Anatomy and Physiology Reviewer PDF

**ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY REVIEWER** LESSON 1 1\. **Anatomy**---the study of structure. 2\. **Physiology**---the study of function. 3\. **Pathophysiology**---the study of disorders of functioning. **Levels of Organization** 1\. **Chemical**---inorganic and organic chemicals make up all matter,...

**ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY REVIEWER** LESSON 1 1\. **Anatomy**---the study of structure. 2\. **Physiology**---the study of function. 3\. **Pathophysiology**---the study of disorders of functioning. **Levels of Organization** 1\. **Chemical**---inorganic and organic chemicals make up all matter, both living and non-living. 2\. **Cells**---the smallest living units of the body. 3\. **Tissues**---groups of cells with similar structure and function. 4\. **Organs**---groups of tissues that contribute to specific functions. 5\. **Organ systems**---groups of organs that work together to perform specific functions. 6\. **Person**---all the organ systems functioning properly. **Metabolism and Homeostasis** **Metabolism** - sum of all of the chemical and physical changes that take place in the body. **Metabolic rate** - amount of energy and heat production per unit of time. **Homeostasis** - state of good health maintained by the normal metabolism (functioning) of the organ systems. **Negative feedback mechanism**---a control system in which a stimulus initiates a response that reverses or reduces the stimulus, thereby stopping the response until the stimulus occurs again and there is a need for the response. **Positive feedback mechanism**---a control system that requires an external interruption or brake. Has the potential to become a self-perpetuating and harmful cycle, therefore is rare in the body **DESCRIPTIVE TERMS FOR BODY PARTS AND AREAS** 1. **Antebrachial** - forearm 2. **Antecubital** - front of elbow 3. **Axillary** -armpit 4. **Brachial** -upper arm 5. **Buccal (oral)** -mouth 6. **Cardiac** -heart 7. **Cervical** -neck 8. **Cranial** -head 9. **Cutaneous** -skin 10. **Deltoid** -shoulder 11. **Femoral** -thigh 12. **Frontal** -forehead 13. **Gastric** -stomach 14. **Gluteal** -buttocks 15. **Hepatic** -liver 16. **Iliac -**hip 17. **Inguinal** -groin 18. **Lumbar** -small of back 19. **Mammary** -breast 20. **Nasal** -nose 21. **Occipital** -back of head 22. **Orbital** -eye 23. **Parietal** -crown of head 24. **Patellar** -kneecap 25. **Pectoral** -chest 26. **Pedal** -foot 27. **Perineal** -pelvic floor 28. **Plantar** -sole of foot 29. **Popliteal** -back of knee 30. **Pulmonary** -lungs 31. **Renal** -kidney 32. **Sacral** -base of spine 33. **Scapular -**shoulder blade 34. **Sternal** -breastbone 35. **Temporal** -side of head 36. **Umbilical** -navel 37. **Volar (palmar)** -palm **TERMS OF LOCATION AND POSITION** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Term** | **Definition** | **Example** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | 1. **Superior** | above, or higher | The heart is superior | | | | to the liver. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 2. **Inferior** | below, or lower | The liver is inferior | | | | to the lungs. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 3. **Anterior** | toward the front | The chest is on the | | | | anterior side of the | | | | body. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 4. **Posterior** | toward the back | The lumbar area is | | | | posterior to the | | | | umbilical area. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 5. **Ventral** | toward the front | The mammary area is | | | | on the ventral side | | | | of the body. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 6. **Dorsal** | toward the back | The buttocks are on | | | | the dorsal side of | | | | the body. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 7. **Medial** | toward the midline | The heart is medial | | | | to the lungs. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 8. **Lateral** | away from the midline | The shoulders are | | | | lateral to the neck. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 9. **Internal** | within, or interior | The brain is internal | | | to | to the skull. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 10. **External** | outside, or exterior | The ribs are external | | | to | to the lungs. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 11. **Superficial** | toward the surface | The skin is the most | | | | superficial organ. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 12. **Deep** | within, or interior | The deep veins of the | | | to | legs are surrounded | | | | by muscles. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 13. **Central** | the main part | The brain is part of | | | | the central nervous | | | | system | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 14. **Peripheral** | extending from the | Nerves in the arm are | | | main part | part of the | | | | peripheral nervous | | | | system. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 15. **Proximal** | closer to the origin | The knee is proximal | | | | to the foot. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 16. **Distal** | farther from the | The palm is distal to | | | origin | the elbow. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 17. **Parietal** | pertaining to the | The parietal pleura | | | wall of a cavity | lines the chest | | | | cavity | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 18. **Visceral** | pertaining to the | The visceral pleura | | | organs within a | covers the lungs. | | | cavity | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **BODY CAVITIES AND THEIR MEMBRANES** 1. **Dorsal cavity**---lined with membranes called meninges; consists of the cranial and vertebral cavities. a. **Cranial cavity** contains the brain. b. **Vertebral cavity** contains the spinal cord. 2. **Ventral cavity**---the diaphragm separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities; the pelvic cavity is inferior to the abdominal cavity. 3. **Thoracic cavity**---contains the lungs and heart. --- Pleural membranes line the chest wall and cover the lungs. --- Pericardial membranes surround the heart. 4. **Abdominal cavity**---contains many organs including the stomach, liver, and intestines. --- The peritoneum lines the abdominal cavity; the mesentery covers the abdominal organs. 5. **Pelvic cavity**---contains the urinary bladder and reproductive organs. **PLANES AND SECTIONS** - cutting the body or an organ in a specific way 1. **Frontal or coronal**---separates front and back parts. 2. **Sagittal**---separates right and left parts. 3. **Transverse**---separates upper and lower parts. 4. **Cross**---a section perpendicular to the long axis. 5. **Longitudinal**---a section along the long axis. **Computed tomography (CT) scanning** - uses a narrowly focused x-ray beam that circle rapidly around the body. **Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) -** diagnostic tool that is especially useful for visualizing soft tissues, including the brain and spinal cord. **Positron emission tomography (PET) -** scanning creates images that depict the rates of physio logical processes such as blood flow, oxygen usage, or glucose metabolism. LESSON 2 **Elements** - simplest chemicals, which make up all matter. 99% of the human body makes up: - carbon - hydrogen - oxygen - nitrogen - phosphorus - sulfur - calcium **Elements** combine in many ways to form molecules. **Atoms** are the smallest part of an element that still retains the characteristics of the element. **Atoms consist of positively and negatively charged particles and neutral (or uncharged) particles.** **Protons** have a positive charge and are found in the nucleus of the atom. **Neutrons** have no charge and are found in the nucleus of the atom. **Electrons** have a negative charge and orbit the nucleus. **Nucleic acids** **Nucleotides** are the subunits of nucleic acids. A nucleotide consists of a pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. **DNA** is a double strand of nucleotides, coiled into a double helix, with complementary base pairing: A--T and G--C. DNA makes up the chromosomes of cells and is the genetic code for the synthesis of proteins. **RNA** is a single strand of nucleotides, synthesized from DNA, with U in place of T. RNA functions in protein synthesis. **ATP** is a nucleotide that is specialized to trap and release energy. Energy released from food in cell respiration is used to synthesize ATP from ADP P. When cells need energy, ATP is bro ken down to ADP P and the energy is released for cell processes. LESSON 3 **Human cells** vary in size, shape, and function. Our cells function interdependently to maintain homeostasis. **Cell Structure**---the major parts of a cell are the cell membrane, nucleus (except mature RBCs), cytoplasm, and cell organelles 1. **Cell membrane**---the selectively permeable boundary of the cell a. Phospholipids permit diffusion of lipid-soluble materials. b. Cholesterol provides stability. c. Proteins form channels, transporters, "self" anti gens, and receptor sites for hormones or other signaling molecules. 2. **Nucleus**---the control center of the cell; has a double-layer membrane. d. Nucleolus---forms ribosomal RNA. e. Chromosomes---made of DNA and protein: Human cells have **46 chromosomes**, and their genetic information is called the genome. 3. **Cytoplasm**---a watery solution of minerals, gases, and organic molecules; contains the cell organelles; site for many chemical reactions. 4. **Cell organelles**---intracellular structures with specific functions +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Organelle | Function | +===================================+===================================+ | 1. **Endoplasmic reticulum | Passageway for transport of | | (ER)** | materials within the cell | | | | | | Synthesis of lipids | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 2. **Ribosomes** | Site of protein synthesis | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 3. **Proteasomes** | Site of destruction of old or | | | damaged proteins | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 4. **Golgi apparatus** | Synthesis of carbohydrates | | | | | | Packaging of materials for | | | secretion from the cell | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 5. **Mitochondria** | Site of aerobic cell | | | respiration---ATP production | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 6. **Lysosomes** | Contain enzymes to digest | | | ingested material or damaged | | | tissue | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 7. **Centrioles** | Organize the spindle fibers | | | during cell division | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 8. **Cilia** | Sweep materials across the cell | | | surface | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 9. **Flagellum** | Enables a cell to move | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 10. **Microvilli** | Increase a cell's surface area | | | for absorption | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Cellular Transport Mechanisms**---the processes by which cells take in or secrete or excrete materials through the selectively permeable cell membrane 1. **Diffusion**---movement of molecules from an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser con centration 2. **Osmosis**---the diffusion of water. Water diffuses to an area of less water, that is, to an area of more dis solved material 3. **Facilitated diffusion**---transporters (carrier enzymes) that are part of the cell membrane permit cells to take in materials that would not diffuse by themselves 4. **Active transport**---a cell uses ATP to move substances from an area of lesser concentration to an area of greater concentration. 5. **Filtration**---pressure forces water and dissolved materials through a membrane from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure. 6. **Phagocytosis**--- (a form of endocytosis) a moving cell engulfs something; white blood cells phagocytize bacteria to destroy them. 7. **Pinocytosis**--- (a form of endocytosis) a stationary cell engulfs small molecules; kidney tubule cells reabsorb small proteins by pinocytosis. **The Genetic Code and Protein Synthesis** **Transcription---**mRNA is formed as a complementary copy of the sequence of bases in a gene (DNA). **Translation**---tRNA molecules bring amino acids to their proper triplets on the mRNA. **DNA → RNA → proteins (structural proteins and enzymes that catalyze reactions) → hereditary characteristics** -- expression of the genetic code **CELL DIVISION** **Mitosis---**one cell with the diploid number of chromosomes divides once to form two cells, each with the diploid number of chromosomes (46 for humans)**.** **Stages of Mitosis** 1. **Prophase** - The chromosomes coil up and become visible as short rods. 2. **Metaphase** - The pairs of chromatids line up along the equator of the cell. 3. **Anaphase** - Each chromatid is now considered a separate chromosome 4. **Telophase** - The sets of chromosomes reach the poles of the cell and become indistinct as their DNA uncoils to form chromatin. 5. **Cytokinesis** - The cytoplasm divides; new cell membrane is formed. **Meiosis**---one cell with the diploid number of chromosomes divides twice to form four cells, each with the haploid number of chromosomes (23 for humans). **Oogenesis** in the ovaries forms egg cells. **Spermatogenesis** in the testes forms sperm cells **Fertilization** of an egg by a sperm restores the diploid number in the fertilized egg. LESSON 4 **tissue** - group of cells with similar structure and function. The ***four main groups*** of tissues are **epithelial, connective, muscle, and nerve** **Epithelial Tissue---**found on surfaces; have no capillaries; some are capable of secretion; classified as to shape of cells and number of layers of cells **Types** 1. **Simple squamous**---one layer of flat cells; thin and smooth. 2. **Stratified squamous**---many layers of mostly flat cells; mitosis takes place in lowest layer. 3. **Transitional---stratified**, yet surface cells are rounded and flatten when stretched. 4. **Simple cuboidal**---one layer of cube-shaped cells. 5. **Simple columnar**---one layer of column-shaped cells. 6. **Ciliated**---columnar cells with cilia on free surfaces. 7. **Glands**---epithelial tissues that produce secretions. **Types of Glands** 1. **Unicellular**---one-celled glands. 2. **Multicellular**---many-celled glands. **Connective Tissue**---all have a non-living intercellular matrix and specialized cells **Types** 1. **Blood**---the matrix is plasma, mostly water; trans ports materials in the blood. 2. **Areolar (loose)**---cells are fibroblasts, which produce protein fibers: collagen is strong, elastin is elastic; the matrix is collagen, elastin, and tissue fluid. 3. **Areolar (loose)**---cells are fibroblasts, which produce protein fibers: collagen is strong, elastin is elastic; the matrix is collagen, elastin, and tissue fluid. 4. **Fibrous**---mostly matrix, strong collagen fibers; cells are fibroblasts. 5. **Elastic**---mostly matrix, elastin fibers. 6. **Bone**---cells are osteocytes; matrix is calcium salts and collagen, strong and not flexible; good blood supply, rapid healing 7. **Cartilage**---cells are chondrocytes; protein matrix is firm yet flexible; no capillaries in matrix, very slow healing. **Muscle Tissue**---specialized to contract and bring about movement **Types** 1. **Skeletal**---also called striated or voluntary muscle; Cells are cylindrical, have several nuclei, and have striations. Each cell has a motor nerve ending; nerve impulses are essential to cause contraction. 2. **Smooth**---also called visceral or involuntary muscle. Cells have tapered ends, one nucleus each, and no striations. Contraction is not under voluntary control. 3. **Cardiac**---cells are branched, have one nucleus each, and faint striations. **Nerve Tissue**---neurons are specialized to generate and transmit impulses - **synapse** is the space between two neurons; a **neurotransmitter** carries the impulse across a synapse. - Specialized cells in nerve tissue are **neuroglia** in the CNS and **Schwann cells** in the PNS. **Membranes**---sheets of tissue on surfaces, or separating organs or lobes **Types** 1. **Epithelial membranes** a. **Serous membranes**---in closed body cavities; the serous fluid prevents friction between the two layers of the serous membrane. i. **Thoracic cavity**---partial pleura lines chest wall; visceral pleura covers the lungs. ii. **Pericardial sac**---parietal pericardium lines fibrous pericardium; visceral pericardium (epicardium) covers the heart muscle. iii. **Abdominal cavity**---peritoneum lines the abdominal cavity; mesentery covers the abdominal organs. b. **Mucous membranes**---line body tracts that open to the environment: respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive. Mucus keeps the living epithelium wet; provides lubrication in the digestive tract; traps dust and bacteria in the respiratory tract. 2. Connective tissue membranes +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Membrane | Location and Function | +===================================+===================================+ | 1. **Superficial fascia** | Between the skin and muscles; | | | adipose tissue stores fat | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 2. **Periosteum** | Covers each bone; contains blood | | | vessels that enter the bone; | | | Anchors tendons and ligament | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 3. **Perichondrium** | Covers cartilage; contains | | | capillaries, the only blood | | | supply for cartilage | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 4. **Synovial** | Lines joint cavities; secretes | | | syn ovial fluid to prevent | | | friction when joints move | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 5. **Deep fascia** | Covers each skeletal muscle; | | | anchors tendons | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 6. **Meninges** | Cover the brain and spinal cord; | | | contain cerebrospinal fluid | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 7. **Fibrous pericardium** | Forms a sac around the heart; | | | lined by the serous parietal | | | pericardium | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ LESSON 5 **Integumentary system** - consists of the skin and its accessory structures and the subcutaneous tissue. *2 major layers*: 1. outer epidermis 2. inner dermis **Epidermis**---made of stratified squamous epithelium; no capillaries; cells called keratinocytes +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Parts** | **Function** | +===================================+===================================+ | 1. **Stratum germinativum** | the innermost layer where mitosis | | | takes place | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 2. **Stratum corneum** | the outermost layers of dead | | | cells; keratin prevents loss and | | | entry of water and resists entry | | | of pathogens and chemicals. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 3. **Langerhans cells** | phagocytize foreign material, | | | take it to lymph nodes, and | | | stimulate an immune response by | | | lymphocytes. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 4. **Melanocytes** | in the lower epidermis, produce | | | melanin. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Dermis -** made of irregular fibrous connective tissue; collagen provides strength, and elastin provides elasticity; capillaries in the papillary layer nourish the stratum germinativum +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Parts** | **Function** | +===================================+===================================+ | 1. **Hair follicles** | Eyelashes and nasal hair keep | | | dust out of eyes and nasal | | | cavities | | | | | | Scalp hair provides insulation | | | from cold for the head | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 2. **Nail follicles** | Protect ends of fingers and toes | | | from mechanical injury | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 3. **Papillary layer** | Contains capillaries that nourish | | | the stratum germinativum | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 4. **Receptors** | Detect changes that are felt as | | | the cutaneous senses: touch, | | | pressure, heat, cold, and pain | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 5. **Sebaceous glands** | Produce sebum, which prevents | | | drying of skin and hair and | | | inhibits growth of bacteria | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 6. **Ceruminous glands** | Produce cerumen, which prevents | | | drying of the eardrum | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 7. **Eccrine sweat glands** | Produce watery sweat that is | | | evaporated by excess body heat to | | | cool the body | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 8. **Arterioles** | Dilate in response to warmth to | | | increase heat loss | | | | | | Constrict in response to cold to | | | conserve body heat | | | | | | Constrict in stressful situations | | | to shunt blood to more vital | | | organs | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Subcutaneous Tissue**---also called the superficial fascia; connects skin to muscles 1. **Areolar tissue** - loose connective tissue; the matrix contains tissue fluid and WBCs that destroy pathogens that get through breaks in the skin 2. **Adipose tissue** - stores fat as potential energy; cushions bony prominences; provides some insulation from cold **Common Skin Disorder** 1. **Impetigo**---a bacterial infection often caused by streptococci or staphylococci. 2. **Eczema**---a symptom of what is more properly called atopic dermatitis; sometimes allergic 3. **Warts**---caused by a virus that makes epidermal cells divide abnormally 4. **Fever blisters (cold sores)**---caused by the herpes simplex virus, to which most people are exposed as children. **Kinds of Burns** 1. **First-Degree Burn**---only the superficial epidermis is burned and is painful but not blistered. 2. **Second-Degree Burn**---deeper layers of the epi dermis are affected. 3. **Third-Degree Burn**---the entire epidermis is charred or burned away, and the burn may extend into the dermis or subcutaneous tissue. LESSON 6 **Skeletal System** The **skeleton** is made of bone and cartilage and has these functions: 1\. Is a framework for support, connected by ligaments, moved by muscles. 2\. Protects internal organs from mechanical injury. 3. Contains and protects red bone marrow. 4\. Stores excess calcium; important to regulate blood calcium level **Bone Tissue** 1. **Osteocytes (cells)** - found in the matrix of calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, and collagen. 2. **Compact bone**---haversian systems are present. 3. **Spongy bone**---no haversian systems; red bone marrow present. 4. **Articular cartilage**---smooth, on joint surfaces. 5. **Periosteum**---fibrous connective tissue membrane; anchors tendons and ligaments; has blood vessels that enter the bone. **Classification of Bones** 1. **Long**---arms, legs; shaft is the diaphysis (compact bone) with a marrow cavity containing yellow bone marrow (fat); ends are epiphyses (spongy bone) 2. **Short**---wrists, ankles (spongy bone covered with compact bone). 3. **Flat**---ribs, pelvic bone, cranial bones (spongy bone covered with compact bone). 4. **Irregular**---vertebrae, facial bones (spongy bone covered with compact bone). **Factors That Affect Bone Growth and Maintenance** 1. **Heredity**---many pairs of genes contribute to genetic potential for height. 2. **Nutrition**---calcium, phosphorus, and protein become part of the bone matrix 3. **Hormones**---produced by endocrine glands; concerned with cell division, protein synthesis, calcium metabolism, and energy production 4. **Exercise or stress**---weight-bearing bones must bear weight or they will lose calcium and become brittle **Types of Skeletal Bones** 1. Axial a. **Skull** -- 8 cranial bones form the braincase b. **Vertebral Column** -- individual bones; supports trunk and head c. **Rib Cage** -- sternum and 12 pairs of ribs 2. **Appendicular** -- bones of the arms and legs and the shoulder and pelvic girdles d. Shoulder and arm i. **Scapula**---shoulder muscles are attached ii. **Clavicle**---braces the scapula. iii. **Humerus**---upper arm; articulates with the scapula and the ulna (elbow). iv. **Radius and ulna**---forearm---articulate with one another and with carpals. v. **Carpals**---eight---wrist; metacarpals---five--- hand; phalanges---14---fingers e. **Hip and leg** vi. Pelvic bone---two hip bones vii. **Femur**---thigh viii. **Patella**---kneecap ix. **Tibia and fibula**---lower leg; tibia bears weight; fibula does not bear weight, but does anchor muscles and stabilizes ankle. x. **Tarsals**---seven---ankle; calcaneus is heel bone. xi. **Metatarsals**---five---foot; phalanges---14---toes **Joint Articulations** 1. Classification based on amount of movement: a. **Synarthrosis**---immovable. b. **Amphiarthrosis**---slightly movable. c. **Diarthrosis**---freely movable 2. **Synovial joints**---all diarthroses have similar structure d. **Articular cartilage**---smooth on joint surfaces. e. **Joint capsule**---strong fibrous connective tissue sheath that encloses the joint. f. **Synovial membrane**---lines the joint capsule; secretes synovial fluid that prevents friction. g. **Bursae**---sacs of synovial fluid that permit ten dons to slide easily across joints. **Osteoporosis** - excessive loss of calcium from bones without sufficient replacement. **Scoliosis**---an abnormal lateral curvature, which may be congenital, the result of having one leg longer than the other **Kyphosis\***---an exaggerated thoracic curve; sometimes referred to as hunchback. **Lordosis\***---an exaggerated lumbar curve; sometimes referred to as swayback. **Arthritis** means "inflammation of a joint." **Osteoarthritis** is a natural consequence of getting older **Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)** can be a truly crip pling disease that may begin in early middle age or, less commonly, during adolescence LESSON 7 MUSCULAR SYSTEM **Organ Systems Involved in Movement** 1. **Muscula**r - moves the bones. 2. **Skeletal** - bones are moved, at their joints, by muscles. 3. **Nervous** - transmits impulses to muscles to cause contraction. 4. **Respiratory** - exchanges O2 and CO2 between the air and blood. 5. **Circulatory** - transports O2 to muscles and removes CO2. **Muscle Structure** 1. **Muscle fibers (cells)** are specialized to contract, shorten, and produce movement. 2. A **skeletal muscle** is made of thousands of muscle fibers 3. Tendons attach muscles to bone; the **origin** is the more *stationary bone*; the **insertion** is the more *movable bone*. **Muscle Arrangements** 1. **Antagonistic muscles** -- opposite functions 2. **Synergistic Muscles** -- have the same function; stabilize a joint **frontal lobes of the cerebrum** - generate the impulses necessary for contraction of skeletal muscles. **cerebellum** - regulates coordination. **Muscle Tone**---the state of slight contraction present in muscles - Good tone helps maintain posture, produces **25% of body heat** (at rest), and improves coordination. **Types of Exercise** 1. **Isotonic exercise** - contraction with movement; improves tone and strength and improves cardiovascular and respiratory efficiency **(aerobic exercise**). a. **Concentric contraction**---muscle exerts force while shortening. b. **Eccentric contraction**---muscle exerts force while lengthening. 2. **Isometric exercise** - contraction without movement; improves tone and strength but is not aerobic **Muscle Sense**---proprioception: knowing where our muscles are without looking at them - permits us to perform everyday activities without having to concentrate on muscle position. **Energy Sources for Muscle Contraction** 1. **ATP** - direct source 2. **Creatine phosphate** - secondary energy source 3. **Glycogen** is the most abundant energy source and is first broken down to glucose 4. **Oxygen** is essential for the completion of cell respiration. **Structure of the neuromuscular junction, showing an axon terminal adjacent to the sarcolemma of a muscle fiber**  **Polarization** -- resting potential **Depolarization** -- action potential **Intramuscular injections** are used when rapid absorption is needed, because muscle has a good blood supply. Common sites are: 1. **buttock** (gluteus medius), 2. **lateral thigh** (vastus lateralis) 3. **shoulde**r (deltoid). **Muscular dystrophy** is really a group of genetic diseases in which muscle tissue is replaced by fibrous connective tissue or by fat. **Duchenne's muscular dystrophy** is a sex linked (or X-linked) trait, which means that the gene for it is on the X chromosome and is recessive **Myasthenia gravis** is an autoimmune disorder characterized by extreme muscle fatigue even after minimal exertion. **neurotoxin** is a chemical that in some way disrupts the normal functioning of the nervous system. **Tetanus** is characterized by the inability of muscles to relax; tetanus bacteria (Clostridium tetani) **Botulism** is usually a type of food poisoning, but it is not characterized by typical food poisoning symptoms such as diarrhea or vomiting +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Action | Definition | +===================================+===================================+ | 1. **Flexion** | To decrease the angle of a joint | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 2. **Extension** | To increase the angle of a joint | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 3. **Adduction** | To move closer to the midline | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 4. **Abduction** | To move away from the midline | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 5. **Pronation** | To turn the palm down | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 6. **Supination** | To turn the palm up | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 7. **Dorsiflexion** | To elevate the foot | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 8. **Plantar flexion** | To lower the foot (point the | | | toes) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 9. **Rotation** | To move a bone around its | | | longitudinal axis | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ LESSON 8 NERVOUS SYSTEM **Functions of the Nervous System** 1\. Detect changes and feel sensations. 2\. Initiate responses to changes. 3\. Organize and store information **Nervous System Divisions** 1. Central nervous system (CNS)---brain and spinal cord. 2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)---cranial nerves and spinal nerves. **Nerve Tissue**---neurons (nerve fibers) and specialized cells (Schwann, neuroglia) - **Axon** carries impulses away from the cell body - **dendrites** carry impulses toward the cell body - **Schwann cells in PNS** - layers of cell membrane form the myelin sheath to electrically insulate neurons - **nodes of Ranvier** - spaces between adjacent Schwann cells - **Nuclei and cytoplasm** of Schwann cells form the neurolemma, which is essential for regeneration of damaged axons or dendrites. - **Oligodendrocytes** in CNS form the myelin sheaths - **microglia** phagocytize pathogens and damaged cells - **astrocytes** contribute to the blood--brain barrier - **Synapse** - the space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of the next neuron. - **neurotransmitter** carries the impulse across a synapse and is then destroyed by a chemical inactivator. **Types of Neurons---nerve fibers** 1. **Sensory**---carry impulses from receptors to the CNS a. **somatic** (from skin, skeletal muscles, joints) or b. **visceral** (from internal organs). 2. **Motor**---carry impulses from the CNS to effectors c. **somatic** (to skeletal muscle) d. **visceral** (to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, or glands); *visceral motor neurons make up the autonomic nervous system.* 3. **Interneurons**---entirely within the CNS. **Nerves and Nerve Tracts** 1. **Sensory nerve**---made only of sensory neurons. 2. **Motor nerve**---made only of motor neurons. 3. **Mixed nerve**---made of both sensory and motor neurons. 4. **Nerve tract**---a nerve within the CNS; also called white matter. **The Nerve Impulse** 1. **Polarization**---neuron membrane has a (+) charge outside and a (-) charge inside. 2. **Depolarization**---entry of Na ions and reversal of charges on either side of the membrane. 3. Impulse transmission is rapid, often several meters per second. a. **Saltatory conduction**---in a myelinated neuron only the nodes of Ranvier depolarize; increases speed of impulses. **Spinal Cord** - transmits impulses to and from the brain and integrates the spinal cord reflexes. **Spinal Nerves** - Eight cervical pairs to head, neck, shoulder, arm, and diaphragm; 12 thoracic pairs to trunk; 5 lumbar pairs and 5 sacral pairs to hip, pelvic cavity, and leg; 1 very small coccygeal pair. **Cauda equina**---the lumbar and sacral nerves that extend below the end of the spinal cord. Two roots of spinal nerve 1. Dorsal or sensory root 2. Ventral or motor root **Spinal Cord Reflexes**---do not depend directly on the brain **Reflex arc** - the pathway of nerve impulses during a reflex 1. *Receptors* 2. *Sensory neurons* 3. *CNS* 4. *Motor neurons* 5. *Effector* **Stretch reflex**---a muscle that is stretched will contract; these reflexes help keep us upright against gravity **Flexor reflex**---a painful stimulus will cause withdrawal of the body part; these reflexes are protective **The Brain** - many parts that function as an integrated whole **Parts** 1. **Ventricles**---four cavities: two lateral, 3rd, 4th; each contains a choroid plexus that forms cerebrospinal fluid 2. **Medulla**---regulates the vital functions of heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure; regulates reflexes of coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and vomiting. 3. **Pons**---contains respiratory centers that work with those in the medulla. 4. **Midbrain**---contains centers for visual reflexes, auditory reflexes, and righting (equilibrium) reflexes. 5. **Cerebellum**---regulates coordination of voluntary movement, muscle tone, stopping movements, and equilibrium 6. **Hypothalamus**---produces antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which increases water reabsorption by the kidneys; labor and delivery; body temperature; food intake; emotional response 7. **Thalamus**---groups sensory impulses as to body part before relaying them to the cerebrum; aware ness of pain but inability to localize; alert and awake; memory 8. **Cerebrum**---two hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum, which permits communication between the hemispheres. **Lobes of the Brain** 1. **Frontal lobes**---motor areas initiate voluntary movement. a. premotor area regulates sequences of movements for learned skills. b. prefrontal area for aspects of social behavior. c. Broca's motor speech area (left hemisphere) regulates the movements involved in speech. 2. **Parietal lobes**---general sensory area feels and interprets the cutaneous senses and conscious muscle sense; d. taste area extends into temporal lobe, for sense of taste; e. speech areas (left hemisphere) for thought before speech. 3. **Temporal lobes**---auditory areas for hearing and interpretation; f. olfactory areas for sense of smell and interpretation; g. speech areas for thought before speech. 4. **Occipital lobes**---visual areas for vision; interpretation areas for spatial relationships. 5. **Association areas**---in all lobes, for abstract thinking, reasoning, learning, memory, and personality h. **hippocampi** are essential for the formation of memories i. **Neural plasticity** is the ability of the brain to adapt to changing needs. 6. **Basal ganglia**---gray matter within the cerebral hemispheres; regulate accessory movements and muscle tone. **Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)** **Three meningeal layers made of connective tissue:** 1. **outer**---dura mater 2. **middle**---arachnoid membrane; 3. **inner**---pia mater **CSF Facts** - Subarachnoid space contains CSF, the tissue fluid of the CNS. - CSF is formed continuously in the ventricles of the brain by choroid plexuses, from blood plasma. - CSF circulates from the ventricles to the central canal of the spinal cord and to the cranial and spinal subarachnoid spaces. - CSF is reabsorbed from the cranial subarachnoid space through arachnoid villi into the blood in the cranial venous sinuses. The rate of reabsorption equals the rate of production. - CSF brings nutrients to CNS neurons and removes waste products. CSF also acts as a shock absorber to cushion the CNS. **Cranial Nerves**---12 pairs of nerves that emerge from the brain +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Name | Function | +===================================+===================================+ | 1. **Olfactory** | Sense of smell | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 2. **Optic** | Sense of sight | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 3. **Oculomotor** | Movement of the eyeball; | | | constriction of pupil in bright | | | light or for near vision | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 4. **Trochlear** | Movement of eyeball | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 5. **Trigeminal** | Sensation in face, scalp, and | | | teeth; contraction of chewing | | | muscles | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 6. **Abducens** | Movement of the eyeball | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 7. **Facial** | Sense of taste; contraction of | | | facial muscles; secretion of | | | saliva | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 8. **Acoustic | Sense of hearing; sense of | | (vestibulocochlear)** | equilibriu | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 9. **Glossopharyngeal** | Sense of taste; sensory for | | | cardiac, respiratory, and blood | | | pressure reflexes; contraction of | | | pharynx; secretion of saliva | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 10. **Vagus** | Sensory in cardiac, respiratory, | | | and blood pressure reflexes; | | | sensory and motor to larynx | | | (speaking); decreases heart rate; | | | contraction of alimentary tube | | | (peristalsis); increases | | | digestive secretions | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 11. **Accessory** | Contraction of neck and shoulder | | | muscles; motor to larynx | | | (speaking) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 12. **Hypoglossal** | Movement of the tongue | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)** - consists of motor neurons to visceral effectors: smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands. 2 divisions: 1. **Sympathetic** 2. **Parasympathetic** 2 neurons in ANS pathway: 1. **Preganglionic neurons**---from the CNS to the ganglia 2. **Postganglionic neurons**---from the ganglia to the effectors - **Neurotransmitters**: acetylcholine is released by all preganglionic neurons and by parasympathetic postganglionic neurons; the inactivator is cholinesterase - **Norepinephrine** is released by most sympathetic postganglionic neurons; the inactivator is COMT or MAO. **Sympathetic division**---dominates during stress situations; responses prepare the body to meet physical demands. **Parasympathetic division**---dominates in relaxed situations to permit normal functioning