Archaeological Sources PDF

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES 1.1 INTRODUCTION The word 'History' comes from the Latin word `Historia' which means 'finding out', ‘inquiry’, or ‘seeking knowledge’. History is a study of events in the past. It is a record of the achievements of man. For the reconstruction of history of any countr...

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES 1.1 INTRODUCTION The word 'History' comes from the Latin word `Historia' which means 'finding out', ‘inquiry’, or ‘seeking knowledge’. History is a study of events in the past. It is a record of the achievements of man. For the reconstruction of history of any country or people, we should know the past events. These events are called the 'historical facts'. The history of any people or society is known to us by the records left behind by them. These records are known as historical sources. Any piece of evidence, written or otherwise, which throws light on the past, can be considered as a source of History. The study of Ancient Indian history is important as it tells us how in ancient times, the people of India developed their culture and civilization. The study of history is very much useful for: a) It helps us to know about our past. b) It helps us to understand our present in a better way. c) It helps us to learn some valuable lessons from our past mistakes. d) It also helps us to shape our future in a better way. e) It makes us broad minded and we learn to live in peace with people who have views different from us. The History of any Ancient people civilization is largely conditioned by the authenticity of the source material. In broad terms, sources of Ancient Indian history are classified into two categories. They are: 1) Archaeological Sources 2) Literary Sources In this lesson, we will be studying the Archaeological Sources for the study of Ancient Indian history and understand their importance. 1.2 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES Archaeology is the science of antiquities. The archaeological sources include Inscriptions, Coins, Structural remains, Monuments and other antiquities like Sculptures, Paintings, Pottery, Ornaments etc. The archaeological sources are treated as more authentic than the literary sources because of their contemporality. These sources have provided immense information on many historical facts about which nothing was known previously. For example, Prehistoric cultures i.e. Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic Cultures and Protohistoric like the Indus valley civilization; where literary sources are absent (or not deciphered). Archaeology has recently been developed scientifically and its evidence is regarded as most trustworthy. In addition to the scrutiny and close examinations of the monuments such as temples, statues, ruins of the places etc., excavation has been adopted as a means to uncover ancient cultures. Valuable material concerning both prehistoric and historic civilizations has been discovered during various excavations such as Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kot-Diji, Lothal, Kalibangan, Nalanda etc. Some of the sites that have been excavated in Maharashtra are Jorwe, Inamgaon, Diamabad, Paithan, Nevase, Ter, Brahmapuri, Pauni, Sopara etc. 1.2.1 Importance of the Archaeological Sources: The knowledge of the history of any ancient society or people depends on authentic source materials. The archaeological sources are usually considered as the authentic source materials for the study of ancient history. The archaeological material is more authentic because it is based on actual discoveries of the then-contemporary periods. As a matter of fact, archaeological material is the only source of history for understanding the cultures of the `Proto-historic' period. The best example of this kind is the Indus Valley Civilization. Archaeological sources play a vital role in understanding the people and their culture in the historic period. It serves as a valuable supplementary source for a particular period. Many times, the gaps found in the literary sources are filled by the archaeological sources. It corroborates the historical facts mentioned in the literary sources and also reveals the historical facts. The archaeological sources are treated as more authentic because of their contemporaneous nature and they are not tampered with in the course of time. These are undying witnesses or the evidence of the history and have helped to reconstruct the history of Ancient India. 1.2.2 Development of Archaeology in India: Recently archaeology has developed scientifically in India, and its evidence is regarded as most trustworthy. It was during the British Period that a systematic study of archaeology in India began. From the 18th Century onwards, the officers of British East India Company began to take keen interest in the Antiquarian wealth of India. In the year 1784, under the guidance of Sir William Jones, a Judge of the Supreme Court, the ‘Asiatic Society of Bengal' was established in Calcutta for the study of history, the antiquities, sciences and literature of Asia. Due to the efforts made by the European scholars such as Sir William Jones, Dr. Buchanan, Hamilton, James Princep, Sir Alexander Cunningham, James Burgess, Sir John Marshall, Aural Stein, Mortimer Wheeler, M.S. Vats, and Hargreaves and Indian archaeologists such as Rakhaldas Banerjee, S.R. Rao, H.D. Sankhalia and others have contributed a lot to the development of Indian archaeology. The British and Indian archaeologists over the past century and more have collected an extensive range of architectural, iconographic and inscriptional materials related to the history of Mauryas, Satavahanas, Guptas, Chalukyas, Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Palas and Senas and other dynasties. These archaeological sources offer us a wealth of information on Political and even more on Religious, Social, Economic and Cultural history of India. Let us study all archaeological sources in detail and understand their historical importance. 1.3 INSCRIPTIONS (EPIGRAPHIC RECORDS) An inscription means an old engraved record on stone, rock or metal (other than a paper). It is also known as 'Epigraph' and therefore, the study of inscriptions is known as Epigraphy. In other words, `Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions and inscriptions literally mean any writing engraved on some object'. Epigraphy forms a branch of archaeology. These are written records on some hard substance. The objects which were used for engraving inscriptions in India were of various types such as lithic, metallic (mainly on copper plates), earthen and wooden objects, pottery, bricks, shells, ivory plaques and other objects. The term inscription also includes in it the writing in relief such as legends on coins and seals which are usually produced out of moulds or dies. Even the records painted on the walls or written in ink or on wooden tables are also regarded as inscriptions, although here the letters are not actually engraved but painted. Inscriptions are found all over the country. Their number runs into thousands. Perhaps, many are waiting to come to light. The earliest records in writing in India are attributed to the Indus Valley people. They certainly knew the art of writing as is seen from their seals and pottery. However, this script is still undeciphered. Many scholars and historians are making serious efforts to decipher the Indus Script. If deciphered successfully, the beginning of Indian epigraphy will be pushed back by about three thousand years. Most of the earliest inscriptions are in Brahmi and Kharoshti Scripts. Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and other languages have been discovered. Brahmi Script is written from left to right. Brahmi is the oldest Indian script and dates back between the 3rd Century B.C. to 7th A.D. It remained the main script of writing in India nearly for one thousand years. During the reign of Ashoka, we get clear evidence of engraved records, incised on imperishable rock or stone surfaces in either Brahmi or Kharoshti script. During the period between the 3rd Century B.C. and the 7th Century A.D., Brahmi script underwent some paleographic changes every two hundred years and hence, the script of different periods came to be known by different terms such as — a) Ashokan Brahmi (e.g. Ashokan rock edicts) b) Satavahana Brahmi (e.g. Inscriptions of the Satavahanas) c) Gupta Brahmi (e.g. Inscription of the Guptas) etc. Broadly speaking the inscription can be classified into two main groups: i) The inscriptions issued by a ruling authority or issued on its behalf. For example, inscriptions of Ashoka, King Kharavela, Satavahanas,  Chalukyas etc. ii) Inscriptions issued by private individuals or private organizations. In this category, the largest number of inscriptions record the donations (endowments) made in favor of religious establishments or installation of images for worship. 1.3.1 Types of Inscriptions: In general, when we analyze the inscriptions on the basis of their contents, we come across many of its types such as: 1] Commercial Inscriptions: The Commercial type of inscriptions provides valuable information to our historical knowledge. The seals of the Indus valley civilization are the best example of this type. 2] Magical Inscriptions: The magical inscriptions are found on the seals of the Indus valley. They were used as amulets and contained some magical formulae on them. 3] Religious and Didactic inscriptions: These inscriptions deal with religious and moral matters. For example, the inscriptions of Ashoka are the best specimen of this type. His edicts relate to ethical aspects of Buddhism and contain the doctrines of his ‘Dhamma' or the Moral Codes. 4] Donative and Dedicative Inscriptions: These inscriptions record the donations or endowments made to the religious establishments. Most of these dedicative inscriptions are engraved on the walls of a temple or religious establishments and the pilgrim centers such as inscriptions found in Buddhist Monasteries at Kanheri, Kuda, Mahad, Sanchi, Vidisha, Nalanda and temples at Bhubaneshwar, Kanchipuram, Thanjavur, Aihole etc. give an account of the endowments made by either royal persons or private individuals and organizations. 5] Administrative Inscriptions: These inscriptions provide us information about the administrative system of the Ancient Indians. For example, some of the edicts of Ashoka throw light on his provincial administration. From these inscriptions, we come to know that during the time of Ashoka, there were at least four provinces in his empire and their capitals were Taxila, Ujjain, Toshali and Suvarnagiri. Besides, there is a reference to certain officers of the state in these inscriptions, Antamahamatras and Dharmamahamatras. These inscriptions provide valuable information regarding the Mauryan Administration. 6] Eulogistic Inscriptions: The eulogistic compositions are called ‘Prashasti’. Usually, these inscriptions contain the name and genealogy of the issuing ruler, the early life of a king, his personal accomplishments, and his political military and administrative achievements. Some of the examples of this type are- i) Eulogy of Gautamiputra Satakarni in the Nasik cave Inscription. ii) Eulogy of Samudragupta on Allahabad Pillar Inscription. iii) Eulogy of Pulakesin II on Aihole Inscription. iv) Eulogy of king Kharavela in Hathigumpha Inscription. etc. 7] Miscellaneous Inscriptions: Besides the above-mentioned types of inscriptions, there are a number of inscriptions mostly found in South India, conveying laws and legal institutions, crimes and punishment, elections, trade and commerce and music and dance. These are of the miscellaneous type and throw light on various aspects of the life of ancient people. Thus, inscriptions are of various types and they throw light on various historical facts. They provide detailed information about the political conditions of their times. They give us information about the issuing ruler, his achievements, inter-state relations, political ideas and institutions, and the administrative setup. Importance of Epigraphy The study of inscriptions is of immense value in relating to the social conditions of the times. They provide us with information about the social life of the people, especially pointing out the caste system, the Joint family system, the different clans (Gotras) as well as innumerable existing communities, etc. A large number of inscriptions throwing light on the economic life of the people have been discovered in almost all parts of India. Different mercantile professions are recorded in the inscriptions such as Sethi, Nigama and Vanija. Trade and industrial guilds were a common feature of economic life since very early times. Reference to such organizations functioning during the ancient period is found in a number of inscriptions. Even for understanding the religious life of the ancient Indian people, inscriptions have proved to be an important historical source. They are called ‘dedicative inscriptions’ as seen earlier. There are a number of inscriptions throwing light on Jainism. Inscriptions in general, throw a light on the history of languages and palaeography. They help us mainly for the study of cultural history. Indian inscriptions found in many of the Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Burma, Java, and Sumatra, certainly give evidence of India's cultural expansion in these countries. Moreover, the epigraphical sources are more authentic because they are permanent and cannot be tampered with. Thus, it is for these authentic historical evidences, that the study of ancient Indian history would remain incomplete for want of sufficient information. Check Your Progress: 1. Explain in brief Importance of Inscription as an important source for the study of Ancient Indian history. ____________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ 1.4 NUMISMATICS The coins form another important archaeological source for the study of history. The study of coins of the ancient period gives us valuable information. Such evidence is called Numismatic evidence. Numismatics means 'the study of coins as historical objects, as a source of history'. Numismatics form an important branch of archaeology. It contributes a wealth of information to our understanding of the past. Coins as a source of history, throw light on various aspects of history. Thousands of ancient Indian coins have been discovered from which an idea about the contemporary economic condition, currency system, and development of metallurgical art can be obtained. Approximately 2500 years ago, coins were struck in India for the first time. They were used as a symbol and token of value. With the use of coins, the obsolete system of barter exchange was now replaced with coin currency. The stage of minting coins was reached only in the 6th century B.C. These coins have been discovered in large hoards in almost all parts of India. In ancient Indian literary works, instances of transactions in terms such as 'Vimsatika', 'Trimsatika', 'Sana' and `Karshapana" are mentioned. However, the earliest specimens of the coins are found from the 6th century B.C. They are made of Silver. These coins bear the stamps of one to five punches. More than one punch was used to stamp the coins. It is because of its manufacturing techniques that these coins are called 'Punch Marked Coins'. These Punch-marked coins have been found in almost all parts of India and even in Afghanistan, and Pakistan. They are found from Kabul-Kandahar region in Afghanistan to Bengal in the east, and Coimbatore in the South. It means that there was a common currency almost throughout India before the Maurya. The earliest die struck coins have been assigned to the 4th Century B.C. These are found at Taxila and only one side of a coin was used. The other side was plain. Later on, the double die coins were struck by the rulers from the 2nd Century B.C. These coins are found at Ayodhya, Kaushambi, Mathura etc. Some of these coins bear some inscription in Brahmi script. The Indo Greek rulers also issued the coins of their own in India. They followed the Greek model of the coin initially issued by Alexander, to commemorate his victories in 4th Century B.C. The Indo Greeks, the Shakas and the Pahalavas also followed the Greek model and improved upon the coins. The Indo-Greek coins bear figures of the reigning chief with their name and legend. These coins obviously are helpful for understanding the history of Indo-Greek rulers. At the beginning of the Christian era, the Kushan rulers became predominant in North India and Afghanistan. For the first time, gold coinage with legends in Greek, Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts was introduced by the Kushans. Most of the Kushan coins are bilingual, having Greek inscriptions on the obverse and Kharosthi inscriptions on the reverse side. The Gupta rulers followed the Kushan coin pattern. The Gupta dynasty founded their empire in the first quarters of the 4th Century A.D. Almost all Gupta rulers issued their own coins. (We are going to study Gupta coins in the later topic). These coins are very useful for the reconstruction of their history. They issued Gold, Silver, Copper and also Lead coins. The other dynasties such as the Satavahanas, the Shaka–Kshatrapas, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Gurjara Pratiharas, the Rashtrakutas, the Cholas, the Cheras etc. also issued their own coins. 1.4.1 Importance of Coins as a Source of History: Coins are an important and authentic source of history as the inscriptions. By the study of different types of coins, symbols, inscriptions, portraiture etc. found on coins, we can gather a wealth of information about historical facts. This data is extremely valuable for the study of ancient Indian Political history as well as economic and cultural history. Coins reveal the names of unknown kings. For example, most of the Indo-Greek Kings, who ruled in India are known from their coins. Many rulers of the Kushan dynasty and Satavahana dynasty are also known from their coins only. Coins sometimes give us information about the titles of the kings. The Coins help us to fix up the chronology. The location of the coins helps us to determine the extent of the territory of a king. The coins are of great value for the study of the constitutional and administrative history of scripts and languages of the ancient people. From the social, economic and cultural point of view coins are also most valuable. They throw light on several aspects of economic history. The coins sometimes give a clear picture of the royal amusements, hobbies, furniture, house materials, weapons of war and hunting. The aspects of cultural life such as dress, ornaments, hairstyle etc. also can be studied with the help of coins. Numismatic evidence furnishes valuable material for religious history. The depiction of deities and symbols on coins helps us in determining the association of different cults with different religions. Coins are of great help in the study of art and chronology. Thus, the coins are useful and authentic sources because they provide detailed information about the Socio-economic cultural, religious and other aspects of the life of the people of Ancient India. Check Your Progress: 1. Explain in brief Coins as an important source of Ancient India. ____________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________ 1.5 MONUMENTS, SCULPTURES, PAINTINGS, POTTERY AND OTHER ANTIQUITIES The structural remains which are seen above the surface of the earth or underground are monuments and are visible creations of the people of ancient India. 1.5.1 Monuments : Monuments such as stupas, palaces, tombs, buildings, temples etc. are important sources of the history of architectural and artistic development in Ancient India. The ornamental work on the walls, pillars, and sculptural remains on the walls of palaces, temples etc. give us an idea of the artistic skill of the time. For example, the pillars of Ashoka, rock-cut architecture such as the caves, stupas, chaityas and viharas, Gupta temples, Chalukya, Pallava and the Rashtrakuta temples pay glowing tribute to the aesthetic and architectural sense of the creators. Since the 18th and 19th centuries, for the systematic study and close examination of the monuments (which are found above the ground) as mentioned earlier, excavation has been adopted as a means to uncover ancient cultures. Valuable material concerning both prehistoric and historic civilizations has been discovered in these excavations. The source material i.e., the archaeological artefacts, pottery, weapons and tools of the ancient people etc. is very valuable, particularly for the prehistoric period. In India, a number of such sites have been excavated. These sites, as mentioned earlier, have yielded a wealth of historical material which throws light on various aspects of ancient civilization. 1.5.2 The Sculptural Art: Sculptural art or Shilpakala was a branch of the arts which reached excellent heights in Ancient India. The people of Indus Valley also knew sculptural art as is evident from their stone and bronze sculptures. Ancient sites of Pataliputra, Mathura etc. have fielded numerous terracotta figurines. The sculptural art, from the time of the Indus Valley to the massive sculptures of later days is the tremendous progress registered by the Indians. In fact, religious zeal combined with artistic talents, resulted in the creation of beautiful images (i.e. Sculptures). These sculptures depict the religious or philosophical concepts of the time. Sculptures are made of various materials such as bronze, terracotta, copper, gold, ivory, wood etc. Mauryan Sculptures, shunga sculptures, Andhra-Satavahana sculptures, Gupta sculptures etc. are important and there are various schools of sculptural art such as Gandhara School, Mathura School of Art etc. In south India, highly skilled craftsmen and artisans made extremely beautiful images. The small images were for Private worship and the larger images were installed in the temples. The fine example of the Indian bronze casting was made under the God Shiva as Nataraja. i.e. lord of the Dance. Study of the images of various deities such as Buddha, Jain Tirthankaras, Vedic gods such as Vishnu, Shiva, Kartikeya, Goddesses such as Laxmi, Durga, Uma and other deities throw light on the religious history of the Ancient Indian people. 1.5.3 Paintings: Painting is the art of producing a picture on a flat surface of wood, Paper, Canvas, Textile, Rock etc. in lines and colours. It is a visual art and forms the art of specialized study of Ancient Indian history and culture. The earliest paintings that are painted on the rock at Bhimbetka in M.P. and Mirzapur and Banda in U.P., give glimpses of the performance of the proto-historic artists. Indus Valley people also developed the art of painting as seen from the Paintings on their Pottery. Excellent Paintings from Ajanta, also add to our knowledge. Paintings give us information on the hairstyle, Dress style, ornaments, jewellery, weapons, flora and fauna etc. of the Ancient people. Naturally, they are very useful sources for the study of Ancient people and cultures. 1.5.4 Pottery: During Ancient times, most of the people used earthen utensils in their day-to-day life. Pottery types like bowls, lids, Plates, Jars and Urns etc. can be found in the excavations. The pottery of the earlier period was coarse, but later on it became more and more sophisticated. During the Mauryan period, the refined pottery known as Northern Black Pottery (NBP) was used throughout north India. During the Andhra-Satavahana period, Indians imported refined Roman pottery. The discovery of this pottery on a very large scale in India throws light on the brisk trade relations between the Indians and the Romans. In the absence of any other evidence, pottery helps to ascertain the chronology of a particular culture. The beautiful varieties of pottery and paintings and carvings on them reflect contemporary technical and artistic skill. Pottery thus is regarded as the main archaeological source for the study of Ancient history and culture. 1.5.5 Other Antiquities: Archaeology studies a wide variety of artefacts or material remains of human civilization such as pottery and other antiquities like tools, seals, weapons, toys, clay articles, beach and precious metals, seals, ornaments and jewellery etc. They speak of the ways of living of the people with the help of these sources we can reconstruct the history of these peoples and cultures and therefore are regarded as the most valuable sources of history. Check Your Progress: 1. Explain in brief the significance of Monuments and Pottery for the study of Ancient Indian history. ____________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ 1.6 SUMMARY The sources of history of Ancient India are broadly classified in two main categories: Archaeological Sources and Literary Sources. In this lesson, we have studied the types of archaeological sources viz. The inscriptions, Numismatics, and the monuments and other antiquities discovered in excavations. We have also studied the importance of these sources for the study of Ancient Indian history and culture. 1.7 QUESTIONS 1. Critically examine the archaeological sources for the study of Ancient Indian history. 2. Explain the importance of inscriptions as an important source of Ancient Indian history. 3. Examine the role of coins and monuments as the sources of Ancient Indian history. 4. Write short notes: a) Inscriptions as the source of history. b) Numismatics as the source of history. 1.8 REFERENCES Basham, A. L., The Wonder that was India, Rupa & Co, 1998. Jha, D.N., Ancient India in Historical Outline, Motilal Banarasidas, New Delhi, 1974. Sharma, R.S., India’s Ancient Past, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 2003. Singh, Upinder, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th century, Pearson Longman, Delhi 2008 Thapar Romila (ed): Recent Perspectives of Early Indian History, Popular Prakashan, Bombay, 1995. Thapar Romila, Interpreting Early India, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1992. ❖❖❖❖