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ELS 103: History of English Language Dr. Mark Ray P. Sioson Instructor Branches of Indo-European Language  Branches of Indo-European Languages The ten branches of the Indo European (IE) family have generally been di...

ELS 103: History of English Language Dr. Mark Ray P. Sioson Instructor Branches of Indo-European Language  Branches of Indo-European Languages The ten branches of the Indo European (IE) family have generally been divided into two groups, the Centum Languages (The Western Group) and the Satem Languages (The Eastern Group). This classification is based on the development of certain sound changes in some of the languages of the family, but not in all.  Centum: This term comes from the Latin word "centum," meaning "hundred," which retained the original PIE sound *ḱ. In centum languages, the PIE palatovelar sounds *ḱ, *ǵ, *ǵʰ remained as velar or labiovelar sounds (e.g., /k/, /g/). Satem: This term is derived from the Avestan word "satem," meaning "hundred," which changed the PIE *ḱ to an /s/ sound. In satem languages, the PIE palatovelar sounds *ḱ, *ǵ, *ǵʰ became sibilant sounds (e.g., /s/, /z/).  Centum Languages: These languages are primarily found in Western and Central Europe. Braches: – Italic (Latin and its descendants, such as Italian, Spanish, French) – Germanic (English, German, Dutch, Scandinavian languages) – Celtic (Irish, Welsh, Breton) – Hellenic (Greek) – Anatolian (Hittite, Luwian) – Tocharian (Tocharian A and B)  Satem Languages: These languages are found in Eastern Europe and Asia. Examples: – Indo-Iranian (Sanskrit, Hindi, Persian, Avestan) – Balto-Slavic (Lithuanian, Latvian, Russian, Polish) – Armenian – Albanian  Branches of Indo-European Language The Indo-Iranian The Indo-Iranian group (Iranian is from the same root as the word Aryan) is one of the oldest for which we have historical records. The Indo-Iranian branch of languages have two sub-languages: Indic and Iranian which are preeminent languages in India, Pakistan, Iran, and in areas from the black Sea to western China.  The Indo-Iranian Sanskrit, which belongs to the Indic sub-branch, is the best known among the early languages of this branch; its oldest variety, Vedic Sanskrit, is preserved in the Vedas, a collection of hymns and other religious texts of ancient India. Avestan is a language that forms part of the Iranian group. Old Avestan (sometimes called Gathic Avestan) is the oldest preserved language of the Iranian sub-branch, the “sister” of Sanskrit, which is the language used in the early Zoroastrian religious texts.  Albanian Albanian is the last branch of Indo-European languages to appear in written form. There are two hypotheses on the origin of Albanian. The first one says that Albanian is a modern descendant of Illyrian, a language which was widely spoken in the region during classical times. Since we know very little about Illyrian, this assertion can be neither denied nor confirmed from a linguistic standpoint. Another hypothesis says that Albanian is a descendant of Thracian, another lost language that was spoken farther east than Illyrian.  Albanian Today Albanian is spoken in Albania as the official language, in several other areas in of the former Yugoslavia and in small enclaves in southern Italy, Greece and the Republic of Macedonia.  Armenian The origins of the Armenian-speaking people are a topic still unresolved. It is probable that the Armenians and the Phrygians belonged to the same migratory wave that entered Anatolia, coming from the Balkans around the late 2nd millennium BCE.  Armenian The origins of the Armenian-speaking people are a topic still unresolved. It is probable that the Armenians and the Phrygians belonged to the same migratory wave that entered Anatolia, coming from the Balkans around the late 2nd millennium BCE. The Armenians settled in an area around Lake Van, currently Turkey; this region belonged to the state of Urartu during the early 1st millennium BCE.  Tocharian The Tocharian language has two varieties, called Tocharian A (an eastern dialect) and Tocharian B (a western dialect). The language is misnamed. When it was discovered at the end of the nineteenth century in some volumes of Buddhist scriptures and monastic business accounts from central Asia, it was at first thought to be a form of Iranian and so was named after an extinct Iranian people known to the ancient Greek geographer Strabo as Tocharoi. Later it was discovered that Tocharian is linguistically quite different from Iranian. Nevertheless, the name has stuck; the language itself has long been extinct.  Anatolian The Anatolian branch of languages was preeminent in the Asian portion of Turkey and certain areas in Northern Syria. Among these languages, Hittite is the most widely known. In 1906 CE, many Hittite finds were established in Hattusas, the capital of the Kingdom of Hittite. Approximately 10,000 cuneiform tablets and other fractions were discovered inside a persistent royal archive.  Balto-Slavic The Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family includes both the Baltic and Slavic languages, which share a common ancestry and certain linguistic features Baltic Languages: Primarily spoken in Lithuania (Lithuanian) and Latvia (Latvian). Slavic Languages: Spoken across a wide area from Eastern Europe to the Balkans, including Russia, Ukraine, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Croatia, and others.  Hellenic (Greek) The Greek language is a distinct branch of the Indo-European language family with a rich history and significant cultural heritage. It has been spoken in the Balkan Peninsula for over 3,000 years and is known for its ancient classical literature, philosophy, and historical texts. The Greek language, derived from Proto-Indo-European, began to emerge around the 3rd millennium BCE.  Hellenic (Greek) Mycenaean Greek: The earliest attested form of Greek, written in Linear B script, dates back to around 1450–1100 BCE. These texts were primarily administrative records found on clay tablets in the Mycenaean civilization. Classical Greek: By the 8th century BCE, the Greek alphabet (derived from the Phoenician script) was developed, and this period saw the rise of Classical Greek, used in famous works by Homer, Hesiod, and later philosophers like Plato and Aristotle. Hellenistic and Roman Periods: From the 4th century BCE onwards, Koine Greek emerged as a common dialect, spreading widely across the Mediterranean and Near East Medieval and Modern Greek: Greek continued to evolve through the  Italic The Italic branch of the Indo-European language family encompasses a group of languages originally spoken in the Italian Peninsula and includes Latin, which evolved into the Romance languages.  Italic Rome was responsible for the growth of Latin in ancient times. Classical Latin is the form of Latin used by the most famous works of Roman authors like Ovid, Cicero, Seneca,, and Marcus Aurelius. Other languages of this branch are Faliscan, Sabellic, Umbrian, South Picene, and Oscan, all of them extinct.  Celtic The Celtic branch of the Indo-European language family encompasses languages historically spoken by the Celtic peoples (different groups of people), who inhabited parts of Western Europe.  Celtic During the early 1st century BCE, Celtic-speaking tribes dominated a very significant portion of Europe. On 50 BCE, Julius Caesar conquered Gaul (ancient France) and Britain was also conquered about a century later by the emperor Claudius. As a result, this large Celtic-speaking area was absorbed by Rome, Latin became the dominant language, and the Continental Celtic languages eventually died out.  Celtic During the early 1st century BCE, Celtic-speaking tribes dominated a very significant portion of Europe. On 50 BCE, Julius Caesar conquered Gaul (ancient France) and Britain was also conquered about a century later by the emperor Claudius. As a result, this large Celtic-speaking area was absorbed by Rome, Latin became the dominant language, and the Continental Celtic languages eventually died out.  Germanic The Germanic group is particularly important for us because it includes English. Over many centuries, certain radical developments occurred in the language spoken by those Indo-European speakers living in Denmark and the regions thereabout. Proto-Germanic (or simply Germanic), our term for that language, was relatively unified and distinctive in many of its sounds, inflections, accentual system, and word stock.  Germanic The Germanic branch is divided in three sub-branches: East Germanic, currently extinct; North Germanic, containing Old Norse, the ancestor of all modern Scandinavian languages; and West Germanic, containing Old English, Old Saxon, and Old High German. The Discovery of Sanskrit  Sanskrit Ancient Roots and Development: Sanskrit is often described as the mother of Indo-Aryan languages and has a history that spans over several millennia. It evolved from the Proto-Indo-Aryan language, which is believed to have been spoken around 1500 BCE in the Indian subcontinent.  Sanskrit is often referred to as "Deva Vani," which translates to "the language of the gods" or "the divine language." This term highlights the sacred and revered status of Sanskrit within these religious and philosophical contexts. The oldest texts in Sanskrit are the Vedas, which are a collection of ancient religious hymns and rituals. These texts provide valuable insights into the linguistic and cultural history of early India.  Periods of Sanskrit Vedic Sanskrit (1500 BCE - 600 BCE): This is the oldest form of Sanskrit and is associated with the Vedas, which are the most ancient sacred texts of Hinduism. Vedic Sanskrit is characterized by a more archaic and ritualistic style and is preserved primarily in the form of religious hymns, chants, and rituals.  Vedic Sanskrit: Age: Vedic Sanskrit is the older of the two forms, with origins dating back to around 1500 BCE or even earlier. It was primarily spoken and used in religious rituals during the Vedic period. Literary Focus: Vedic Sanskrit is primarily associated with the Vedic texts, which include the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. These texts consist of hymns, prayers, and rituals dedicated to deities.  Vedic Sanskrit: Oral Tradition: Vedic Sanskrit was primarily an oral tradition. The Vedas were transmitted orally from generation to generation before being eventually written down. The oral tradition had a significant impact on the phonetic structure and pronunciation of the language.  Vedic Sanskrit: It is where most of the original form of language was used. The early Sanskrit is rich in vocabulary, phonology, grammar, and syntax which remains pure to this day. It consists of 16 vowels and 36 consonants having a total of 52 letters. These were said to remain since its beginning making it the most impeccable language for word formation and pronunciation.  Periods of Sanskrit Classical Sanskrit (600 BCE - 1200 CE): Classical Sanskrit represents the refined and standardized form of the language. It is the form of Sanskrit that is commonly taught and studied today. Classical Sanskrit reached its zenith during the Gupta period (around 4th to 6th centuries CE) and was used in classical literature, philosophy, drama, poetry, and scientific treatises. It is characterized by its strict grammatical rules as codified by Panini's "Ashtadhyayi."  Classical Sanskrit Age: Classical Sanskrit developed later, around 600 BCE, and continued to evolve until about 1200 CE. It represents a more refined and standardized form of the language. Literary Focus: Classical Sanskrit was used for a wide range of literary and scholarly purposes. It is associated with classical literature, philosophy, poetry, drama, scientific treatises, and various other texts.  Classical Sanskrit Written Tradition: Classical Sanskrit was characterized by a strong written tradition. It became the language of choice for scholars, poets, and philosophers, and a vast body of literature was composed in this form of Sanskrit. Grammatical Precision: Classical Sanskrit is renowned for its precise grammatical rules, largely due to the work of Panini, whose "Ashtadhyayi" is a comprehensive and systematic grammar that codified the language's structure. Classical Sanskrit adheres to strict rules of word formation, declension, and conjugation.  Classical Sanskrit Literary Excellence: Many of the greatest works of Indian literature, such as the Mahabharata, Ramayana, plays of Kalidasa, and philosophical treatises of Shankaracharya, were composed in Classical Sanskrit. It is known for its aesthetic and expressive qualities.  Rediscovery: The European discovery of Sanskrit is often attributed to the arrival of British and European scholars in India during the colonial period. Sir William Jones, a British judge in India, is credited with playing a significant role in the discovery of Sanskrit in the late 18th century. In 1786, he delivered a famous lecture in which he proclaimed the similarities between Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek, suggesting a common linguistic ancestry among these languages.