ANPH-M1-CU1.TheHumanBody PDF - Anatomy and Physiology

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING ANPH 111 (Anatomy and Physiology) COURSE MODULE COURSE UNIT WEEK 1 1 1 The Human Body ü...

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING ANPH 111 (Anatomy and Physiology) COURSE MODULE COURSE UNIT WEEK 1 1 1 The Human Body ü Read course and unit objectives ü Read study guide prior to class attendance ü Read required learning resources; refer to unit terminologies for jargons ü Proactively participate in classroom discussions ü Participate in weekly discussion board (Canvas) ü Answer and submit course unit tasks. VanPutte, Cinnamon. Regan, Jennifer. Russo, Andrew (2016). Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology Penn Plaza, New York, New York, McGraw-Hill Education, 10th Edition Computer device or smartphone with internet access (at least 54 kbps; average data subscription will suffice) At the end of the course unit (CM), learners will be able to: Cognitive Define anatomy and describe the levels at which anatomy can be studied. Explain the importance of the relationship between structure and function. Ascertain two major goals of physiology Describe the six levels of organization of the body, and describe the major characteristics of each level. List the eleven organ systems, identify their components, and describe the major functions of each system. Relate the six different characteristics of life Define homeostasis, and explain why it is important for proper body function. Describe a negative-feedback mechanism and positive-feedback mechanism and give an example for each. Describe a person in anatomical position. Define the directional terms for the human body, and use them to locate specific body structures. Affective Listen attentively during class discussions Demonstrate tact and respect of other students’ opinions and ideas Accept comments and reactions of classmates openly Psychomotor Participate actively during class discussions Follow class rules and observe compliance to Netiquette Use critical thinking to identify areas of care that could benefit from additional research or application of evidence-based practices Integrate knowledge of trends in Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy - study of the structures of the body Physiology - study of the processes and functions of the body Organelles - are the small structures that make up some cells Organism - any living thing considered as a whole, whether composed of one cell, such as a bacterium, or of trillions of cells, such as a human Metabolism - is the ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such as growth, movement, and reproduction Growth - refers to an increase in size of all or part of the organism Reproduction - is the formation of new cells or new organisms 1.1 ANATOMY Anatomy is the scientific discipline that investigates the structure of the body. The word anatomy means to dissect, or cut apart and separate, the parts of the body for study. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016) Studying anatomy involves structure of body parts, its microscopic organization, how each develops including its relationships and functions. There are basic approaches in anatomy namely Systemic and Regional. As the name implies, systemic dwells on body systems such as skeletal and muscular systems. While the latter, which is regional, reviews specific areas - head, abdomen. Surface Anatomy and Anatomical Imaging are yet another approach to anatomists. These two general ways examines a living person through its internal structures. For instance, Surface anatomy focuses study of external features like bony projections. On the other hand, Anatomical imaging utilizes different imaging samples like ultrasound and X-rays to evaluate internal structures. 1.2 PHYSIOLOGY As VanPutte, Regan, & Russo (2016) notes, Physiology deals with processes or functions of living things as an ever-changing organism. This is to aid in predicting body’s responses to different stimuli and to understand how the body maintains homeostasis. Therefore, physiology is the science of body functions. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011) Moreover, there are subdivisions of physiology that focuses on different organizational level such as cellular physiology and systemic physiology. For the human as a specific organism, the study is called Human Physiology. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016) 1.3 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATON OF THE HUMAN BODY There are six structural levels that our body can be studied and these are chemical, cell, tissue, organ, organ system and organism as shown below in figure 1.  Figure 1.1 Levels of Organization for the Human Body *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016) The Chemical Level of organization deals with how different atoms like hydrogen and carbon interact to form molecules. In the Cell Level, which is the basic unit of organisms, we try to correlate how a molecular substance affects a living organism. For example, our cells contains nucleus that contains hereditary information. And though cells differ in structure and function, knowledge of these differences would greatly help in grasping concepts of anatomy and physiology. Tissues on the other hand are combined cells that are similar. Their similarity in characteristics and surrounding materials determines its functions. As an overview, we have epithelial, connective, muscle and nerve tissues. When two or more tissue types work together to perform one or more functions, this will be called Organ. Examples of which includes our heart and stomach , even our brain (figure 1.2). Figure 1.2 Major Organs Human Body *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016) The next level would be the Organ System. This pertains to group of organs working together to sustain a specific function. The works of the kidneys, urinary bladder, ureter and urethra is an example displaying coordinated function for the urinary system to be efficient in its purpose. But though this system has specific roles to perform, remember that all systems are interrelated. A problem on one organ system may have serious effects on other systems. Figure 1.3 provides an illustration of the different organ systems in the human body. The last level is the Organism Level as a living thing considered as a whole, whether composed of only one cell such as bacterium, or one that is made of trillions of cells like us human.  Figure 1.3 Organs Systems of the Body *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016) 1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE Aren’t you wondering whether humans like us share one or many characteristics with other organism? If there are, what are the different characteristics of life? Let’s take a review at these characteristics of life, according to VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, (2016). 1.4.1 Organization – living things are highly organized. They have specific interrelationships for it to perform functions essential for the living organism to thrive. In effect, any problems that affects its organization will greatly disrupt its function. 1.4.2 Metabolism - is all of the chemical reactions taking place in an organism. It includes the ability of an organism to break down food molecules, which are used as a source of energy and raw materials to synthesize the organism’s own molecules. It is the ability of the organism to use energy to perform functions essential to growth, movement and even reproduction. 1.4.3 Responsiveness – is simply the capability to react or adjust to whether a stimulus or a change. For instance, our body perspires a lot whenever our temperature rises during hot weather. 1.4.4 Growth – an increase in number or length. In the human body, growth is an evidence when bones become larger as the number of bone cells increases. 1.4.5 Development – occurs when an organism changes through time. Like the developmental changes happening before birth, a human being changes through time. Though growth signifies development, differentiation also embodies development. Differentiation can be seen as a change in structure and function from a generalized to a specialized structures. For example, following fertilization, generalized cells specialize to become specific cell types, such as skin, bone, muscle, or nerve cells. These differentiated cells form tissues and organs. 1.4.6 Reproduction - is the ability to form new organism, giving possibility to tissue repairs and continuity. 1.5 HOMEOSTASIS Homeostasis (h ′m - -st ′sis; homeo-, the same), according to VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, (2016) is the ability to maintain balance despite changes in the internal and external environment. Like temperature regulation as an example, our body produces sweat (as water) in attempt to lower down body temperature caused by the external environment. And since homeostasis involves complex mechanisms, these regulations are also affected by different variables. Variables are conditions like volume, chemical content and in this case, temperature. Their values may easily change and so does the response of the organism. In the given example, sweating aids in the regulation, maintaining the body temperature near the ideal normal value. If temperature was the variable, the sweating is considered as the Homeostatic mechanism. Most homeostatic mechanisms are governed by the nervous system or the endocrine system. Note that homeostatic mechanisms are not able to maintain body temperature precisely at the set point (figure 1.4). Instead, body temperature increases and decreases slightly around the set point, producing a normal range of values. As long as body temperatures remain within this normal range, homeostasis is maintained. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016) Figure 1.4 Homeostasis Homeostasis is the maintenance of the carriable, such as temperature around an ideal normal value or set point. *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016) Homeostasis is maintained by many feedback systems. Each monitored condition in a feedback system, or feedback loop, is termed a controlled condition. Any disruption that causes a change in a controlled condition is called a stimulus. Some stimuli come from outside the body, while others come from within. In addition to the controlled condition and the stimulus, feedback systems have three other components: 1. A receptor monitors the controlled condition and sends information (input) to a control center. 2. A control center receives the input, compares it to a set of values that the controlled condition should have (set point) and sends output commands (nerve impulses or chemical signals) to an effector. 3. An effector receives output commands and produces a response that changes the controlled condition. If a feedback system reverses the change in the controlled condition to restore it to the set point, this is a negative feedback system. For example, a negative feedback system controls blood pressure. However, if a feedback system further strengthens a change in the controlled condition, this is a positive feedback system. For instance, childbirth is an example of positive feedback. During labor, uterine contractions force the baby’s head into the cervix, which stretches. The stretching causes the hypothalamus to secrete a hormone called oxytocin, which induces more uterine contractions. Negative feedback systems tend to maintain stable conditions, whereas positive feedback systems tend to be unstable and must be shut off by some event that is outside the feedback loop, such as the delivery of the child. 1.6 TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN Body Positions Descriptions of any part of the human body assume that the body is in a specific stance called the anatomical position. In the anatomical position, the body is upright. This means that the subject stands erect with the head level, eyes facing forward, feet at on the floor, and directed forward, and arms at the sides, with the palms turned forward. However, two terms describe a reclining body. If the body is lying face down, it is in the prone position. If the body is lying face up, it is in the supine position. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016) Directional Terms Directional terms describe parts of the body relative to each other. Directional terms are generally grouped in pairs of opposites. (Thompson, 2015) Figure 1.5 Directional terms *taken from Understanding Anatomy and Physiology : A Visual, Auditory, Interactive Approach by Gale Sloan Thompson (2015) Body Parts and Regions Figure 1.6 illustrates different regions in the body. This will help to properly identify specific area/s of a patient body to be evaluated upon. As seen in the image, the central region of the body consists of the head, neck, and trunk. The trunk can be divided into the thorax (chest), abdomen (region between the thorax and pelvis), and pelvis (the inferior end of the trunk associated with the hips). The upper limb is divided into the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand. The arm extends from the shoulder to the elbow, and the forearm extends from the elbow to the wrist. Figure 1.6 Body Parts and Regions (anterior view) *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016) Figure 1.6 Body Parts and Regions (anterior view) *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)  Figure 1.6 Body Parts and Regions (posterior view) *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016) The lower limb is divided into the thigh, leg, ankle, and foot. The thigh extends from the hip to the knee, and the leg extends from the knee to the ankle. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016) Make sure to familiarize because these terms would facilitate better communication between health care providers. Abdominal Regions and Quadrants One portion of the body that occupies a large area would be the abdominopelvic cavity. Determining exact location of possible problems concurrent to different organ/s can be difficult. For this reason, it was subdivided further into regions and quadrants. It is also best to appreciate that some organs may extend over multiple quadrants as shown in figures 1.7 and 1.8. (Thompson, 2015) Figure 1.7 Abdominopelvic Quadrants *taken from Visualizing Anatomy and Physiology by Freudenrich & Tortora (2011) Figure 1.8 Abdominopelvic Regions and some Organs found in each Region *taken from Visualizing Anatomy and Physiology by Freudenrich & Tortora (2011) Planes Body planes divide the body, even organs, into sections. The following illustrations will provide a good view of how bodily structures can be viewed. Figure 1.9 Planes of the Body *taken from Understanding Anatomy and Physiology : A Visual, Auditory, Interactive Approach by Gale Sloan Thompson (2015)  Organs are often sectioned to reveal their internal structure (figure 1.10). A cut through the long axis of the organ is a longitudinal section, and a cut at a right angle to the long axis is a transverse section, or cross section. If a cut is made across the long axis at other than a right angle, it is called an oblique section. Figure 1.10 Planes of Section through an Organ *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016) Body Cavities The body contains spaces—called cavities—that house the internal organs. The two major body cavities are the dorsal cavity and the ventral cavity. Each of these cavities is subdivided further, as shown below. Figure 1.11 Body Cavities *taken from Understanding Anatomy and Physiology : A Visual, Auditory, Interactive Approach by Gale Sloan Thompson (2015) Serous membranes VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, (2016) specifies that serous membranes lines trunk cavities and cover the organs of these cavities. They are filled with minimal fluid to lubricate its surfaces thereby reducing friction. Figures below will depict different serous membranes found in our body Figure 1.12 Location of Serous Membranes *taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016) (a) Frontal section showing the parietal pericardium (blue), visceral pericardium (red), and pericardial cavity. (b) Frontal section showing the parietal pleura (blue), visceral pleura (red), and pleural cavities. (c) Sagittal section through the abdominopelvic cavity showing the parietal peritoneum (blue), visceral peritoneum (red), peritoneal cavity, mesenteries (purple), and retroperitoneal organs. The trunk cavities are lined by serous membranes. The parietal part of a serous membrane lines the wall of the cavity, and the visceral part covers the internal organs. The serous membranes secrete fluid that fills the space between the parietal and visceral membranes. The serous membranes protect organs from friction. The pericardial cavity surrounds the heart, the pleural cavities surround the lungs, and the peritoneal cavity surrounds certain abdominal and pelvic organs. Mesenteries are parts of the peritoneum that hold the abdominal organs in place and provide a passageway for blood vessels and nerves to organs. Retroperitoneal organs are found “behind” the parietal peritoneum. The kidneys, the adrenal glands, the pancreas, parts of the intestines, and the urinary bladder are examples of retroperitoneal organs. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016) Rizzo, D. C. (2016). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology (Fourth ed.). Boston, Massachussetts: Cengage Learning. Thompson, G. S. (2015). Understanding Anatomy & Physiology: A Visual, Auditory, Interactive Approach,2nd Edition. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company. Tortora, G. J., & Freudenrich, C. C. (2011). Visualizing Anatomy & Physiology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016). Seeley's Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill Education. To set the tone right, we will help each other in the appreciation of the initial phase of Anatomy and Physiology by accomplishing the Course Task/s in Canvas