ANTH 213 Midterm Review PDF

MODULE 1 De nitions 1. Bioarchaeology: Branch of anthropology that deals with the study of human remains, discovered in archaeological contexts with sampling methods where every bone is important. - Note ambiguity in US and UK de nition. In the UK, bioarcheology refers to the biological constituents...

MODULE 1 De nitions 1. Bioarchaeology: Branch of anthropology that deals with the study of human remains, discovered in archaeological contexts with sampling methods where every bone is important. - Note ambiguity in US and UK de nition. In the UK, bioarcheology refers to the biological constituents from a site, such as faunal or botanical remains… though, today it is linked to osteoarchaeology. In the US, faunal or botanical remains are linked to the eld of archeobiology. 2. Human remains: Anything that is a part of a living human, or deceased person, in part or whole. - But dies this include deciduous teeth? Amputated limbs? - To resolve, will go by this de nition “The determination of what constitutes human remains is generally made based on the nature and context of the remains, their age, and whether they were associated with a group whose belief systems might consider any human material “human remains.” 3. Racist “determinism”: the belief that our race determines who we are at emotional and behavioural levels. - Ex. Intelligence as a function of prognathism. 4. Biological pro le: refers to the estimates of sex, age, ancestry, and stature by various methods discussed below. 5. Comparative anatomy: necessity to know the general anatomy of other animals as human bones can very often be mistaken as another animal’s and vice versa. But, you also need to know the variation WITHIN human anatomy because not all skeletons will be identical. 6. MNI (and how to calculate it): minimal number of individuals in a grave determined by the largest number of a particular bone. Must is being used for counting also look to see that it is unique bone that is being counted. - Ex. If 10 vertebrae, can’ say that its 10 individuals as a human has 24. 7. Taphonomy: taphonomic process refers to all actions after the death of an individual, so the burial, excavation, transport and storage of the remains. 8. Paleopathomimic: addition or false proof of pathology. Concepts - In Bioarcheology, we study (1) the mortuary and funerary behaviours of the individual, (2) taphonomy and (3) the individual’s connection to past and living groups (phylogenetic) thanks to its (4) interdisciplinary nature. 1. Evolution concept of human variation. - Gall’s work gave way to the creation of the ape to man diagram, which was rooted in racism and manipulated by political entities. - Regarding the actual variation of the human, many researchers focused their studies on this; the most prominent from early bioarcheology was Boas who concluded that cranial morphology is in uenced by the environment, geographically and socio-economically. But also the work of Tiedemann contributed to the shift in a more globals study of archeology. - These were big changes considering the beliefs prior to these innovations that ignored human variation, and classi ed individuals based on immediate qualities that were easily manipulated to t a narrative. - Darwinist in uence; evolution was being discussed and so had in uence in archeology. Issue was not the belief that humans are evolved from apes. The issue was that the belief that white people evolved at a faster rate ( tter) than the black people. 2. Change from “racist” vision to “social bioarchaeology” vision. - Shift with Boas that proved that morphology is in uenced by the environment and thus challenged scienti c racism. Invited other elds to collaborate in a more global study of anthropology including archeology, linguistics, physical anthropology and cultural anthropology. 3. Biocultural approach of bioanthropology. - This emphasis was made in the second period of the development of the bioarchaeological eld. Focus shifted to: (1) Quality of life of the individual (diet, disease, growth and development), (2) fi fi fl fl fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fl fi 1 of 18 fl fi ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW Behaviour and lifestyle and (3) Population history (biological relationships and population dynamics. Was shift from only measurements to determine age, sex and geographical origin. 4. Ethical consideration for biological remains. - National laws, UN decrees and professional order ethic codes allowed for the inclusion of descending populations and the respect of their beliefs regarding repatriation of remains and artefacts, while maintaining the integrity of the scienti c approach. 5. Dating methods (di erence between relative and absolute dating methods and knowing at least 2 examples for each categories). - Absolute dating: dating methods will give you EXACT time. - Paleomagnetism: the study of ancient magnetism preserved in rocks or clay. When clay/rock is heated, ions acquire a magnetism parallel to the earth’s magnetic eld and this magnetism stays the same until reheated. This magnetism point towards magnetic north and can be used by this quality for dating. - Amino acid racemisation: dates proteins. - Radiometric analysis: including carbon and K/Arg/Ur-Th dating (for older bone tissue), thermoluminescence (measures last time elements were exposed to heat), optically stimulated luminescence (also sun exposure) and ssion tracks (measures ssion within uranium that occur with time). - BUT, CAN RUIN SAMPLES! - Relative dating: dating methods given approximation of date. - Stratigraphy: studying and dating layers of the ground based on artifacts found in each layer. Lower is older, higher is newer. - Biostratigraphy: studying and dating layers of the ground based on faunal remains found in each layer. - Tephrochronology: studying and dating layers of the ground based on ashes found in each layer. - Dendrochronology: studying and dating layers/rings of a tree. Smaller rings are indicative of poor growing environments, and larger ringer of better ones. - Fluoride accumulation: older burials will contain more uorine than newer burials because of groundwater. However, other environmental factors also need to be considered when analyzing uorine absorption. - Seriation: approximate dating depending on artefacts found with/in or on skeleton. 6. Methods to determine the biological pro le: not knowing the precise techniques of each methods, just remember the skeletal area and what we analyze (ex : shape, deterioration, size, eruption). - Determining the sex: pelvic and skull. - Pelvis: hips larger for females to support pregnancy and the expansion of the birth canal. - Skull: Males gave jump between the eyes called labella, a large mastoid process and larger chin compared to females. Zygomatic bone under eyes are larger for men because there are larger muscles to be attached. - Determining the age at death for immatures: teeth, epiphyses, length of long bones. - Skull: infant skull not fused, called fontanelles. - Teeth: dental eruption stages, at certain age, molars and wisdom teeth erupt and there is complete loss of baby teeth. At 15, there are many inconsistencies so hard to say. - Epiphyses: infant will have more bones because epiphysis and diaphysis haven’t fused yet. Last bone fusion is at 25, at the back of skull (not to get confused with cranial fusion). - Length of long bones: Dependent on age and population. - Microbiology: young bones are “smooth”. - Determining the age at death for adults : teeth, skull, pelvic, ribs, microbiology. - Teeth: cementochronology which is the study of the deposits found at the cementum, the root of the tooth; can date the layers as they are formed with time. Need scans though. Can also use dental attrition which is the study of denting in the enamel that increases with age. But, if you are located in an environment where attrition is greater (Sahara, where sand gets on food), then data is skewed. fi fi fl fi fi fi ff fl 2 of 18 ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW - Skull: no more traces of sutures; fontanelles are completely fused. Dependent on origin too. - Pelvis: stage of pubic symphysis which is a joint between pelvic bones that absorbs weight. As age increases, this joint gets more porous. Also genetic. - Ribs: part of rib connected to sternum, and change with age to become more porous. - Spine: coccyx and sacrum merge with age. - Microbiology: older bones have a lot remodelling because they are constantly changing. Therefore will see more osteons in histology. - Determining the ancestry: - European individual: sloped orbits. - African or “typical” African descendent: rectangular orbits. - Native American or “typical” native individual: round orbits. 7. Knowing the di erence between “unique markers” and “pathological conditions”. - Unique markers are NOT pathological; just variations of the human skeleton. - Includes: cranial deformation, Wormian bones (wrong fusion creating new bone) and Forman singularity (holes in bones, though could also be pathologically induced). - Pathology: health an illness that is environmentally or genetically induced. 8. Taphonomic factors (physical, biological, chemical, animal, human) : at least two examples of each categories. - Includes all things that happen after the death of an individual: burial, excavation, transport, storage. - Physical: re (get colour change), trampling and weathering (cracking, aking, brous or rough texture, falling apart). - Biological: bone deposition, root stains or bacterial erosions, could also be sun (debatable). - Chemical: bone reacts to acidity of soil, or an added degradative substance. - Animal: gnawing, carnivore chewing and digestion and disarticulation (funerary companion or scavenging). - 5 phases of alteration due to canid scavenging: - 1. No bony involvement. - 2. Ventral thorax damage with one or both extremities removed. - 3. Lower extremity involved. - 4. Only vertebral segments are articulated. - 5. Total disarticulation. - Human: funerary process (artefacts, cremation, tradition), grave disturbance (reusing graves after waiting for body to sink back into earth), grave robbery, excavation and storage (shovels ruining remains or storage can sometimes crush bones) and analysis and manipulation (callipers hat can crush extremities of bone). 9. Identi cation methods to identify body. - Odontology : using dental records to match scans of remains. - Facial reconstruction. - DNA comparison: can be done with nuclear or mitochondria DNA, though mitochondrial is from maternal lineage and so need sample from mother, necessarily. 10. Importance of experimentation. - Traceology: refers to the study of traces (residues or alterations) usually in the context of tool use. - Trauma reproduction: reproducing possible events to determine the cause of a trace. Ex. Ubelaker using chicken thighs that resemble human ngers and di erent knifes to determine the tool with which a human’s nger was cut. - Importance of experimentation: body forms that dependent on what the dead had internally (chemical reactions occur), the skeleton could be found at a di erent position before and after death. Historical Period/Figures - 17th century: First period of archeology started as a means to associate race to people and their intelligence. Turned out to be for the work, humanitarian speaking. Became a driver of racism. 1. C. Linné fi fl ff ff fi fi ff fi fi 3 of 18 ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW - Incorporated physical and emotional “traits” in his studies and ultimately, made absurd correlations between variables. - Was father of “racist determinism”. - Was rst to classify humans, and did so by geographical origin: American, Asiatic, European, Black, Savage and Horri c. 2. S.G. Morton - Held idea that intelligence was proportionate to cranial capacity (volume). - His work was NOT reproducible because he took skulls that t his theory; not random sampling. - Believed men were smarter than women. 3. J. Blumenbach - Father of bioarcheology - Developed new classi cation based on craniometry, skin and hair colour: Caucasian, Mongolian, American, Ethiopian and Malayan. 4. P. Broca - Father of anthropology in France. - He measured the cranial volume and cephalic index and correlated it to an individual’s qualities (i.e. their empathy, patience). - Classi ed two typed of brains: (1) Brachycephalic (short, not perfect) and (2) Dolichocephalic (long, more perfect). Was contradictory though, as ignored that Europeans, who he attributed Dolichocephalic skulls to, also had Brachycephalic skulls. 5. F.J. Gall - Father of phrenology - Focused on predicting and understanding temperament by studying cranial bumps and imperfections. - Studies discovered to be wrong, but gave way to neuroscienti c analysis because kick-started explanation of how some areas of the brain are evolved to experience certain feelings or certain actions. - Additionally resulted in scienti c racism which there is evidence of the rst representation of human evolution (ape to man diagram). 6. F. Boas - Concluded that cranial morphology is in uenced by the environment, geographically but also socio-economically. - Challenged scienti c racism. - Was the father of Boasian anthropology which has 4 sub-disciplines: archeology, linguistics, physical anthropology and cultural anthropology. 7. F. Tiedemann - Re-performed calculations on the skulls and proved that Morton’s theory was in fact, wrong. - Concluded that there were no signi cant di erence between populations, enough to make such categorizations. - 20th century: second period of bioarcheology was focused on global skeletal measurements (biocultural approach). MODULE 2 De nitions 1. Paleopathology (Ru er’s de nition): science of disease which can be demonstrated (not extinct) in human and animal remains from ancient time. - Disease de nition in paleopathology: interruption, cessation or disorder of bodily functions, systems or organs. Results in identi able group of signs and symptoms and anatomical alterations. 2. Actualism: Principle/methodological approach of paleopathology that assumes disease processes of the past are similar to ones today. Same indicators on present and past tissue samples; assume that same disease. - Reason for this because diseases/modes of transmission are parallel to today’s even though pathogens vary genetically over time. BUT, in paleopathology, need to also grapple with the idea fi fi fi ff fl fi fi fi fi fi fi ff fi fi fi fi fi 4 of 18 ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW that they may not. This is because it is an ambiguous notion or theory; but it’s the only one we have. 3. Paleoepidemiology: paleoepidemiological approach is the combining of the frequency or variation of a disease and the chronology of that disease. 4. Integrative paleopathology: the “integrative” and multidisciplinary approach of paleopathology, known as ONE pathology. It is de ned as the study of pathological context in the past: health, society, environment using modern and past techniques from diverse elds. - ONE Health: an integrative e ort that recognizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health. - Advantages: promotes collaboration. Can also be. Used to inform public health initiatives by understanding paleoepidemiology through context and varying temporal scales. - Ex. Evolutionary biology has informed paleoepidemiology in that there are six key categories that a ect this study: (1) co-evolution of host and pathogen, (2) constrains on selection, (3) mismatch with current industrialized societies, (4) physiological defences at the expense of health and (5) tradeo s like optimality. - Final def of integrative paleopathology: Integrates evolutionary perspectives with One Medicine/ One Health approaches for a comprehensive narrative of the past. Requires the study of both faunal and human remains, advocating for a global and environmental inquiry characteristic of veterinary science. O ers a more contextualized approach compared to the strategies of human biomedicine. 5. Recording forms - Special forms that are premade to be brought on site with you. Usually implement colour coordination on site. Also, form is in surgical positioning R>L. 6. Paleoimaging - Paleoradiology: use of actual medical x-ray not to heal BUT to analyze. - Paleoimaging: all the methods producing images in an ecological context. - Photography, radiography, tomodensitometry (CT), micro-tomo (miCT), x-rays, MRIs. Can be multimodal, multidimensional, diachronic, holistic. 7. Paleohistology and paleomicrobiology - Paleohistology: analysis of histological traces of pathological process on ancient bone remains. - BUT, since most cells have died, have to imagine cells there and infer based on traces what could have occurred (mineralization and fossilization). - In fossilized bone, there is no collagen; no organic part, so even have to go a step further and analyze with petrography. - Mineralization could be hard to see because scans are xed images and therefore we for’t see chronology. - Looking for: - Osteoblasts (OB): cells that are constructing the bones and are creating the bones. - Osteoclasts (OC): cells that destroy the bone. - 7 categories of histological lesions: - VITAMIN - Vascular lesions: if rise (more OBs), if decline (more OCs) - Biomechanical impact: impact form biomechanics constraint. - Trauma: accelerated primary none formation and remodelling. - Abnormality: dysfunction of bone cells, like in osteoporosis. - Metabolic: de ciencies or hormonal imbalances, like scurvy. - In ammatory: reaction to infection, dysfunction or friction. - Neoplastic: tumour formation that may or may not be seen on the bone depending on location. - Paleomicrobiology: molecular detection of pathogens in ancient biological material. - aDNA analysis (not easy to preserve (but best preserved in petrous pyramid above ear) and retrieve) or proteomic analysis. - Need human or animal tissue or soil sample to test for pathogens including: viruses, bacteria, fungus, parasites, gut worms or prion (toxic proteinaceous particles). fi fi fi ff ff ff fi ff fl 5 of 18 ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW - Issue with aDNA: has short and incomplete sequences, is prone to chemical modi cation, is often a PCR inhibitor which is a problem for ampli cation and is usually at high risk for contamination. Though, innovation of new tools somewhat help with this. 8. Paleoparasitology - Ru er worked on intestinal eggs in mummies and consequently, developed this eld. - Parasites can be found in: (1) coprolites (fossilized excrements which say much about eating habits and preferences as well as drinking water information), (2) latrines (can learn much about people by looking into their trash and their toilets), (3) textiles (wrapping bands, clothes now which they stick and breed), (4) soils, (5) burials and (6) mummies. - 3 types of parasitoses: (1) ECTOparasitosis: outside the body (louses, ticks and eas), (2) ENDOparasitosis: inside the body (larvas, insects) and (3) MESOparasitosis: inside cavities of the body (gut worms). 9. Disease in paleopathology - Disease de nition in paleopathology: interruption, cessation or disorder of bodily functions, systems or organs. Results in identi able group of signs and symptoms and anatomical alterations. 10. Criteria of a “scienti c” discipline: consists of (1) the objective observation of facts, (2) systemization of tasks, (3) reproducibility, (4) refutability in peer reviewed databases and (5) a solid demonstration of theory (need to know to recognize and need to know what to test to know). 11. Semiology and etiology (not the other de nition of the slide): semiology is the science of symptoms and aetiology is the study of how those symptoms appear and how they were caused. 12. Di erence between primary and secondary sources when no bones in paleopathology - Primary: (1) direct: ancient biological remains, (2) indirect: environmental remains. - Direct: have (1) natural mummies that were conserved by cold, peat bog biotopes, anaerobic environments or highly dried environments. Turns our to be a frozen image of a skeleton and soft tissue, sometimes still equipped. Ex. Ötzi. Or have (2) embalmed mummies that are intentionally mummi ed and have a classi ed funerary treatment (hieroglyphs, artefacts), high conservation and often times information about their lives (as they were buried with evidence). - Secondary: textual, iconographic. - Using historical methods to get information and diagnosis. - Textual: - In ancient times: on Egyptian papyrus had mention of disease and even cancer, and in traditional Chinese medical books. - Problem: same hypotheses so di cult to interpret. - 1700-1900: rise of humanist interest. Had precise descriptions of disease, frequency of the disease that is useful in demography studies. Transmission is reduced and vaccination wave caused pathogenic evolution. Growing knowledge of hygiene achieved after town arrangements lead to outbreaks. - Texts to analyze: chronicles, epics and tales, biographies, letters, diaries, hospital records, etc. - Di erent diagnoses: biological (diagnostic) and social (how it is/was managed and received). - Di erence between how the disease was seen at the time and NOT how we are projecting onto the disease in the future. - Useful for retrospective diagnoses to understand how this disease started and how it would’ve spread. - Heavily dependent on social context. - Iconographic: - Illustrations made to be intelligible for all (for illiterates of the time) not he topics of disease and treatment. - Illustration types: mediaeval illustrations, photography (after 1900), medico-historical production (wax anatomical structures, and gures based o dissections of living or deceased individuals) and artistic iconography (but for iconodiagnosis, need to stay critical). fi fl fi ff fi fi fi fi fi ffi fi fi fi ff ff ff ff 6 of 18 13. Osteological paradox: diseased individuals who lived long enough to manifest skeletal lesions were healthier than those who died of an illness before it could manifest in their skeletons. 14. ONE paleopathology: integrative paleopathology. 15. Retrospective diagnosis: practice of diagnosing diseases or health conditions in ancient human remains based on modern medical knowledge. - Limitations: - Insu cient information preserved in written sources, or copies consulted not similar to originals (copied wrong, or not translated exactly right and loses meaning), ignoring symptoms to t modern day description of illness, failure to consider all congruent illnesses, assumption that the disease exists today and assuming all diseases have evidence on bone. - Resolution: - Eye-witness testament, clear list of symptoms and signs of disease and the consultation of true records of epidemiological observations. Concepts 1. Creation of name “paleopathology” and rst step of discipline. - M.A. Ru er coined the term “paleopathology” in a paper where he de ned it as the “science of disease which can be demonstrated in human and animal remains from ancient times”. 2. Evolution of the discipline point of view after World War 2. - There was (1) an increase in the interest of history and the lifestyle of past populations (mainly for prevention of WWIII), (2) an increase in the knowledge of geographical and epidemiological concepts and (3) and increase in clinical knowledge and practices. - Additionally, after WWII, there was a mass exodus of people from EU to US where mass research was done. 3. 4 scopes of paleopathology according to J.L Angel. - 4 scopes: (1) importance of semiology (symptomology), (2) relationship between health state and past society, (3) relationship between demography and health and (4) relationship between growth and nutrition. 4. New archaeology concepts applied to paleopathology. - Needs of transdisciplinarity: connect deep time time to contemporary issues by merging multiple elds and taking a ONE health approach. - Therefore includes elds of biology, biophysics, microbiology, epidemiology, history, etc. 5. Other disciplines working with paleopathology in an integrative vision and needs of transdisciplinary for the future challenges. - Where we see it most: veterinary studies which show advanced integration of medical sciences within an ecological context. This could be useful because diseases in humans and animals share evolutionary and environmental contexts, and so understanding the connection to both might be advantageous for medical or biological concepts. - Ref. Ru er’s de nition of paleopathology: “science of disease which can be demonstrated in human and animal remains from ancient time”. 6. 3 di erent disciplines in paleopathology : knowing what is in the “archaeological part”, the “bioanthropological part” and the “medicine part”. - Anthropologist’s job: ensures special care of archeological remains by providing/ lling record forms and implementing safe excavation for researchers and for remains. Reminds group of “insitu observation” as once data is collected, can’t go back. - Bioanthropologist’s job: understanding anatomical variation between humans and populations, variations during growth and ageing, determining biological pro le and dealing with the conservation state (ex. What to do if don’t have pelvis). - Medical professional’s/pathologist’s job: understanding and relaying the osteological tissue condition and recognizing and translating them into syndromes. Finding nosology of disease and preventing paleopathomimicry, as well as understanding the historical dimension of humanpathogen cohabitation (the long-term relationship and interaction between humans and the various microorganisms that cause diseases). 7. Di erent stages of paleopathologist work on eld and in lab. fi fi fi fi fi fi fi ff ff ffi ff fi 7 of 18 ff fi ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW - 1. Excavation - Using non-aggressive tools like wood, brushes and towels. - Leave bones in place until last minute, unless need to move them to take measurements. But, usually wait until last minute. - Bag it, tag it and take measurements. - Ensure proper labelling, bag dating. - Measure elevation at which it was found at in the earth. - 2. Recording - Record forms according to age: adult, and infant (because have more bones— unfused). - Make drawings and pictures. - Record disposition of every bone and artifacts; this will be used by archeoathanatologist. - Record MNI and type of burial. - 3. Individual analysis - Do osteobiography (biological pro le). - Perform imaging and histology. - Describe lesions lesions and semiology. - Propose possible syndromes or functional disabilities. - Find nosography or label as non-speci c pathologies. - 4. Global vision - Determine the frequency of expression; raw prevalence (proportion of individuals displaying condition), adjusted prevalence (same but takes into account the preservation and representativeness of di erent anatomical regions). - Determine the frequency in the population. 8. Di erences between radiography, tomodensitometry, MRI and 3D imaging and the advantages of applying them with archaeological remains. - Radiography: use of X-rays to create two-dimensional images of objects. This technique is based on the absorption of X-ray radiation by di erent materials; denser materials such as bone absorb more radiation and appear lighter on the radiograph. - Advantage: examining the internal structure of archaeological artifacts and remains without destructive testing; reveals cracks or voids. - Tomodensitometry: CT scans take fast series of X-ray pictures from di erent angles and put them together to create images of the area scanned called cross-sectional slices. - Advantage: CT scanning is particularly useful for examining the internal structure of complex objects in 3D, like bone which MRI can’t do, and allowing for the visualization of the internal organization without physical dissection. - MRI: uses strong magnetic eld and radio-waves to generate detailed images of the internal structures of objects, focusing on the distinction between soft tissues. It is therefore NOT useful for ones, only soft tissue… this is because MRIs are reliant on water and bone tissue has VERY low water content. - Advantage: MRI can be particularly useful for studying remains where the preservation of soft tissues is of interest as non-invasive. - 3D imaging: encompasses a variety of techniques (such as photogrammetry, structured light scanning, and laser scanning) to create three-dimensional representations of objects. Unlike the methods above, 3D imaging often does not rely on penetrating radiation and can be used to capture the surface details of artifacts/remains. - Advantage: non-destructive imaging tool for the production of high resolution 3D images. Is invaluable for documentation, preservation, and analysis of artifacts and sites. - In 3D imaging, pixel becomes voxel. 9. Challenges of histological and ancient DNA (aDNA) studies in archaeology. - aDNA analysis (not easy to preserve (but best preserved in petrous pyramid above ear) and retrieve) or proteomic analysis. - Need human or animal tissue or soil sample to test for pathogens including: viruses, bacteria, fungus, parasites, gut worms or prion (toxic proteinaceous particles). ff ff fi fi fi ff ff 8 of 18 ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW - Issue with aDNA: has short and incomplete sequences, is prone to chemical modi cation, is often a PCR inhibitor which is a problem for ampli cation and is usually at high risk for contamination. Though, innovation of new tools somewhat help with this. 10. Di erent information from natural and embalmed mummies. - Have (1) natural mummies that were conserved by cold, peat bog biotopes, anaerobic environments or highly dried environments. Turns our to be a frozen image of a skeleton and soft tissue, sometimes still equipped. - Ex. Ötzi. Found aDNA of pathogen, traumatology, imaging and intestinal microbiome sampling and found Lyme disease, defensive lesions and evidence of herbal remedies (he was trying to heal himself). - Or have (2) embalmed mummies that are intentionally mummi ed and have a classi ed funerary treatment (hieroglyphs, artefacts), high conservation and often times information about their lives (as they were buried with evidence). 11. 3 phases of decay after human death. - STAGE 1: enzyme release. - When there is no more O2 in cells, the cells in the body collapse and the enzymes get released and work extracellularly to decay the remnants. A ected by conditions of soil. - STAGE 2: bacterial release. - Bacteria from gut proliferate and are released into the body as cells can not intervene to rid them. - Normal intestinal microbes include not only aerobic bacteria, but also a minority of anaerobes. - The cessation of a continuing source of oxygen at death has a suppressing e ect on gut aerobes, but the hypoxic environment that triggered autolysis in those cells also stimulates the growth of anaerobic bacteria. - STAGE 3: entomological release. - The odours emitted by the necrotising tissues in P2 attracts insects, initiating P3. The type of insects attracted varies with the geography and the season. - So, to properly mummify, then require: - 1. Exit of all water content by passing through the skin. 12. Pros and cons of using textual and iconographical sources : knowing some examples and main ideas. - Textual: - In ancient times: on Egyptian papyrus had mention of disease and even cancer, and in traditional Chinese medical books. - Problem: same hypotheses so di cult to interpret. - 1700-1900: rise of humanist interest. Had precise descriptions of disease, frequency of the disease that is useful in demography studies. Transmission is reduced and vaccination wave caused pathogenic evolution. Growing knowledge of hygiene achieved after town arrangements lead to outbreaks. - Texts to analyze: chronicles, epics and tales, biographies, letters, diaries, hospital records, etc. - Di erent diagnoses: biological (diagnostic) and social (how it is/was managed and received). - Di erence between how the disease was seen at the time and NOT how we are projecting onto the disease in the future. - Useful for retrospective diagnoses to understand how this disease started and how it would’ve spread. - Heavily dependent on social context. - Iconographic: - Illustrations made to be intelligible for all (for illiterates of the time) not he topics of disease and treatment. - Illustration types: mediaeval illustrations, photography (after 1900), medico-historical production (wax anatomical structures, and gures based o dissections of living or deceased individuals) and artistic iconography (but for iconodiagnosis, need to stay critical). 13. Paleopathology as a science, a science of disease and a science of biology and anatomy as well as imaging and microbiology. fi fi ff fi ff ff fi fi ffi ff ff ff 9 of 18 ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW - Science: requires objective observation of facts, data control, a good demonstration of theory, reproducibility and refutability. - Science of disease: studying the semiology, aetiology (cause of symptoms), pathogeny (mechanism of the symptoms and pathology) and the nosology of the pathology (classi cation). - Biology and anatomy: need to known morphological variation, general histology, biomechanics, prenatal and postnatal growth activities. - Imaging and microbiology: Radiography includes CTScans, microCTs, MRIs and analytical molecular techniques include studies on aDNA and proteomic analysis. - History: understanding remains as a sample of the people who died in that society, on whom we have incomplete information we are trying to reconstruct. Historical Figures 1. R.W Schufeldt - Father of paleopathology. - De ned paleopathology as “all diseased or pathological conditions found fossilized in the remains of extinct or fossil animals”. 2. B. O’Connor - Used scienti c method to de ne lesions. And o ered a function interpretation of the diagnosis. - Proved that human spine was made of fused bones. 3. J.L Angel - Father of modern paleopathology that studied 4 scopes: importance of semiology (symptomology), relationship between health state and past society, relationship between demography and health too. Also studied growth and nutrition. 4. J.A Bergonié - Was rst to use radiology to heal (radiotherapy). He was the father of radiobiology. 5. M.A Ru er - Science de ned as an independent study, not interdisciplinary. - Disease: retrospective diagnosis that requires knowledge in medicine and how certain conditions cause certain occurrences in bone. - Paleopathology: science of disease which can be demonstrated (not extinct) in human and animal remains from ancient time. 6. E.A Hooton - First study at population level that was a re ection of demography. - Father of paleoepidemiological approach. - Emphasized the importance of a reference collection (today’s found in Pretorian or Smithsonian). 7. W. Röntgen - Discovered X-rays in. First scan was called roentgenogram. - HOW? Heating lament to produce electrons and then there is a process that will induce the acceleration of electrons. These electrons will then bombard the organism, which will excite molecules and will bounce o the screen and will create a picture of the subject you bombarded. The types of x-rays you will get depend on the cells that the x-ray is passing though. For instance, skin cells are excited and therefore will show di erently on as can than the bone cells. - X-rays were in issue later on though because only produced 2D images so CT was later invented. 8. A.M Cormack and G. Houns eld: invented tomography which is the action of making multiple slices of one volume to show its complete structure. MODULE 3A De nitions 1. Pathocenosis: de ned as all the pathological states present at a given time in a given population. It is the consideration of the disease ecology of historical communities. fi ff ff fl fi fi ff fi fi fi fi ff fi fi fi 10 of 18 ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW - Species appear and disappear, this changes the state of pathocenosis. - It is de ned additionally as the study of the frequency and distribution of each disease depending on others. - The interdependent of species depends on the environment and the amount and type of human activity. - Can also study pathocenosis in terms of diachronic changes, so it is the exact same study of the same populations but over the course of multiple years. This is di erent than synchronic which is at the same period of time, but in di erent populations. 2. Biocenosis: all living organisms coexisting in the same place, called a biotope, that interact interdependently. - Species appear and disappear, this changes the state of biocenosis. 3. Emergence: (1) reemergence is the reemergence of an ancient disease or (2) recent emergence (appearance) of an existing but “silenced” disease. 4. Pathoecology: de ned by Reinhard as the sum of environmental factors that contribute to pathogenesis and spread. 5. Nidus: de ned by Pavlovsky as a nest or breeding place, particularly a place where microbes such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, as well as other organisms and larger parasites, are located and multiply. 6. Fertility: number of children per woman in a precise population. - Presently, in occidental (East) countries, there is a decrease in fertility due to demographic problems (more elderly than young fertile individuals). - Birth rate will only obstacle when birth MINUS death is constant or a positive number throughout time. 7. Osteological paradox: diseased individuals who lived long enough to manifest skeletal lesions were healthier than those who died of an illness before it could manifest in their skeletons. 8. Osteons: An osteon is the fundamental unit of compact bone, featuring a central canal surrounded by concentric rings of bone matrix called lamellae. 9. Osteoblast, osteoclast, osteocyte: Osteoblasts are cells responsible for bone formation. Osteoclasts break down bone tissue, aiding in bone resorption and remodelling. Osteocytes, derived from osteoblasts, are mature bone cells that maintain bone tissue. 10. Bone remodelling: Bone remodelling is the ongoing process where old bone is replaced by new bone tissue, involving the coordinated actions of osteoblasts and osteoclasts, ensuring bone strength and mineral homeostasis. 11. Harris lines: radiographically visible lines across bone shafts, indicating temporary growth arrest during bone development, historically associated with stress or malnutrition. 12. Porotic syndrome: involves the spongy appearance of cranial bones, often linked to anemia or nutritional de ciencies. 13. Linear enamel hypoplasia: horizontal lines or grooves on teeth, signifying periods of stress that disrupt enamel formation during tooth development, re ecting systemic health issues during early growth stages. 14. Degenerative joint disease: Degenerative joint disease, like osteoarthritis, is a condition characterized by the breakdown of cartilage in joints, leading to pain, sti ness, and reduced mobility. 15. Hyperostosis: Hyperostosis refers to the excessive growth of bone, often seen in conditions like di use idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). 16. Osteoporosis: Osteoporosis is a disease where decreased bone density and quality lead to fragile bones, increasing the risk of fractures, especially in the hip, spine, and wrist. Unlike osteopenia, it is a ects bone microstructure. Curate calls it a “silent thief”. 17. Paleotraumatology: information about the population exposure level to traumas. - Unintentional: accident, fall, re, drowning, natural or anthropological disaster. - Intentional: self-arm, homicide, interpersonal violence, warm, cultural body modi cation. - Trauma frequency and mortality linked to socio-economic conditions. Reliable health state indicator. 18. Pseudo-arthrosis: 19. Vicious callus: fi ff ff fl ff fi fi fi fi fi ff ff 11 of 18 ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW 20. Secondary arthrosis: 21. Osteomyelitis: Concepts 1. Balance and change in a pathocenosis concept. - Species appear and disappear, this changes the state of pathocenosis. - It is de ned additionally as the study of the frequency and distribution of each disease depending on others. - The interdependent of species depends on the environment and the amount and type of human activity. - Can also study pathocenosis in terms of diachronic changes, so it is the exact same study of the same populations but over the course of multiple years. This is di erent than synchronic which is at the same period of time, but in di erent populations. 2. Di erent diseases interaction in a pathocenosis: knowing at least one example per type of interaction. - Symbiosis/synergy: development or presence of a disease that will help the development of another one. - Dependent on the same suitable environmental condition. - Ex. Degenerative and metabolic diseases in high socio-economic contexts. People will die old (ageing disease), but with age comes other issues like osteoporosis and other metabolic diseases. In low socio-economic conditions, malnutrition weakens the immune system and makes it more susceptible to contraction of aids, bacterial infections, etc. - Antagonism: development or presence of a disease that will cause a decline in another one. - This is a competition between diseases in which the “ tter” out survive the other. - Ex. Rise in the plague caused a decrease in leprosy. Some studies suggest that leprosy and tuberculosis’ immunities crossed as well as many skeletons with TB also had leprosy. So one conferred immunity to the other, while it was actively infecting. - Ex. Dengue antibodies protect against yellow fever. - Ex. Most degenerative diseases in increase while infectious diseases in decrease. This is an indicator of good health because it means that population is able to get older. - Indi erence/independence: development or presence of a disease that doesn’t interfere with one another one. Frequency remains constant at a speci c time and place. - Ex. COVID19 had no impact on cancer. One did not lead to another (that we know of). Though, because we were all wearing masks, it did change the infectious disease rate. - Reemergence: ancient disease reappears. - Causes a change in the pathogenesis balance: ecological, environmental or social factors. - Ex. Ancient disease of TB, rst present in mummies made its way back to modern populations. Although, vaccination has limited spread, it is still an issue in some less developed areas. - Appearance: recent emergence. - Rely on diachronic analysis here. - Some diseases are symptomatic in animals, but when contracted by humans, mutate and become fatal and impossible for the immune system to ght without advanced treatment options. - Ex. Yersinia pestis from rodent. Didn’t a ect rodent, but transmitted to humans, killing 1/3 of European population. 3. Epidemiological transition : knowing the 5 principles and the 3 stages of the transition. - 5 principles - 1. Mortality: fundamental factor of population dynamics. - Ex. During WWII, many deaths, but post-WWII there was an explosion of births (baby boom). - 2. Transition: prevailing reason that death in a society becomes a consequence of ageing disease rather than infectious disease. ff fi fi fi ff ff fi fi ff ff 12 of 18 ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW - 3. Epidemiological transition: important modi cations of health and pathological models of transmission amongst individuals, mainly women and children (which reduces the reproduction potential). - 4. Important modi cations: linked to demographic and socio-economic change. - Concept of modernization: developed countries had a major epidemiological transition. - 5. 3 Models of transition: classic (occidental-like), accelerated (newly developed countries) and delayed (countries in-development). - 3 stages of transition: - 1. Age of pestilence and famine: high mortality and variation according to epidemics and low life expectancy. - 2. Decrease of pandemic period: global decrease of mortality, increase in population development and slightly higher life expectancy. - 3. End transition: mortality is decreasing, life expectancy still rises, fertility is the main growth factor and mortality not an issue. 4. 3 conceptual mistakes of osteological paradox. - 1. Unstable characteristics of diseases. - Need to calculate prevalence with a stable demography. But having populations with constant deaths, births, no migration is impossible and this a ects the outcome of the study as the sample size and quality is skewed. High bias, high distribution, therefore have limitations in making inferences on health. - No skeletal sample is fully representative of the population it is drawn from. - 2. Mortality selectivity. - Some diseases are age selective and these usually result in an overestimation of prevalence in society and the “cumulative e ect”. - Cumulative e ect: refers to the impact of repeated or multiple health challenges over time, which can exacerbate vulnerability to disease and mortality in certain age groups, further in uencing the overall perception of a disease's prevalence and impact on society. - 3. Variable sensitivity to the disease. - Hidden heterogeneity of individual response to the same disease. Di erent mortality rate and pattern of skeletal lesions. All this is in uenced by genetics, pre-existing health conditions, nutritional status, and environmental exposures. - 3 population types: highly resistant, resistant and weak. - Lesions are only visible in resistant populations. In highly resistant and weak populations, such lesions might not be as apparent due to the former's ability to ward o the disease e ectively and the latter's potentially rapid succumbing to the disease, leaving little time for skeletal manifestations to develop. - If high % of lesions in sample, population which survived long enough → good health state. This is the osteological paradox. - If low % of lesions in sample, appearance of good health but death before any lesion. - Catastrophic events: might be inferred from mass burials, suggesting a sudden, widespread impact on a population. - An analysis of AOD across a population can also reveal its resilience; a predominance of young individuals in burials might indicate a population that was more susceptible or weaker to certain stressors or diseases, re ecting on their overall health and resistance levels. - Four basic abnormalities that occur in skeleton: (1) abnormal size, (2) abnormal shape, (3) abnormal bone formation and (4) abnormal absence of bone. 5. Di erent functions and tissues of the skeleton. - Functions of the skeleton: Support (muscles, movement), protection (vital organs in the trunk and brain), red blood cell formations (bone marrow), mineral homeostasis (calcium, phosphate). - Di erent tissues of the skeleton: (1) 30% organic part made up of the collagen (made by chondrocytes) and (2) 70% inorganic part mad cup of hydroxyapatite (that includes Ca and PO4). ff ff fl ff fi ff fl fi ff fl ff ff ff 13 of 18 ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW - Though, bones are less mineralized then teeth. - Bones formed of dentin which forms the bulk of the tooth beneath the enamel, consists of approximately 75% minerals, making it hard yet somewhat exible. Enamel, covering the tooth's surface, is about 90% mineral, making it the hardest substance in the human body. 6. Bones : mechanical characteristics, endoconjunctive vs endochondral ossi cation, woven vs lamellar bone, compact vs spongy bone. - Bones formed of dentin which forms the bulk of the tooth beneath the enamel, consists of approximately 75% minerals, making it hard yet somewhat exible. Enamel, covering the tooth's surface, is about 90% mineral, making it the hardest substance in the human body. - Endoconjunctive ossi cation: refers to a type of bone development that originates from connective tissue, where stem cells di erentiate into osteoblasts. This process is essential for forming certain bones, including those of the skull, face, and clavicle. - Endochronal ossi cation: process where bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage. A chondroblast is ossi ed and then replaced with an osteoblast. The rest of the Skelton is made this way. - There are two phases to this: (1) Primary ossi cation: diaphysis (adjusts length of bone) and (2) Secondary ossi cation: epiphysis (makes ends of bones). In growth the linking cartilage is ossi ed between the diaphysis and epiphysis. - Woven bone: immature, fragile, porous bone that is prominent during growth or healing; not organized as there is lost of angiogenesis occurring to supply the bone with constant nutrients. - OBs: make bone. - OCls: break bone. - OCys: loge themselves and get mineralized. - Lamellar bone: mature, organized bone tissue. Organized with osteons, which are concentric lamellae of mineralized collagen around core blood vessels. - Lamellar bone can be found in both spongy and compact forms. Lamellar compact bone is dense and forms the outer layer of bones, while lamellar spongy bone, found inside bones, has a porous structure. - Compact bone: provides support and motion, support and protection. Found in outer layers of all bone. - Spongy bone: less dense, soften daily impact and aid with biomechanical stress adaptation. - Found in ends of long bones and within the pelvis, ribs, skull, and vertebrae (all areas that adapt to weight support). Usually looks like a proud honeycomb structure. - Aminos will make a triple helix structure of collagen (tropocollagen) whose groves will be ossi ed by mineral proteins. This is a bril. The brils will be then organized into large bres and placed in speci c patterns depending on bone crystallization. These brous patterns will then be organized in osteons around the Haversian canal housing arterial vessels. 7. Age and biomechanic in uence on bones. - The structure of both compact and spongy bones vary with factors such as skeletal site, age, sex, physiological function, and mechanical loading. - The risk of bone fracture increases markedly with ageing, as a consequence of a loss in bone mass (osteoporosis) and a signi cant degradation in bone quality. - Micro-cracks importance: micro-cracks within bone matrix are crucial for bone remodelling, as they activate cells responsible for this process. Increased micro-cracks lead to more active remodelling by signalling osteoclasts to remove old bone and osteoblasts to form new bone, including the mineralization process. - When a micro-crack forms in bone, the area around the crack undergoes a process that helps prevent the crack from spreading. This area, called the plastic zone and allows for the dissipation of energy, which helps to absorb the forces that would otherwise worsen the crack. This mechanism is important for the material's toughness and for bone's ability to remodel itself. - Micro-cracks connect to each other and send signals to the neighbouring osteoclasts/blasts signalling damage and a need for help. However, if the micro-cracks reach the “yield”, bones aren’t plastic any longer and at the “ultimate point” you get a fracture. fi fi fi fl fl fi fi fi ff fi fi fl fi fi fi fi fi fi 14 of 18 ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW - If cut bone, especially femur, see the arch type structures that help support weight (by dissipating force), and continuously remodel to adapt to changes (ex. during pregnancy). If +OB/-OC, it is pathological osteological formation. If -OB/=OC, it is osteolysis due to lack of formation. If -OB/+OC, it is complete osteolysis. If =OB/=OC, it is a mineralization problem of the OBs (medicine ONLY); need live cells to study this, so can’t be done in archeology. - OBs can also ossify soft tissue, for example, they can ossify ligaments, where muscles attach to bones and can also ossify areas around blood vessel to stabilize it. - Cartilage is also remodelled, but not as fast as bones. 8. Basics in histology : not knowing them by heart, just be capable of recognize them in a list and understand them. - Osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts, osteons, lamellae, Haversian canals, etc. 9. Di erence between speci c and unspeci c marker of stress: knowing them and being capable of recognize them in a picture. - SPECIFIC: - De ciencies: scurvy (de ciency in vitamin C) and rickets (de ciency in vitamin D). - Scurvy leads to lack of bone mineralization. Rickets causes bloody gums and bone resorption. - Anemia or infection: commonly see osteophytosis on the surface layer of bone layers; also known as bone spurs. This is because chronic in ammation, which can be a response to infection or certain types of anemia, may stimulate the body's bone-forming processes. - Toxic lead or uoride poisoning: - Lead poisoning - Usually seen on base of teeth (where teeth connect with gum); a blackening. - On scans, will see larger ossi cations at extremities as this is where the lead is stored. - Fluoride poisoning - A ects composition of teeth; see whitening of the teeth. - Fluorosis usually occurs when close to volcanoes because of ashes. - On scans, see more calci cation and higher bone mass (see halo e ect) which over time will create a heavier skeleton. - NON-SPECIFIC: stress can be of any cause. - Harris lines: Radiographic opaque line, perpendicular to the bone axis. Indication of growth restart: could be several. Formation during linking cartilage growth and later ossi ed; therefore likely at the extremities of the diaphysis where the cartilage linkage is located. Disappeared with bone remodelling though (so will only see in immature bones). BUT, not always a marker of stress; some people believe it is a normal event in growth (CONTROVERSY). These patterns are called saltation and stasis seem to be common to all. - Porotic syndrome: undecided origin of development. Linked with anaemia, usually genetic or caused by de ciency or infection. At the molecular level, it is the result of faulty osteoclast activity and osteomineralization gone wrong. Does not disappear with remodelling, so good indicator of non-speci c stress. Usually localized to speci c areas of the body. - Linear Enamel Hypoplasia: manifests as lines or grooves on teeth, indicating a temporary halt in enamel formation by ameloblasts. This condition, re ecting stress or malnutrition during tooth development, remains visible throughout life due to the non-remodelling nature of teeth. Speci c, temporary interruptions in enamel formation during the development of the tooth's crown manifest themselves as lines on the teeth, especially during the rst 7 years of life. Very good indicator of periods of stress or malnutrition that occurred during critical growth phases. - Relationship between LEH and HL: study looked at analyzing each marker separately and then comparing the data to determine any association between them. Showed that enamel defects and Harris lines show a very di erent distribution by age. 10. Understand controversy with the study of Harris lines. - The controversy about Harris lines revolves around their cause. While initially linked to stress or malnutrition, some research suggests they may also re ect normal growth variations. Studies - fi fi ff fi fi fl fl fl fi ff fi fi fi fi fi fi fl fi fi ff ff 15 of 18 ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW show no consistent link between Harris lines and speci c stressful conditions, proposing instead that these lines may result from natural growth rate uctuations. The challenge lies in distinguishing Harris lines caused by stress from those occurring during normal growth phases. This debate complicates using Harris lines as de nitive indicators of past health stresses, underscoring the need for careful interpretation alongside other archaeological and biological evidence. 11. Information brought by ageing disease and disadvantage and advantage of studying them. - One of the greatest drawbacks in the study of OP in archeological samples pertains to the assessment of age at death in adult skeletal remains. Biological ageing is extremely variable, and the appraisal of age at death usually renders poor to mediocre estimates of biological and chronological age in adult individuals. - Early paleopathological studies documented a similar pattern of bone loss in di erent past communities, with age-related bone loss and greater loss in females [...] suggesting that the general patterns and prevalence of osteoporosis were essentially the same as in modern populations 12. Di erent types of arthrosis : not knowing the di erent anatomical region. - Degenerative joint diseases: - Arthrosis (age-related joint disease) — commonly osteoarthritis. - Primary: most frequented idiopathic. A ect spine, knee, hip and hand. - Secondary: less frequent and due to articular or biomechanical problems. A ect elbow, wrist, ankle and foot. - VS. Arthritis (infection of the articulation) — NOT DJD. - Molecular: decrease of OB activity and vitamin D synthesis. - Primary: old individuals or postmenopausal women - Secondary: due to an extended immobilization and a decrease of muscle activities or medicinal intake. Ex. astronauts will have OP because of lack of gravity in space. - Arthritis is a broader category that includes many types of joint diseases, some of which are in ammatory (like rheumatoid arthritis) and others that are degenerative (like osteoarthritis). 13. 4 criteria to recognize arthrosis. - Criteria for recognition: osteophytes (increased osteo-formation aka bone spurs), micro-porosity (holes in bones), eburnation (cartilage runs out and bones rub one another) and deformation (over-spurred). 14. Causes and criteria of osteoporosis, di erent types of osteoporosis and di erence with osteopenia. - De nition: incomplete mineralization of bone often linked to sex hormone imbalance. - General skeletal condition characterized by a decrease of bone mass and an alteration of the bones’ microarchitecture. Often see a decrease of the number of lamellas and compact bone thickness. - Causes: decrease of OB activity and vitamin D synthesis. - Primary: old individuals or postmenopausal women. - Secondary: due to an extended immobilization and a decrease of muscle activities or medicinal intake. Ex. astronauts will have OP because of lack of gravity in space. - VS. Osteopenia: normal loss of bone mass with age. - Natural ageing process with a decrease in bony mass without micro-architectural alteration. 15. Criteria of hyperostosis. - Hyperostosis: calcifying pathology linked to a metabolic disorder (uncontrolled OBs and OCs) due to age. New bone formation at ligament and muscle insertion sites. - Usually seen in 45 y.o. males. - Criteria for recognition: osteophytes (spurs), DISH (di use idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis) on the spine, increase of compact bone thickness. - On scan will see thicker cortical layer. 16. Di erent types of trauma (direct and indirect) and information brought by the study of trauma. ff ff ff fi ff fl ff fi ff ff fl fi ff ff 16 of 18 ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW - Types of trauma: micro vs macro-trauma: - Ossifying myositis is a condition characterized by the abnormal formation of bone tissue within muscles, typically following an injury or in ammation, leading to sti ness and pain. Bursitis is the in ammation of bursae, small uid- lled sacs that cushion bones, tendons, and muscles near joints, resulting in pain, swelling, and restricted movement. 17. Di erent step of reading a fracture and di erence between ancient and recent fracture (being able of recognize the di erence on a picture). - To read a fracture, need to date the lifespan, de ne the mechanical identi cation (indirect or direct) and determine functional consequences (how the individual could have been treated or cared for), determine the possible treatment or reduction of injury and lastly, determine possible complications from treatment. - To date, fracture could have happened far or near death. - (1) Far from death: - Forti ed trauma with osseous callus. - Depending on time remodelled, there will be more or less porosity; usually in adulthood, takes around 3 months to consolidate. - Ex. Trepanation (old): remodelled smooth lines around the holes. - (2) Near death: - No consolidation. - Repair will be accelerated at fracture area, but nowhere else. The time it takes for repair is dependent on skeletal region; fastest on bones protecting vital organs, on age; young rafter than older, and geographical origin (Africans faster than European). - Ex. Trepanation (new): no remodelling and usually COD. - Direct vs. Indirect trauma: (1) direct trauma: impact causes trauma and (2) indirect trauma: fracture forces are far from the fracture point. 18. Forces of fracture : not knowing the de nition of each forces and each results on the bone, focusing on knowing the di erence between “transversal” and “spiral/oblique” fracture and between “penetrating” and “crush” trauma. - Forces of fracture: - Tension: forces with opposite direction. - Compression: forces converging in the same point. - Torsion: twisting forces in opposite directions. - Flexion: forces in the same direction. - Shearing: perpendicular and opposite forces to the bone axis. - Transversal fracture: direct and horizontal impact due to fall or sharp object. - Special case for stress fracture and rickets fracture. - On scan: see cut perpendicular to bone axis, as well as calluses when bone heals (spurs). - Spiral/oblique fracture: oblique fractures involved exion and rotation and usually it resembles a spiral fracture, though it is not; spiral fractures involve torsion which turns bone at an angle. - Penetrating fracture: “star scar” on skull and comminuted scar on the rest of the skeleton resulting in several bone fragments. - Some of these fragments can dislodge and clog vessels in the body causing further damage. fi ff fl fi ff fl fi fi fl ff ff fi ff fl 17 of 18 ANTH 213 MIDTERM REVIEW - Crush fracture: direct impact pr compression by a heavy blunt object. - A common example is BFT that is achieved using a blunt object. - Greenstick fracture: caused by exion and occurs because immature bone is largely composed of collagen. So get half fracture. - Buckle fracture: caused by compression that compresses bone internally. - End up getting secondary arthrosis and signs of osteophytosis. - Impaction fracture: compression in the spongy part of the bone. Bone gets punched into a socket; needs surgery to be resolved. - Tearing o : removal of the bone at the muscle insertion site. 19. Recognizing di erent possible trauma healing complication. - 1. Pseudo-arthrosis: absence of consolidation; resembles a fracture that never healed. - 2. Viscous callus: callus acts as a temporary sca old that bridges the fracture gap, stabilizing the bone as it undergoes the natural healing process; sometimes get complications that result in improper alignment, leading to shortening of the bone. - 3. Secondary arthrosis: deformation of the articular part of bones due to biomechanical change. - 4. Osteomyelitis: secondary infection due to an open fracture. Bone will grow around infection, making a hole. Also have pus building up internally which gets ejected. 20. Understanding di erences between interpersonal violence and cultural deformation: knowing at least 2 examples of each. - Interpersonal violence (murder, execution) or inter-populational violence (war, raid, genocide). - Traumatic cultural practices: deformation of parts of the body or medical interventions (amputations, surgery and trepanation). - Ex. Foot binding, a type of embodied violence. - There is no direct deformation of the bone, but there is change in the placement of the bone relative to the shape of the foot. - Ex. Cranial deformation, common in Aztec people, occurring with mechanical load. There is no evidence that this cultural practice a ects brain development. - Ex. Embodied violence: social violence (committed onto vulnerable people). - Ex. Foot binding on children; have trouble walking, so would’ve had help living. - Ex. Gira e women in Africa with neck rings. - Ex. Corsets in Victorian England; couldn’t go outside… vitamin C reduction, get diseases related. Historical Figures 1. H. Grmek - Created the concept of pathocenosis. - Stems from the concept of biocenosis: the idea that all living organisms coexists in the same place, called a biotope. - Any time a species appears or disappears, this provoked a change in the state of pathocenosis. 2. E.N Pavlovsky - Created concept of nidus which is the “niche” in which the pathogens thrives. He described it as a cluster of infections diseases that group and survive given other elements like transmissibility, access to hosts, etc. Could also include inorganic factors. - Sometimes niduses can overlap. 3. K.J Reinhard - Created concept of pathoecology: the environmental factors contributing to disease. - The pathoecology of pathogens is also called the “nidus”. 4. J. Wood - Created concept of osteological paradox. - Quoted: “Worst skeletons translate the best health”. Meaning, that the frequency of disease is not equivalent to its prevalence epidemiologically. 5. A. Omran: created concept of epidemiological transition which is when contagious diseases decreases and non-contagious diseases increase. Ex. Degenerative diseases decrease but ageing disease increases. ff ff fl ff ff f ff 18 of 18