Arab-Israeli Conflict Roots (1880s-WWI) PDF

Roots of the Conflict (1880s–WWI) Anti-Semitism in Europe and Russia and the Emergence of Zionism Growing persecution of Jews in Russia and Europe, including pogroms in the Russian Empire, drove Jewish emigration. Jewish Presence in Palestine: The small Jewish population consis...

Roots of the Conflict (1880s–WWI) Anti-Semitism in Europe and Russia and the Emergence of Zionism Growing persecution of Jews in Russia and Europe, including pogroms in the Russian Empire, drove Jewish emigration. Jewish Presence in Palestine: The small Jewish population consisted mostly of religious communities in cities like Jerusalem, Safed, and Tiberias, often financially supported by Jewish charities abroad. Palestine under the Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire's weakening grip on its territories created administrative inefficiencies and local power struggles. Reforms like the Tanzimat (1839–1876) attempted to modernize governance but had limited reach in rural areas like Palestine. Dawn of Arab and Palestinian Nationalism: Arab nationalism was influenced by growing frustration with Ottoman rule and the desire for greater autonomy. Palestinian nationalism began as a local expression of identity in response to increasing foreign presence, including early Zionist settlers. A Period of Global Changes: Industrial Revolution: Introduced new technologies, transforming economies worldwide and creating a demand for resources, including Middle Eastern oil and other commodities. Strengthening European Nationalism: Unified states like Germany and Italy emerged, reflecting the power of nationalist movements. European Interest in the Middle East: Driven by the strategic importance of the region (e.g., the Suez Canal), economic opportunities, and missionary activities. The Emergence of Zionism Zionism: The political movement advocating for the establishment of a Jewish homeland due to persecution 1882: Selbstemanzipation (Autoemancipation): Written by Russian-Jewish physician Leon Pinsker, this pamphlet was a reaction to widespread anti-Semitism and pogroms in Eastern Europe.  Pinsker argued that Jewish assimilation in Europe was impossible due to persistent prejudice and advocated for Jewish self-determination in a homeland. This work laid the intellectual foundation for modern political Zionism. 1882: The First Aliyah: ⭐ - Aliyah is the term used to describe the immigration of Jewish people to Israel, particularly in the context of the modern Zionist movement. The term itself means "ascent" in Hebrew, symbolizing the spiritual and physical return of Jews to the land of Israel. Marked the beginning of organized Jewish migration to Palestine, primarily by Jews fleeing persecution in Eastern Europe. Approximately 20,000–30,000 Jews settled, establishing agricultural communities like Rishon LeZion and Petah Tikva. Challenges included harsh living conditions, lack of farming experience, and tensions with the local Arab population. 1894: The Dreyfus Affair in France: The wrongful conviction of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a French Jewish officer, on charges of treason, highlighted deep-seated anti-Semitism in Western Europe. The scandal profoundly influenced Theodor Herzl, a journalist covering the trial, leading him to conclude that Jews needed a homeland to escape systemic discrimination. 1896: Publication of Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State): Written by Theodor Herzl, this book outlined his vision of establishing a Jewish state as a solution to the "Jewish Question." Herzl proposed diplomatic negotiations with major powers to secure land for Jewish settlement, emphasizing the practicality and urgency of Zionism. 1897: First Zionist Congress in Basel: Summoned by Herzl, this congress formalized the Zionist movement and created the World Zionist Organization (WZO). The Basel Program declared the goal of establishing "a publicly and legally assured ⭐ homeland for the Jewish people" in Palestine. ○ - The Basel Congress chose Palestine as the focus for a Jewish homeland due to its deep religious and historical significance, being the site of ancient Jewish kingdoms and central to Jewish tradition. A small Jewish community already existed there, strengthening the connection. The weakening Ottoman Empire made Palestine a viable option for negotiation, and focusing on it helped gain broader Jewish support. Alternative proposals, like Uganda, were rejected, as many Zionists insisted on Palestine's unique cultural and spiritual importance. This choice aligned with both Jewish aspirations and European strategic interests in the region. Herzl famously remarked after the congress, "At Basel, I founded the Jewish State." 1901: Creation of the Jewish National Fund (JNF): Established to purchase land in Palestine for Jewish settlement. The JNF became instrumental in acquiring and developing land, focusing on agriculture and infrastructure to support Jewish immigrants. 1904–1914: The Second Aliyah: This wave brought around 35,000 Jewish immigrants to Palestine, many inspired by Zionist ideals and socialist principles. These settlers founded collective agricultural communities (kibbutzim) and established the foundation for the Jewish labour movement, including the creation of ⭐ the Hashomer defence organization in 1909. - Unlike the First Aliyah, which was driven by the desire of refuge from persecution, the Second Aliyah was characterized by ideological motivations, including the revival of Hebrew as a modern spoken language. Conflicting promises made during WW1 Arab Independence – The Hussein-McMahon Correspondence (1915-1916) A series of letters exchanged between Sharif Hussein of Mecca (leader of the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire) and Sir Henry McMahon, the British High Commissioner to Egypt. Britain promised support for Arab independence and the establishment of an Arab state in exchange for Hussein's assistance in rallying the Arabs against the Ottoman Empire during the war. ○ This was seen as a way to gain Arab support in the fight against the Ottomans, who were aligned with the Central Powers. Hussein believed he had been promised a vast Arab empire, covering much of the Ottoman Arab provinces The Sykes-Picot Agreement (1915-1916) At the same time, Britain and France secretly negotiated the Sykes-Picot Agreement, which was a plan to divide the Ottoman Arab territories between the two powers after the war. This agreement contradicted the Hussein-McMahon promises, as it envisioned a partitioned Middle East, with France gaining control over parts of modern-day Syria and Lebanon, and Britain controlling Iraq, Palestine, and Transjordan. The agreement was made without the knowledge of the Arabs, and when it was revealed after the war, it caused deep resentment and distrust among Arab leaders. The Balfour Declaration (1917) Britain also issued the Balfour Declaration in 1917, a letter from British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour to Baron Rothschild, a prominent leader of the British  Jewish community. The letter expressed British support for the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine, which was then part of the Ottoman Empire. The Balfour Declaration was motivated by a desire to gain the support of Jews, especially in the US and Russia, for Britain’s war efforts. The promise of a Jewish homeland was significant because it would later become a foundational element in the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948. ○ However, it conflicted with the earlier promises made to the Arabs regarding their independence. British Mandate in Palestine British Mandate in Palestine (1922-1948): Approved by the League of Nations, it placed Palestine under British control without local agreement, obligating Britain to develop the territory and prepare it for independence. Local Conditions: The region was rural and primarily agriculture-based, with few local elites and limited political or economic development. Hajj Amin al-Husseini: Appointed Mufti (religious leader) of Jerusalem in 1921, he became a key leader of Palestinian opposition to both British and Jewish Zionist policies, later being dismissed by the British in 1936 for his role in the Arab Revolt. Impact of the Mandate: The mandate fueled tensions between Jews and Arabs, as the British promised support for a Jewish national home (Balfour Declaration) while also allegedly promising Arab independence (Hussein-McMahon Correspondence). This conflict set the stage for the ongoing Israeli-Palestinian dispute and the eventual creation of Israel in 1948. Revisionist Zionism Founder: Ze’ev Jabotinsky advocated for a strong, independent Jewish state in all of Palestine, emphasizing military preparedness and territorial expansion. Key Organizations: World Union of Zionist Revisionists (1925) was formed to promote Jabotinsky's ideas. The New Zionist Organization (NZO) (1935) was restructured to pursue these goals more effectively. Ideology: Rejected compromises with Arabs, instead pushing for a Jewish state in all of Palestine, supported by mass Jewish immigration and military strength. Militant Groups: Irgun (Etzel) and Haganah emerged, in response to Arab attacks, to defend Jewish communities in Palestine, initially as vigilante groups but after 1937, turned into militarized forces.  ○ Haganah eventually formed the bulk of the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) after Israel's establishment in 1948, playing a central role in the country's military formation. Legacy: Revisionist Zionism influenced the formation of the Likud Party, which continues to emphasise Jewish nationalism, territorial integrity, and security policies, reflecting Jabotinsky's vision. Palestinian Revolts and British Responses 1920 - First Major Arab Revolt The 1920 Revolt marked the first significant resistance against both British rule and Jewish immigration in Palestine. Arab nationalists and Palestinians were alarmed by increasing Jewish immigration and the implications of the Balfour Declaration (1917), which promised a Jewish national home in Palestine. ○ Tensions flared, leading to violent clashes between Arabs and Jews, and a broader Arab opposition to British policies. 1922 - British White Paper In response to growing unrest, the British government issued the 1922 White Paper, which sought to limit Jewish migration to Palestine. It attempted to address Arab concerns about the demographic balance and provide reassurance that the Jewish national home would not dominate Palestine, proposing restrictions on the rate of Jewish immigration. ○ This document tried to strike a balance between the Zionist and Arab demands but was met with mixed reactions from both sides. 1929 - Riots in Jerusalem In 1929, riots broke out in Jerusalem after escalating tensions between Jews and Arabs. The immediate cause was a dispute over the rights of Jewish worshippers at the Western Wall, but the violence quickly spread to other areas of Palestine. ○ The riots resulted in the deaths of dozens of Jews and Arabs, exposing the deepening sectarian divide and growing fears of future conflict. These riots highlighted the challenges faced by the British in managing intercommunal violence and maintaining order. 1930 - Shaw Commission Report and Passfield White Paper In response to the 1929 riots and ongoing tensions, the Shaw Commission was established to investigate the causes of the unrest. The 1930 Shaw Commission Report highlighted the increasing tensions between Jews and Arabs and criticized British policies that contributed to the problem. Following this, the 1930 Passfield White Paper imposed severe restrictions on Jewish land purchases and halted Jewish immigration. It sought to appease Arab  concerns by limiting Jewish expansion in Palestine but was strongly opposed by Zionist groups, who saw it as a betrayal of the Balfour Declaration. ○ These restrictions intensified the growing rift between the Zionists and the British administration. The 1936-39 Arab Revolt Jewish Migration Early 1930s: ~4,000 Jews migrated to Palestine annually. 1933: 30,327 Jewish immigrants. 1935: 61,854 Jewish immigrants. 1936-1939 Arab Revolt: ○ The most serious and sustained rebellion by Palestinian Arabs against British rule and Jewish immigration. ○ Marked the first time of British-Haganah cooperation in countering the revolt. Peel Commission (1936-1937): ○ Created in response to the Arab Revolt. ○ First formal proposal for partitioning Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states. ○ laid the groundwork for future discussions on the partition of Palestine, though it was rejected by the Arab population. The revolt and the Commission's partition proposal set the stage for continued conflict in the region, ultimately leading to the creation of Israel in 1948. WW1 and After Further White Paper (1939): This British policy document sought to limit Jewish immigration to Palestine and restrict Jews to a minority status, aiming to balance the interests of Jews and Arabs in the region. ○ The policy was increasingly controversial, especially as Nazi persecution of Jews escalated. Biltmore Declaration (1942): In response to the growing crisis in Europe, the World Zionist Organization issued the Biltmore Declaration, which rejected the 1939 White Paper. The Declaration called for Palestine to be established as a Jewish Commonwealth, advocating for unrestricted Jewish immigration to Palestine. ○ This marked a shift toward a more assertive vision for a Jewish state in response to the increasing urgency for a safe haven for Jews. The Nazi Holocaust (1942-45): The Holocaust, the systematic genocide by Nazi Germany, resulted in the murder of approximately six million Jews. The most murderous phase occurred between 1942 and 1945, and it had profound effects on the Jewish people and the broader international community. The Holocaust led to a range of impacts:  ○ On European Views: It intensified global sympathy for the Jewish people, raising awareness of their suffering and highlighting the need for a secure homeland. ○ On Zionism: The Holocaust significantly strengthened the Zionist movement, making the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine a moral imperative for many and garnering international support. ○ On Jewish Migration: The Holocaust spurred increased Jewish migration to Palestine and other regions, despite British restrictions on immigration. Many Holocaust survivors sought refuge in Palestine, where conditions were increasingly tense. Arab League (1945): The Arab League was founded in Cairo in 1945, partly as a response to the changing political landscape in Palestine. The League sought to foster political and economic cooperation among Arab states and to counter the growing influence of Zionism. ○ One of its primary objectives was to prevent the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine, which it viewed as a threat to Arab unity and sovereignty in the region. United Nations plan Britain handed the worsening JewishPalestinian dispute to the newlycreated United Nations in 1947: May 1947: UNSCOP (United Nations Special Committee on Palestine) was established to assess the situation and propose a solution. August 1947: UNSCOP recommended the partition of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states. November 1947: The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) voted on Resolution 181, which called for the partition of Palestine and the creation of Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem as an international city. ○ The Jews accepted the UN Partition Plan because it granted them a Jewish state in Palestine, providing international legitimacy and a step toward fulfilling the Zionist goal of a homeland, especially after the Holocaust. Despite the Jewish state being allocated land with a significant Arab population, they viewed it as an opportunity for sovereignty. ○ Palestinians rejected the plan because they felt it was unfair, giving 55% of the land to a Jewish state despite Jews being a minority. They also felt excluded from the decision-making process and opposed the creation of a Jewish state in what they considered their homeland. They feared displacement and the loss of their rights to self-determination. Israel formed Declaration of the State of Israel (1948) On May 14, 1948, David Ben Gurion declared the establishment of the State of Israel , marking the establishment of the Jewish state, just as the British Mandate  ended. This sparked the 1948 Arab-Israeli War with neighbouring Arab states and Palestinian Arab forces. The 1948-49 Arab-Israeli War Arab armies invade Israel on 15 May 1948, just after David Ben Gurion declared the State of Israel. Egypt attacks Gaza and Beersheba, Lebanon attacks Galilee, Iraq and Arab Legion (Jordanians) attack West Bank; Syria holds its border position. Why did Israel win (apparently so easily?) The Jewish forces were tiny – 30,000 troops plus 35,000 or so others. However, the Arab armies were poorly organized, had no unified command, did not use heavy weapons well, and faced logistical problems. Plus they were politically divided: ○ King Abdallah entered the war reluctantly because he was focused on Jordanian territorial ambitions rather than creating a Palestinian state. ○ King Farouk, on the other hand, felt obliged to enter the war due to Egypt's leadership role and the pressure to support the Palestinians, though he was not particularly enthusiastic about it. After the War Israel’s post-war territory + annexation of West Bank by Jordan + Egypt’s annexation of Gaza = ‘Palestine’ as a political unit ceased to exist as of 1950. Regarding the population, some Arab residents in Israel were granted citizenship, but around 726,000 Palestinians (60%) (from a population of about 1.2 million) fled or were displaced, becoming refugees in neighbouring Arab countries. This displacement remains a key issue in the ongoing Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Palestinians responses to Israel Elite-Centered Nationalism: Palestinian nationalism was originally elite-centered, with many Palestinians politically aware but leadership weak under the Ottomans and co-opted by the British. Weak Resistance and Internal Divisions: Internal rivalries within Palestinian society led to weak and fragmented responses to Zionism. Palestinians felt betrayed by the British Mandate, which promised a legislative body, an end to Jewish immigration, and restrictions on Jewish economic expansion, but these promises were not fulfilled. Political Realities and al-Husseini’s Alliance: Political realities triumphed over the original concept of the Mandate, as British policies favored Zionism. Grand Mufti al-Husseini’s wartime alliance with Axis powers weakened Palestinian nationalist efforts after the war. Radicalization and Popularization of Nationalism: The Palestinian nationalist movement became more popular, radicalized, and less compromising, with some factions advocating for violent resistance. Formation of the PLO (1964): The Arab League, under Egyptian leadership, created the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) to unite Palestinian factions. The PLO was a combination of different groups, but Fatah, led by Yasser Arafat, became the strongest faction. Arafat's Leadership (1969-2004): Yasser Arafat led the PLO from 1969 until his death in 2004, guiding the organization toward both diplomatic efforts and military resistance in the struggle for Palestinian self-determination. The 1967 “Six-Day” War Origins: The war began after Egypt's closure of the Straits of Tiran, a critical shipping route for Israel, prompting a (pre-emptive?)(If something is pre-emptive, it is done before other people can act, especially to prevent them from doing something else) Israeli strike on Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Israeli Victory: Israel's military was highly effective, destroying Arab air forces on the first day and quickly advancing on all fronts. ○ Jordan lost the West Bank, including East Jerusalem. ○ Syria lost the Golan Heights. ○ Egypt lost the Gaza Strip. Impact on Israel: Israel’s victory removed any existential threat to its survival, establishing military dominance in the region. Outcomes: The war created over 300,000 new Palestinian refugees. The occupied territories became a focal point in future conflicts. It set the stage for the 1978 Egypt-Israel Peace Agreement, where Israel withdrew from Sinai, and Egypt became the first Arab state to recognize Israel. After 1967 Yasser Arafat's Rise:  After the 1967 Six-Day War, Yasser Arafat, leader of the Fatah faction, emerged as the dominant figure in Palestinian politics, becoming "Mr. Palestine." Fatah, a leading group within the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), focused on national liberation and armed resistance. Radicalism and Violence in the 1970s: The 70s were marked by increased radicalism and violence, with multiple Palestinian factions, including splinter groups of the PLO, employing guerrilla warfare and terrorism. One of the most notable incidents was the 1972 Munich Olympics massacre, where Palestinian militants from Black September took 11 Israeli athletes hostage and killed them, drawing international attention to the Palestinian cause but also tarnishing its reputation. The 1973 Yom Kippur War: The Yom Kippur War (1973), also known as the October War, saw Egypt and Syria launch a surprise attack on Israel. The war was initially seen as a success by the Arab states, as they regained some ground in the early stages, but it ultimately ended in a military draw. While the war led to Israeli-Egyptian negotiations, it did little for the Palestinians. Although the war enhanced Arab leverage, it did not directly advance the Palestinian cause or lead to meaningful political outcomes for them. 1980s Israel in Lebanon (1982-2000): Israel's second invasion of Lebanon in 1982 aimed to expel the PLO, but the country remained bogged down in the Lebanese Civil War, especially between 1982-1985. Israel continued to occupy southern Lebanon until 2000, facing resistance from groups like Hezbollah. The First Intifada (1987-1993): The Palestinian uprising, or Intifada, began in 1987 and lasted until the Oslo Peace Accords in 1993. This movement involved civil disobedience, strikes, blockades, and stone-throwing at Israeli soldiers. ○ Palestinian casualties were high, and Israel's "Break Bones" policy to suppress the uprising drew international condemnation, refocusing global attention on the conflict. U.S. Diplomatic Efforts: The Reagan administration, under Secretary of State George Shultz, attempted to make progress on peace, but little was achieved in resolving the conflict during the decade. PLO change of position in 1988 In 1988, the Palestine National Council (PNC) voted to: Accept a two-state solution as the basis for resolving the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Seek a negotiated settlement based on “land for peace”, in line with UNSCR 242.  Renounce terrorism, signalling a shift away from violence and a move toward diplomatic efforts. Reasons for the Shift: International pressure on Yasser Arafat, who was by then increasingly seen as a statesman rather than an insurgent. Arafat and Fatah elites feared losing control over the territories due to the rising intifada, and sought a way to maintain leadership and prevent the uprising from spiraling out of their control. Changing regional dynamics, with Arab states urging for peace and negotiations, pushed Arafat to adopt a more diplomatic approach. Madrid The 1990-91 Gulf War and the Path to the Madrid Talks and Oslo Accords Gulf War Impact: ○ Saddam Hussein tried to link his occupation of Kuwait to the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territories, framing the Gulf conflict as part of a broader Arab struggle against Israel. ○ The US initially sought to avoid this linkage but recognized that failing to resolve the Arab-Israeli conflict could lead to greater regional instability. Madrid Talks (1991): ○ The 1990-91 Gulf War highlighted the need for addressing the Arab-Israeli conflict, prompting the US to push for the Madrid Peace Conference in 1991. ○ Major parties came to Madrid reluctantly, but the war’s aftermath made it clear that resolving the conflict was crucial for long-term peace in the region. US Goals Behind Madrid: ○ The US sought to avoid further destabilization and recognized the risks of not resolving the conflict. The Gulf War had sharpened the awareness of these risks, motivating genuine efforts to address the issue. From Madrid to Oslo: ○ The Madrid talks laid the groundwork for the Oslo Accords in 1993, which focused on direct negotiations between Israel and Palestinians, ultimately leading to the first steps toward Palestinian self-rule and a potential two-state solution.