Eisenhardt Template: Nomothetic Theory from Case Comparisons - Kathleen Eisenhardt - Post-positivist assumptions - Purpose: developing theory in the form of testable propositions - Search for facts (e.g., emphasis on court-room style interviewing) - Product: nomothetic theory; generalizable across settings – A nomothetic theory accounts for the facts in many cases. The more cases that a theory accounts for, the more nomothetic it is. An idiographic theory accounts for the facts in a single case. - Research design to maximize credible novelty - theory-building multiple case study - requires a substantial number of comparative units of analysis or cases (4-10) - the cases are not chosen arbitrarily (“control”): “polar types” to be sharply distinct on one key dimension (e.g., performance: high-performing and low-performing cases) while similar on others - The sharper the contrast the more clarity in insights (and thus credibility) Eisenhardt: Theory-building multiple case study Data collection and quality criteria - Interview data with diverse informants - Identify elements that distinguish high and low performing cases building on cross- case comparison - Validity and reliability from multiple researchers; electronic recording; and triangulation of data Establishing novelty - Contrasting findings with previous research; Providing evidence - Data presentation in two steps: (a) data tables; (b) narrative examples of polar cases (Dis)Advantages of the “Eisenhardt method” Advantages - Strong logic and structure Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 - Clear credibility to identified relationships Disadvantages - Mostly ‘variance’ theorizing, less‘process’ theorizing - Limited attention for temporal ordening (time is compressed, single moment), presenting apparently ‘fixed’ outcomes - Hard to make argument for ‘novelty’ (you use existing theory to explain why) (choose wording carefully, e.g., “theory elaboration” instead “theory building/development”) - Post-positivistic (...) The Gioia template: Single in-depth interpretative case analysis Dennis Gioia “In my research life, I am a grounded theorist. I pick people’s brains for a living, trying to figure out how they make sense of their organizational experience. I then write descriptive, analytical narratives that try to capture what I think they know. Those narratives are usually written around salient themes that represent their experience to other interested readers.” (Gioia, 2004, p. 101) Interpretive assumptions - Purpose: capturing and modeling of informant meanings - Search for informants’ understandings of organizational events. - Product: process model/ novel concept The Gioia template: Interpretive Modeling Design for revelation, richness, and trustworthiness - Single case chosen for its revelatory potential and richness of data - Extensive use of real-time interviews, often carried out in multiple rounds and at multiple levels and positions, but also of observational data - Build “data structure” by progressive abstraction starting with informant first-order codes and building to second-order themes and aggregate dimensions - Trustworthiness from insider-outsider roles, member checks, triangulation Establishing the gap - Show how this study fills a major gap Distilling the essence - Present data structure emphasizing second-order themes and overarching dimensions - First order codes show specific cases of recurrent occurences, not isolated examples (Dis)Advantages of the “Gioia method” Advantages - Strong for process theorizing how people make sense over time Disadvantages - Good access to organizations to ensure data richness (in-depth ethnography) - Challenge of convincing readers about the transferability (i.e. findings applicable to other setting) and relevance of the findings (possible generic qualities) - Without similarities/differences between cases, harder to theorize Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 - Boring, sequential narrative, lack of insightful plot or ‘cognitive stickiness’ - Formulaic way of analyzing empirics (“diabolical so-called method”) Discursive turn / ‘‘linguistic turn’’ in organization studies - Studying Strategy as Discourse: discourses as unit of analysis - Socioconstructivist underpinning: Social world created and maintained through discourses - Discourse is a set of texts (written, spoken, images, symbols, and other artifacts) and of the practices related to their production, dissemination, and reception. - Discourse studies examine how discourses shape understandings of social reality, and how they are in turn shaped through discursive practices: - how social phenomena are produced or constructed and maintained through time - how organizations, industries and their environment are created and maintained through discourse - how people shape discourses and how discourses shape them (e.g. positivist discourse) Discursive turn: how language shapes the reality of organizations Most common aspects: - Hermeneutic aspect: how certain meanings are discursively constructed and interpreted and how they evolve over time - Critical aspect: revealing politics and power relations; idea that organizations or organizational processes are socially constructed; - Interdiscursive aspect: focus on interplay among discourses at multiple levels (i.e. grand Discourses) and over time - Researchers has become interested in how processes of social construction lead to a social reality that is taken for granted and that advantaged some participants at the expense of others Detailed analyses of content of texts Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 - Texts are discourses that are analyzed not only for what they say but for what they do (what they shape or constitute) - The “Eisenhardt method”: analyzing texts to establish facts - The “Gioia method”: texts as interpretations. The practice turn in organization studies - Introduced by Theodore Schatzki (1996) - ‘Family of orientations’: Practice theory, practice-based studies, approaches, or practice lenses: each with their own definition of practice and epistemology - Key to all practice-based approach to diversity is practices are the unit of analysis. - Schatzki defines practices as the nexuses of ‘sayings and doings’ warning that no priority should be granted to either of the terms - Studying strategy as a social practice: strategy is something that people do - Empirical focus on micro-level activities of people - Studying practices helps to uncover the unreflexive and taken-for-granted patterns of activities and underlying norms that constitute social order phenomena (Nicolini, 2009; Nicolini & Monteiro, 2017; Schatzki et al., 2001). Common characteristics of practice studies 1. Practices are recursive Very common to study embedded routines and structures 2. Socio-material side to study practices A practice needs to be understood as ‘an entanglement of body, materiality and discourse, and is connected with other practices in time and space, hereby producing a particular kind of social order’ (Janssens & Steyaert, 2020, p.1145). Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 3. Methodologies that allow “an appreciation of practice as it happens” (Nicolini, 2013) - In situ observations / shadowing techniques: Focus on the real-time accomplishments of the activities, witnessing scenes of action (“in the heat of the moment”) - Ethnographic/participant observation to watch participants’ activities, interact with them (e.g., asking questions), and – at least ideally – attempt to learn these practices themselves - Need for in-depth longitudinal studies; writing around detailed vignettes to reveal underlying dynamics - Retrospective interviews / interview-to-the-double (Davide Nicolini) Example: ethnographic/participant observation The investigating cleaner Writing differently A process, a perspective, an ethos, a methodology, a type of scholarship and a movement Resistance to “scientific” norms of academic writing It encourage a wide range of different forms of writing: poetry, autoethnography, detective stories as well as visual work Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 UNSANITIZED WRITING PRACTICES: ATTENDING TO AFFECT AND EMBODIMENT THROUGHOUT THE RESEARCH PROCES (Van Eck, Van Amsterdam, & Van den Brink, 2021, p.1103) Assessing qualitative research What constitutes good qualitative research? - Objectivitity is not the goal so what’s with ‘reliability ’ and ‘validity’? - Criteria are needed for pedagogical, developmental and political/activist reasons Qualitative researchers as cherry- pickers or beachcombers? Don’t judge qualitative research using quantitative quality criteria (!!!!) Alternatives to reliability and validity: Lincoln & Guba (1985/1994): - Credibility [parallel to internal validity]:Is evidence provided that this is an authentic representation of what happened? - Dependability [parallel to reliability]: Is researcher bias minimized or accounted for? - Confirmability [parallel to objectivity]: Have alternative explanations been considered? - Transferability [parallel to external validity]: Has the extend of the findings’ applicability been considered? What are the boundary conditions? Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 Alternatives to reliability and validity: critical theory Accommodation: Have the findings been related to existing theory? Catalytic validity: Have hegemonic regimes of truth been identified, unsettled and challenged? Epistemic reflective dialogue: Has the researcher reflected on their own position? Discursive democracy: - Are readers and participants encouraged to see the world in new ways? - Have participants confirmed the credibility of the analysis? - Does the research lead to possibilities for change? Make sure your reflection on quality criteria is consistent with your design (!!) Literature lecture 3 Langley, A. & Abdallah, C. (2011). Templates and turns in qualitative studies of strategy and management. In: Dagnino, Giovanni B. & Cinici, Maria C. (Eds.). Research Methodology in Strategy and Management. London: Routledge. 201-235. In their paper, Langley and Abdallah discuss the use of templates in qualitative research, particularly in the context of strategy and management studies. They introduce the concept of "templates" as pre-structured tools that guide data collection and analysis in qualitative research. The authors identify four distinctive "turns" in qualitative research as follows: 1. The Ethnographic Turn: This turn involves immersing researchers in the field to gain a deep understanding of the practices and culture of the organization being studied. Templates are used to guide data collection and help researchers observe and interpret events and behaviors. 2. The Grounded Theory Turn: Grounded theory is a qualitative research approach that seeks to develop theories based on the data rather than starting with pre-existing theories or concepts. Templates can be used to assist in the systematic coding and categorization of data, enabling the emergence of new theoretical constructs. 3. The Narrative Turn: In the narrative turn, researchers focus on the stories and narratives of individuals within organizations. Templates can help researchers identify narrative elements, themes, and patterns in the data, allowing them to explore how individuals construct their experiences through storytelling. 4. The Discourse Turn: Discourse analysis involves examining language and communication to understand how meaning is constructed in organizations. Templates are used to guide the analysis of language and communication patterns, helping researchers uncover the underlying discourses at play. The paper highlights the advantages and potential challenges of using templates in qualitative research. Templates can enhance the consistency and rigor of data analysis, making it easier to identify and categorize relevant data. However, there is a risk that templates may introduce bias or restrict researchers from exploring emerging themes and insights. Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 In conclusion, Langley and Abdallah emphasize that the use of templates in qualitative research within the field of strategy and management can be valuable. Still, researchers should employ them thoughtfully and flexibly to balance the advantages of structure with the need for openness to emergent findings and insights. "Qualitative Researchers: Cherry-pickers or Beachcombers?" discusses the approaches and attitudes of qualitative researchers when working with research data. Here's a summary of the key points made in the post: 1. Cherry-Picking in Qualitative Research: The blog post begins by describing a PhD viva in which the candidate was accused of cherry-picking data, i.e., selectively choosing quotes, incidents, or observations that supported her theoretical position. 2. Defending Qualitative Researchers as Cherry-Pickers: The author argues that qualitative researchers are not necessarily at fault for cherry-picking. Instead, they are skilled at sifting through a mass of data to find valuable insights. This skill is essential for genuine understanding. 3. The Beachcomber Analogy: The author introduces the idea of qualitative researchers as "beachcombers." This analogy suggests that researchers are not consciously engaging with separate data but are embedded in their data. They are part of the material they study, and data is an integral part of their experience. 4. The Role of Technology: The author expresses caution about overreliance on software tools like nVivo for data analysis. While they acknowledge using such software, they believe that software can both assist and potentially limit the researcher's connection with the data. 5. Individual Approaches to Qualitative Research: The post emphasizes that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to dealing with qualitative research material. Researchers find their own ways of working with data based on their preferences and personal styles. 6. Listening as a Key Approach: The author describes their personal approach to qualitative research, which involves extensive listening to audio recordings of interviews and focus groups. This deep listening helps them uncover nuances, such as vocal inflections and linguistic idiosyncrasies. 7. Transcripts and Data Loss: The author notes that working with transcripts can result in the loss of data. Words and phrases can carry various meanings, emotions, and nuances, which might not be fully captured in a transcript. 8. The Importance of Conscious Data Selection: The author recommends consciously deciding what data to discard rather than relying on the transcription process to make those decisions. 9. Engaging with Empirical Material as a Terrain: The author views empirical material as a terrain where meaning, insights, and even pleasure can be discovered. This perspective encourages researchers to explore and appreciate the richness of their data. 10. Reflexivity and Cherry-Picking: The post concludes by suggesting that reflexive researchers should not be drawn solely to data that supports their preconceived positions. Instead, they should actively seek out data Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 that challenges their assumptions and inferences, ensuring a more thorough and critical analysis. In essence, the blog post advocates for a more nuanced perspective on the practice of qualitative research, encouraging researchers to adopt an approach that values the richness of data, acknowledges subjectivity, and emphasizes reflexivity in the research process. Lecture 4 Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 MULTIPLE CASE STUDY: EISENHARDT Eisenhardt and Graebner (2007) argue that: -...multiple-case studies typically provide a stronger base for theory building -...multiple cases enable comparisons that clarify whether an emergent finding is simply idiosyncratic to a single case or consistently replicated by several cases -...propositions are more deeply grounded in varied empirical evidence -...multiple cases enable a broader exploration of research questions and theoretical elaboration. -...theory building from multiple cases typically yields more robust, generalizable, and testable theory than single-case research -...adherence to grounded (more inductive) theory building will result in limited generalizability BUCHANAN (1999) THE LOGIC OF POLITICAL ACTION AN EXPERIMENT WITH THE EPISTEMOLOGY OF THE PARTICULAR Yet, Buchanan shows: - A single case - One person’s experience - No triangulation - No context (due to confidentiality) - Lacking methodological rigour - Epistemology of the particular: singe case reveals something that theory cannot explain - Retrospective research question: what questions does this case study allows us to answer? BRIEF RECAP: INTERVIEWS Different types of interviews (depending on your aim, RQ and overall research design) ‐ Open-ended (unstructured): no questions prepared; free-form interview ‐ Semi-structured: topic list; few determined questions; order can change during interview Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 ‐ Structured: planned and created in advance; questions asked in the same order. Semi-structured interviews: ‐ I would like to get to know the opinions, ideas, experiences of people with regard to my subject; ‐ It regards a new topic, of which little is known until now; ‐ The research topic is a quite sensitive topic; ‐ The persons that I would like to interview are not suitable for questionnaires; ‐ I would like to gain more information in preparation for a large quantitative study; ‐ I conducted a large quantitative study and I would like to gain additional in-depth information. SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS Start with open questions: ‐ Ask for opinions: "What do you think about...” ‐ Ask for experiences and/or perceptions: "Can you tell us a bit about...”...follow up with: ‐ Can you tell more about that? Can you elaborate on that? Can you explain that? Can you give an example? What were you thinking/feeling at that moment? ‐ Formulations are tailored to the interviewees and their situations ‐ Interviewees can answer freely, spontaneously and original ‐ Interviewees are able to express their thoughts and feelings about the interview topics ‐ Questions are understandable and relate to one aspect ‐ Questions are not steering/ suggestive (!!) ‐ (Sufficient time to work out the interviews (e.g. Amberscript/ f4 transkript) CONDUCTING INTERVIEWS Interviewees with very short answers Interviewees telling very personal stories Tolerance of silences Pilot interview: testing your interview guide/ topic list - Grounded theory: recognition that interview questions must change with the progression of research. Provide space for the interviewee to ask questions or to articulate other concerns, thoughts or observations at the end of your interview. Sharing transcripts/ findings with respondents (interviews or observations) - “do not grant veto power over anything other than reporting of sensitive data” - “do not promise ‘confidentiality’, but promise ‘anonymity’ instead” Use of memos or field notes - i.e.: What are your thoughts about the interview? Did you have particular thoughts or emotions during the interview? Did you miss something? What are your thoughts about the respondent? EXAMPLE: MAKING FIELD NOTES Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 As a researcher you are not objective: important to reflect on the interaction with your respondents in interviews or observations (i.e. what you say, how you say it, how you react, nonverbal communication, what are you thinking, what are you feeling, etc.) Memo’s / field notes are thus relevant for reflexivity (cf. blogpost on cherry picking) Memo’s / field notes may become relevant in your analysis VAN ECK, VAN AMSTERDAM, & VAN DEN BRINK (2021). UNSANITIZED WRITING PRACTICES ATTENDING TO AFFECT AND EMBODIMENT THROUGHOUT THE RESEARCH PROCESS DOING OBSERVATIONS Observation is defined as: “watching the behavioural patterns of people in certain situations to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest” (Johnson & Christensen, 2012, p.233) Thus: observations are a data collection method valuable to gain insight into the behaviour of people, regardless of their own interpretations. People do not always tell you what they have done (for example in interviews), because: - they do not want to tell you what they have done - they do not remember what they have done Observation can shed light on unreflexive and taken-for-granted behaviour or patterns of activities (i.e. practices) Examples of ‘phenomena’: - Leadership strategies of managers - Task-oriented behaviour of employees (e.g. routines) - Interactions during meetings or informal moments at work HOW TO... OBSERVE Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 Different techniques to use during your observation: - Quantitative observations: counting behaviour - Qualitative observations: describing behaviour Quantitative observations: - counting participants, functions - counting particular activities - during meetings or interactions: keeping track how many times a person speaks Qualitative observations: - Describing occuring events: what happens during a meeting? - Rich desriptions of activities, spaces, artefacts and participants - Potentially: drawing the room and participants (who sits where, next to whom) Create a observation guide for some structure and guidelines during your observations EXAMPLE OBSERVATION GUIDE ETHICS ABOUT DATA COLLECTION Ethics: “code of behaviour in relation to the rights of those who are subject to the research or affected by it” (Wells, 1994, p.284) NWO* : Netherlands Code of Conduct for Research Integrity: - Honesty - Scrupulousness - Transparency - Independence - Responsibility General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) (AVG in Dutch) - The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is a European regulation on rules for the processing of personal data and deals with the lawful handling of personal data. - Researcher needs permission from the participant to participate in the research project: participation is voluntary and participant can withdraw at any time - Which data is/is not shared, and also with whom? ETHICS ABOUT DATA COLLECTION Anonymity and confidentiality - Your respondents as well as the organization(s) (if applicable) Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 - Anonymity isn't just about using pseudonyms: quotes with too many details can also show the identity of the respondent Data management plan (DMP) - It is important to think, not only about how you collect data (method and consent), but also what you do with that data: for example, how and where do you store data (for organizations and respondents, this is also important to know). - Be selective about what you share in for example googledrive or dropbox: no names or personal data of your respondents - DMP: a plan in which researchers make clear how the data is collected, managed, stored and made available during the research, and what will be done with the data after the study has ended. In MT: Reflection on ethics is part of your method section CODING Important step to come from our empirical material (‘raw data’) to themes in our findings Helps us making sense of our data Codes Used as “handles” to find specific occurrences in the data, like keywords Should be short – use memos for annotations Select a quotation and assign a code to it HOW TO... Different steps/phases in your data analysis Different types of codes: Open coding: derive categories from text Code by list/topics/theory: use existing codes In vivo coding: uses the text passage as code Different approaches to coding following your research design What material do you use for coding? INDUCTIVE, DEDUCTIVE AND ABDUCTIVE REASONING GLASER & STRAUSS (1967) // STRAUSS & CORBIN (1990) INDUCTIVE REASONING: GROUNDED THEORY Generate theory that is grounded in the data (as opposed to deducted from hypothesis testing) Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 Starting point is data collection (e.g. unstructured interviews) Grounded theory does not start with preconceived idea of sample size or a fixed duration for interviews Researcher does not know at the beginning which literature will turn out to be relevant Focus also on researcher’s own observations (informal settings, impressions and discussions): Notes during interview discussions Field notes (or memos) immediately after each interview Aim is to explain what is actually going on (analyze!) , not describing what is happening Comparative analysis: searching for opposites, non-typical forms Comparing emerging theory with field data and existing theory* GROUNDED THEORY: OPEN CODING AND SELECTIVE CODING Substantive coding: (1) Open coding (descriptive) >>> (2) selective coding (explanatory) 1) Open coding: faithfully reflect/explain the events that occurred through the participants’ eyes - Start early with coding while collecting data (early ideas inform further data collection) - Avoid ‘pasting preconceived ideas’ on data: remain open, stick closely to data - Keep codes simple and precise - Gioia’s first order codes 2) Selective coding: higher conceptual level; examining and grouping codes into higher level categories - Also referred to as axial coding - Using the most significant and/or frequent codes to sift through large amounts of data - Requires decisions about which initial codes make the most analytic sense to categorize your data. - Gioia’s second-order themes GROUNDED THEORY: THEORETICAL CODING 3) Theoretical coding: - Going toward theory formation, connect concepts (how do they relate) and form proposition(s) which contributes to building theory - Use of memos: facilitate the theorizing and keeping track of your ideas regarding which proposition you are tracing - Comparing emerging theory with field data and existing theory* * Don’t be afraid to use theory to analyze your data (!) BERGER, BENSCHOP & VAN DEN BRINK (2020) PRACTISING GENDER WHEN NETWORKING Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 VAN DEN BRINK & BENSCHOP (2014) GENDER IN ACADEMIC NETWORKING: THE ROLE OF GATEKEEPERS IN PROFESSORIAL RECRUITMENT VAN DEN BRINK & BENSCHOP (2014) GENDER IN ACADEMIC NETWORKING: THE ROLE OF GATEKEEPERS IN PROFESSORIAL RECRUITMENT VAN DEN BRINK & BENSCHOP (2014) GENDER IN ACADEMIC NETWORKING: THE ROLE OF GATEKEEPERS IN PROFESSORIAL RECRUITMENT Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 FROM DATA TO FINDINGS - Second order themes are basis for the structure of the results section - Important to ‘show and tell’ EXAMPLE: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS GROUNDED THEORY: CRITICISM Standardized analytical strategies are challenging Grounded theory manuscripts: do not fit “normal” structure Qualitative research wrongly assessed by quasi-positivistic criteria Scientific rigour: perceived inability of qualitative based research Gioia: seeking qualitative rigour in inductive research Systematic approach to inductive data analysis A way to show that the data gathering and analysis was executed in a systematic way (i.e. not “cherry-picking”): > 1st-order analysis (i.e., an analysis using informant-centric terms and codes) > 2nd-order analysis (i.e., one using researcher-centric concepts, themes, and dimensions) DATA ANALYSIS ACCORDING TO GIOIA Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 DEVELOPING A CODE BOOK A codebook is a tool in order to help you with the analysis of qualitative data Enables others to follow your thoughts and use the same coding scheme Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 Helps you to gain an overview of the emerging theory Is not the same as (and should be more than) a code tree (!) Steps followed during the coding process – including. 1) Gather all codes used and group them 2) Work out definitions for each code: what can be included - detailed descriptions (and restrictions) 3) Provide concrete examples of each code EXAMPLE CODE BOOK DISCOURSE ANALYSIS DISCOURSE ANALYSIS Discourses as unit of analysis Socioconstructivist underpinning: Social world created and maintained through discourses - “Discourse is a process of meaning making through talk and text” (Oswick, 2012 p. 473) Discourse is a set of texts (written, spoken, images, symbols, and other artifacts) and of the practices related to their production, dissemination, and reception. Discourse analysis is the study of how meanings (language), meaning-making (language in use) are produced, and of which meanings prevail in society (Iedema, 2008; Oswick, 2012). Discourse analysis cannot easily be reduced to a single technique Macro-, meso- and micro-levels: ‘Local’ (hegemonic) discourses vs Grand Discourses (with a capital D) Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 Does not fit with (post-)positivist purposes (there is no such thing as a definitive or unequivocal reading of a particular text). DISCOURSE ANALYSIS FAIRCLOUGH'S DIMENSION OF DISCOURSE AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS (1992) BENSCHOP, Y., VAN DEN BRINK, M., DOOREWAARD, H., & LEENDERS, J. (2013) DISCOURSES OF AMBITION DENNISSEN ET AL., 2018 NETWORKING FOR EQUALITY? Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO DISCOURSE ANALYSIS Philips & Hardy (2002) distinguish four different approaches to discourse analysis on the basis of two dimensions: 1) The importance of text (micro) vs. context (macro) 2) The focus on processes of social construction vs the focus on power dynamics* DISCOURSE ANALYSIS FOCUS ON PROCESSES OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION Social Linguistic Analysis (micro) - Helpful in understanding how social phenomena – decisions, organizations, identities – are produced by specific discursive actions and events on the part of particular actors - Example: how managers discursively constructed their decisions Interpretive Structuralism (macro) - Focus on how broader discursive contexts come into being - Helpful in understanding macro-changes in broad discourses over periods of time - How discourse makes action possible and legitimate - Example: How the interpretative frames of managers were shaped by the broader context DISCOURSE ANALYSIS FOCUS ON POWER DYNAMICS Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 Critical Linguistic Analysis (micro) - Focus on linguistic strategies (rhetoric, narrative or metaphor) and microdynamics of a text - Helpful in examining how specific discursive activities and texts help to produce power relations at the local level. - Example: Study of rhetorical strategies to understand how racist ideology is produced in conversations Critical Discourse Analysis (macro) - Focus on how and why certain views, ideas and perspectives dominate while others are suppressed or silenced - Helpful in revealing how taken-for-granted understandings serve to privilege some actors and disadvantage others - Example: Study of hegemonic discourses to understand how inequality is maintained and reproduced COMPUTER-ASSISTED QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS SOFTWARE (CAQDAS) Supports coding process: easier to analyze data Helps with organizing and structuring your data Various software programmes: Atlas-ti, Nvivo,MAXqda (RU has a licence for Atlas-ti) NB: It doesn’t do the analysis for you (!) Allows for multiple coding, memos, constant comparison Different types of data: documents, audio clips, video clips, and photos Possibly helps making coding process more transparent: - add memos: explanations, comments, second thoughts Coding process becomes exploratory due to ease of renaming and modifying codes, e.g.: - Group quotes with similar codes (print pages) - Create families of codes - Create your own networks from the codes as visualisation Literature lecture 4 Gioia, D. A., Corley, K. G., & Hamilton, A. L. (2013). Seeking qualitative rigor in inductive research: Notes on the Gioia methodology. Organizational research methods, 16(1), 15-31. The authors introduce and describe the Gioia methodology for conducting rigorous qualitative research. Here's a summary of the key points from the paper: 1. Introduction to the Gioia Methodology: The authors acknowledge the challenges of ensuring qualitative rigor in inductive research and introduce the Gioia methodology as a systematic approach to address these challenges. 2. Four Principles of Rigor: The Gioia methodology is based on four key principles to ensure qualitative rigor: a. Data Collection with Precision: Researchers should be precise and systematic in data collection to minimize bias and ensure comprehensive coverage. b. Data Reduction through Coding: Researchers use a rigorous coding process to identify patterns, themes, and categories within the data. Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 c. Data Display through Structured Matrices: Structured matrices are used to visually organize data and facilitate pattern recognition. d. Conclusion Drawing and Verification: Conclusions are drawn through a transparent and systematic process, and rigorous methods are employed to ensure the validity and reliability of findings. 3. Data Collection: The authors emphasize the importance of a systematic approach to data collection, including clear documentation of data sources, selection criteria, and the context in which the data was collected. 4. Data Reduction and Coding: The paper details the Gioia methodology's approach to coding. Researchers use a systematic process of open coding, axial coding, and selective coding to identify and refine themes and categories in the data. 5. Data Display through Structured Matrices: Structured matrices, a key element of the Gioia methodology, are introduced as a visual tool for organizing data systematically. Researchers create matrices to display patterns and relationships among codes and data segments. 6. Conclusion Drawing and Verification: The authors describe the process of drawing conclusions through a structured approach that involves consensus among researchers, member checking, and peer debriefing. This process aims to ensure that the findings are valid, reliable, and grounded in the data. 7. Maintaining Rigor Throughout the Research Process: The paper emphasizes that rigor should be maintained throughout the research process, from data collection to conclusion drawing. The Gioia methodology is intended to be a comprehensive and systematic approach that adheres to the four principles of rigor. 8. Practical Guidance: The authors offer practical guidance on how to apply the Gioia methodology in research projects, including examples of structured matrices and coding techniques. In summary, the paper introduces the Gioia methodology as a systematic approach to ensure qualitative rigor in inductive research. It outlines four key principles (precision in data collection, systematic coding, structured data display, and rigorous conclusion drawing) and provides practical guidance for researchers to apply this methodology effectively. The methodology is designed to enhance the quality and reliability of qualitative research findings. Symon, G. & Cassell, C. (eds.) (2012) – chapter 20 (on case studies) Case 1: The Case of the Polish Call-girls The text discusses the author's personal research experiences, with a focus on two case studies. The first case involves a situation where the author, a professional services manager in a computer company, faces challenges from a successful sales manager who attempts to undermine the author's position through various unethical tactics. The sales manager's behavior includes insulting and threatening the author, blocking their contacts with a major customer, and even attempting to discredit them with the use of call-girls during a business trip to Poland. The second case study centers around the author's unplanned exploration of organizational politics, initiated by a casual conversation with someone named Brian. Brian shares his Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 experiences dealing with a senior colleague who uses political tactics to interfere with Brian's role in the organization. The author records and transcribes these conversations, ultimately turning them into a research paper. The text highlights the author's journey from having no research project plan or funding to presenting the case studies at academic conferences and getting one of them published in a journal. The author's experiences challenge traditional notions of case study research and demonstrate that single-person case studies can be publishable. The text also touches on the variety of data sources and methods used in case study research. Additionally, the text discusses the status of case study research in the academic world, including debates about its scientific value, and the contrast between positivist and constructivist epistemologies. It emphasizes the need for compelling justifications for using case study approaches, detailed descriptions of the research design, and the importance of generating novel and valuable findings. What Makes a Case? A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident. - Organizations - Change processes - Decision processes - Respondent validation mechanisms - Events Case 2: The Case of the Missing Project Leads This passage discusses a case study conducted in the field of organizational research, specifically focusing on distributed change agency within healthcare organizations. The study examined the roles and responsibilities of individuals and groups involved in implementing strategic changes in the treatment of prostate cancer at an acute hospital called Grange. The research highlights the success of Grange in reducing waiting times for prostate cancer treatment compared to other hospitals, emphasizing that this success was achieved through a distributed approach rather than traditional centralized management. The passage discusses the data collection methods used in the study, such as interviews and document analysis, and the challenges encountered during the research. It also explains that the study unexpectedly led to the development of the concept of "distributed change agency" and challenged conventional wisdom about centralized change management. The author further explores the "So what?" aspect of case study research, emphasizing that case studies can contribute to theory development and refinement. The passage dispels two common myths about case studies: the need for triangulation and the limitation of generalizability. It explains that case studies can offer various forms of generalizability, including analytical refinement, isomorphic learning, and naturalistic generalization. Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 In conclusion, the passage provides insights into the challenges and prospects of using case study designs in organizational research and highlights the value of case studies in generating theory and understanding complex organizational phenomena. It also recommends key texts and references for further reading on case study methodology in organizational studies. Five analytical techniques: 1. Pattern matching 2. Explanation building 3. Time-series analysis 4. Logic models 5. Cross-case synthesis Symon, G. & Cassell, C. (eds.) (2012) – chapter 26 (discourse analysis) The introduction discusses the concept of discourse analysis as a process of meaning- making through talk and text. It emphasizes that discourse analysis goes beyond examining individual words and instead focuses on the structures of meaning, expressions, themes, and rhetorical devices used in constructing reality. Discourse analysis considers language at the level of statements and is sensitive to the context in which verbal or written text is produced. The chapter outlines five main sections: epistemological and ontological issues in choosing a discursive research design, various discourse-based methods applicable to organizational research, practical considerations for selecting discursive material, an example of a study, and concluding remarks with further reading suggestions. It also discusses different levels of discursive engagement, ranging from micro-level analysis of specific texts or interactions to macro-level analysis of broad social contexts. The text identifies three modes of discursive engagement: positivist, critical, and poststructuralist, each having different epistemological orientations. The chapter introduces four approaches to discourse analysis: deconstruction, Foucauldian- inspired analysis, critical discourse analysis, and intertextual analysis. Each approach is briefly described, highlighting their focus and level of analysis within discourse analysis. - Deconstruction is a philosophical approach and can be described as micro-level discursive technique insofar as it involves a ‘close reading’ of a single text (Derrida, 1976; 1978). Currie (1998: 45) has observed that: ‘Rather than seeking to stabilize, reduce or close down discourse, a deconstructive reading opens up complexity and uses it to problematize previous attempts at oversimplification’. - Foucauldian-Inspired Analysis: Like deconstruction, Foucauldian-inspired forms of discourse analysis have their roots in philosophy (Foucault, 1972; 1980; 1984). However, in terms of the level, this form of analysis operates at the other end of the spectrum to the close reading approach of deconstruction. - Critical discourse analysis (CDA) explicitly embraces a ‘critical’ epistemology and it challenges the delineation of macro-, meso- and micro-levels of discursive engagement. Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 - Intertextuality can been described as being concerned with the extent to which a given text has embedded within it elements of other texts. The text discusses the process of selecting suitable discursive material for analysis in the context of discourse analysis. It emphasizes the importance of choosing texts that are pre- existing, meaning they haven't been authored or co-authored by the researcher. The researcher should not be an active participant in the production of the discourse being analyzed. The text also highlights the need to align the selection of discursive material with the chosen discursive method and epistemological position. For example, if a critical epistemological stance and deconstruction method are employed, it may involve a close reading of a single text that emphasizes the existence of privileged voices and the marginalization of alternative accounts. The second part of the text provides an example of discourse analysis in a study of equality, diversity, and inclusion. The research involved analyzing academic texts and corporate videos to understand how these concepts were constructed discursively. The study found a shift in discursive prominence from equality to diversity and an emerging focus on inclusion. The example illustrates the importance of aligning discursive methods with the level of engagement and the desired mode of engagement, combining different discursive techniques, and the potential for using discourse analysis in combination with other qualitative research methods to gain a deeper understanding of social situations. In summary, the text highlights the complexity and flexibility of discourse analysis as a tool for studying organizations and social phenomena, emphasizing its value in understanding aspects of power, identity, culture, and more. Van den Brink, M., & Benschop, Y. (2014). Gender in academic networking: The role of gatekeepers in professorial recruitment. Journal of Management Studies, 51(3), 460-492. (mandatory: method section p.466-469) In the article "Gender in academic networking: The role of gatekeepers in professorial recruitment" by Van den Brink and Benschop (2014), the authors delve into the complex dynamics of gender and academic networking, specifically focusing on the role of gatekeepers in the recruitment of professors. This summary will provide a more extensive overview, including the method section. Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 Background: The authors address the issue of gender disparities in academic leadership roles, particularly at the level of professorship. They aim to investigate how gatekeepers, influential individuals who participate in academic recruitment, may inadvertently or intentionally contribute to these gender imbalances. Methodology (pages 466-469): 1. Data Collection: The authors adopt a mixed-methods approach to collect data. They use data from a Dutch academic institution, anonymizing information and academic departments for confidentiality. Various data sources are incorporated, including job vacancy texts, university websites, documents of various academic committees, and responses to these documents. The study also draws from interviews with gatekeepers and those involved in the selection process. 2. Data Analysis: A comprehensive content analysis of job vacancy texts, especially in relation to selection criteria and preferences, is performed to identify gender-biased language and expectations. Qualitative data analysis techniques are applied to interview transcripts, which reveal the viewpoints of gatekeepers and their roles in recruitment. 3. Theoretical Framework: The study is grounded in theories of gatekeeping and network perspectives, which help interpret how gatekeepers' roles can impact the inclusion or exclusion of candidates from professorial positions. Findings: The research uncovers several key findings: 1. Gendered Language: The authors identify gendered language patterns in job vacancy texts that may inadvertently favor male candidates. Some vacancy texts emphasize stereotypically masculine attributes and characteristics, potentially disadvantaging female candidates. 2. Gatekeeper Influence: Gatekeepers, often male, tend to have a strong influence on the recruitment process. Their personal networks and preferences can lead to the appointment of candidates who align with their views and networks, contributing to gender disparities. 3. Perpetuation of Gender Imbalance: Gatekeepers' network-based recruitment practices may perpetuate existing gender imbalances by favoring candidates who resemble the current predominantly male professoriate. Implications: This study sheds light on the role of gatekeepers in academic recruitment and how their influence can affect gender balance in professorial appointments. The findings have important implications for addressing gender disparities in academia. By recognizing the impact of gendered language in job vacancy texts and the powerful role of gatekeepers, institutions can work toward more inclusive and equitable recruitment processes. The authors' methodology, combining content analysis and qualitative interviews, provides a comprehensive view of how gatekeepers shape the academic landscape, ultimately contributing to the ongoing dialogue on gender equity in higher education. Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 Lecture 5 WRITING IT UP REFLEXIVITY Reflexivity key part of a good method section (and beyond!) Write down (theoretical) assumptions, and reflect on this during the research (and perhaps revise) Consider how it affects your research conduct Keep a research diary, also of your own reflections and emotions Discuss the outcomes with colleagues CLASSICAL PROBLEMS OF REPORTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Telling about data, not showing it Showing too much data, and not interpreting it: don’t skip theory Quantifying qualitative data Inappropriately mixing inductive and deductive strategies Mimic deductive work in your rhetoric (in the theory section) BETTER WAYS OF REPORTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Show data using quotes, tables, figures For the results section: stay close to the data AND show own interpretations by grouping data, develop dimensions etc. Aim to show complexity! Tell a story Think of each theme as a character in a story Show and tell INCLUDING QUOTES IN THE TEXT HOW TO REFER TO THE DATA IN YOUR TEXT “...and then the Association comes in and want to make us pay for additional registration costs” (Not!)Taking quotes and statements from interviewees as facts Reflection in text: “The Association make professionals pay for extra registration costs”. Instead: Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 “some interviewees (vets) were doubtful regarding the Association’s intentions to try and pass on the charges to the vets”. SHOWING YOUR DATA – CREDIBILITY USING LITERATURE WIRING A DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Conclusion is a short summary – at the end of your report Discussion reflection on RQ, insights for theory and practice (this is where literature can come back in) This is not (yet another) summary of your findings Reflexivity – often forgotten Limitations/boundary conditions: don’t mention the obvious (e.g., not enough time, lack of data resources, possibility to generalize to other sectors) Suggestions for further research: doing the research in another context is NOT an argument in itself CRAFTING A STORY Stories change depending on who is telling them – Selective silencing is an unavoidable feature of narrative As photographers decide what lies inside the frame, authors decide which information to present Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 While fictions are designed to entertain, social science narratives are often designed to color the perceptions and judgements of their audiences Consequently, narratives are not neutral, and reporting change is an activity with political intent. MY ADVISE Standards are evolving – check recent publications in the good journals (AMJ, Org Science, ASQ, Org Studies, JMS) Emphasis on rigor: methods section contain a lot of detail and justification of choices Emphasis on theory building: light at the front end, only include the final story, extensive discussion Talk about boundary conditions rather than limitations or generalizability: for which general question is this case a good example? MODEL WHAT A MODEL SHOULD DELIVER Should be explanatory, not too general and fuzzy The story is in the arrows, not the concepts itself Do not downsize the importance of your model by moving it to the Appendix (in your master thesis) Model should connect with/reflect concepts discussed and used in results (therefore: reflect on quotes in terms of theoretical/’discovered’ concepts MODELS IN QUANTITATIVE VERSUS QUALITATIVE WRITING ANIMATED ILLUSTRATION (DE LA CHAUX ET AL. 2018) Using an illustrated video to tell the main results of a study GRAPHIC NOVEL (SCHIEMER ET AL. 2021) It is a novel about the various insights from creativity studies, In their search for approaches that provide the best possible explanation for how ideas come about, the main actors (scientists) of our story encounter a wide variety of allegories (in the form of superheroes) representing creativity theories on a fictitious distant plane A way of doing a literature review of creativity theories POEM (VAN ECK ET AL. 2021) Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 Depending on the type of study, the results wish to transfer the feelings and atmosphere from the people who have been studied This is often hard in usual text Poems are one way of doing this MODEL OVER TIME (RERUP & FELDMAN 2011) MODEL OVER TIME (BARTOSCH & LOHMEYER, WORK IN PROGRESS) GOING BACK TO SHOWING DATA – LINK BETWEEN DATA AND MODEL MODEL WITH DIFFERENT LEVELS (SCHÜSSLER ET AL. 2022) Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 YOUR MODEL Should be explanatory, not too general and fuzzy Should not only contain the key terms from your RQ (tautological) Should indicate the complexity of reality The story is in the arrows, not the concepts itself Let the data speak! Taking a brief quote to illustrate your story EXAM PREPARATION SAMPLE MC QUESTION There are several programmes for qualitative data analysis. When and how are such programmes best used? a. They can create automatic transcriptions and assign codes if the programme has been trained on enough data. b. You should first analyse everything with a software programme and then use a method like context mapping to visualise the output of the programme. c. You should never do qualitative research with a software programme because it has inbuild assumptions that are going to hamper your reflexivity. d. Software programmes allow you to write memos and keep a systematic record of your analytical steps. SAMPLE MC QUESTION II Researchers should always be aware of their assumptions about what counts as good research and how they come to conclusions, and qualitative researchers are usually more explicit about this. Which of the following statements is most appropriate? a. Ontology refers to what the objective truth is, and epistemology refers to human biases that can influence our perceptions and make them more subjective. b. Positivists focus on how to improve societal situations for the better and aim to have a positive impact on the lives of marginalized people. c. Interpretivists reject the notion of an objective ontology and have a subjectivist epistemology. d. Critical theorists reject the notion of theory and believe that research should always start with primary observations. OPEN QUESTION You need to elaborate and apply what you know. Includes epistemological and ontological questions Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 Will ask about your holistic understanding of research designs and application to specific research context Example: discuss and illustrate advantages and disadvantages of using research design A or B for studying x. QUALITY OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ASSESSING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH What constitutes good qualitative research? Objectivity is not the goal –so what’s with ‘reliability’ and ‘validity’? Criteria are needed, so don’t ignore or use those established for quantitative research EVALUATION STANDARDS OR THE TRUSTWORTHINESS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH LINCOLN & GUBA (1985): NATURALISTIC INQUIRY. SAGE. CREDIBILITY It demonstrates good fit between constructed realities of respondents and reconstructions attributed to them which makes your results reliable and plausible to the reader. You can show this by Prolonged engagement – spend enough time, go beyond superficial observation Peer debriefing – discuss and encourage reflexivity Negative case analysis – analyse the case that does not fit the original interpretation Progressive subjectivity – keep record, diary of your developed understandings, choices, etc Member checking – test your interpretations with the research participants throughout the research process It does NOT mean internal validity – best fit between interpretation and reality TRANSFERABILITY Possible with enough detail about the specificity of the research case. You can provide this by Having a ‘thick description’ of your case. Allow case-to-case transfer responsibility of the reader of research if the writer provides sufficient detail about the circumstances of the situation or case that was studied. readers can engage in reasonable but modest speculation about whether findings are applicable to other cases with similar circumstances. Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 Researchers disagree to use the term theoretical generalisation: not to generalize from sample to population, but from observation to theory It does NOT mean generalizability – demonstrate that results can be generalized to all other contexts. DEPENDABILITY Demonstrate methodological changes and shifts in constructions You can ensure this by Make your research process traceable and well documented (have a research diary, make notes, write reflections) Be very transparent about all your decisions Telling and showing your process Be very reflective about you decisions (not only what you did, but also why) This is NOT reliability – the results being replicated by another inquirer. CONFIRMABILITY Establish that the data and interpretations of your inquiry are not merely figments of your imagination. You can ensure this by Make your research process traceable and well documented (have a research diary, make notes, write reflections) Be very transparent about all your decisions Telling and showing your process Be very reflective about you decisions (not only what you did, but also why) This is NOT objectivity in terms of having a not-subjective research process that delivers knowledge about how things really are. Literature lecture 5 Reay, Trish, Zafar, Asma, Monteiro, Pedro & Glaser, Vern (2019). Presenting findings from qualitative research: One size does not fit all! Research in the Sociology of Organizations 59: 201-216. The authors discuss the challenges and variations in presenting findings from qualitative research. Here's a summary of the article: Background: The authors acknowledge the growing importance of qualitative research in the field of sociology and management studies. Qualitative research provides valuable insights into complex social phenomena, but presenting the findings from such research can be a multifaceted and challenging endeavor. Main Points: 1. Diversity in Qualitative Research: The authors emphasize that qualitative research encompasses a wide range of methodologies, including ethnography, case studies, interviews, and more. Each approach has its unique characteristics, data collection methods, and analysis techniques. Therefore, the way findings are presented should align with the specific qualitative methodology used. Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|5196404 2. Challenges in Presentation: The article highlights the common challenges in presenting qualitative findings, such as capturing the richness of data, maintaining rigor, and ensuring transparency. These challenges are particularly relevant when publishing research in academic journals or presenting findings in a comprehensible and meaningful way. 3. Tailored Presentation Methods: The authors stress the importance of adapting the presentation of qualitative findings to the research approach. They argue that a one- size-fits-all approach to presenting qualitative data is inadequate. Instead, researchers should tailor their presentation methods to the nature of their data and the objectives of their study. 4. Illustrative Examples: The article provides illustrative examples of how findings can be presented differently based on the qualitative research approach. It highlights variations in presenting themes, narratives, and data excerpts to suit the research context. 5. Implications: The authors suggest that by acknowledging the diversity of qualitative research methods and carefully considering how findings are presented, researchers can enhance the rigor, transparency, and clarity of their work. This approach is crucial for the advancement of qualitative research in sociology and organizational studies. Conclusion: The article emphasizes the need for a more nuanced and context-specific approach to presenting findings from qualitative research. Researchers should consider the unique characteristics of their research methods and adjust their presentation techniques accordingly. This tailored approach enhances the quality of qualitative research and contributes to a better understanding of complex social phenomena in the field of sociology and organizational studies. Gedownload door Rick van Driel ([email protected])

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