Anat Phys Exam 4 Study Guide PDF

Exam 4 Study Guide 1. Learn what the organs of the urinary system are. Know how many of each organs you have, for example, there are 2 ureters. 2. Know that erythropoietin (EPO) increases red blood cell production, therefore enhancing athlete performance. 3. What are two structures of...

Exam 4 Study Guide 1. Learn what the organs of the urinary system are. Know how many of each organs you have, for example, there are 2 ureters. 2. Know that erythropoietin (EPO) increases red blood cell production, therefore enhancing athlete performance. 3. What are two structures of the renal corpuscle? 4. What is the sequence of renal tubule segments where filtrate (future urine) will flow. (Prox tubule, descending limb of nephron loop, etc, etc, etc) 5. Know what structures are in the renal medulla (renal pyramids) and the renal cortex (renal corpuscles) 6. Know that a renal corpuscle is basically a bunch of blood capillaries and glomerular capsule. 7. Know that the renal tubule is a highly coiled tubule exiting the glomerular capsule. 8. Know that the function of the first capillary bed associated with the nephron is to filter the blood. 9. Know that antidiuretic hormone (ADH) causes water reabsorption through the walls of the distal tubule and collecting duct. 10. Know that an increased blood pressure also increases the rate of glomerular filtration. 11. Be familiar with what happens when the efferent arteriole is stimulated to vasoconstrict (glomerular filtration will also increase) 12. What are normal (in a healthy person) constituents (ingredients) of urine? (Not glucose, unless your diabetic, not protein) 13. What causes gout? How are the crystals made (with what type of acid)? 14. Know about aldosterone and what it does to sodium ions (conserves it) and potassium ions (excretes it). 15. Know about the filtration rate regulation by the juxtaglomerular apparatus and how it causes vasoconstriction of both the afferent and efferent arterioles (simultaneously, at the same time). 16. Know that diuretics increase the volume of urine excreted. Antidiuretics do the opposite. 17. How many liters of fluid does the glomerulus filter in 24 hours? 18. What are aquaporins? Do they form water channels? 19. Know that urea is a byproduct of amino acid catabolism in the liver. That means it's a secondary product of breaking down amino acids. 20. Know that uric acid is a product (not byproduct, so it's the primary product) of nucleic acid base metabolism. That means the building of DNA/RNA creates uric acid. 21. Be familiar with gout and what symptoms it has. Maybe it involves a big toe? 22. Know about all the layers of a ureter (inner, middle muscle, outer fibrous). 23. What is the function of the urethra? What does it transport and to where? 24. Where is the Micturition Reflex Center located? 25. What is the trigone and where is it located? 26. Know that the brainstem and the cerebral cortex are the nerve centers that control the conscious control of micturition (urination). 27. What is the muscle that deals with voluntary micturition? (Which muscle do you voluntarily relax to be able to urinate?) Is it the external or internal urethral sphincter? 28. Why are females more at risk to get a urinary tract infection? Hint: it involves the length of the urethra. 29. As we age, our kidneys work slower and hold drugs, such as antibiotics, will stay in our bodies longer than usual because of the slower functioning rate of secreting substances out. 30. What is glomerulonephritis? Hint: "itis" is an inflammation of something 31. Know that when you're at rest, your kidneys receive about a quarter (25%) of the blood coming in from the heart. 32. Know the function of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and how it works. What happens when the concentration of water in body fluids increases, does ADH secretion increase or decrease? 33. Know about the peristaltic waves that move urine along the ureters. 34. Know that the ureters (2 of them) transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder. 35. Know that females have more adipose (fat) tissue than males, and in turn this makes females carry less water in their bodies because fat dislikes water. Males naturally carry more muscles which is more water. So adipose has less water content. 36. What % of the an adult male is water, by weight? 37. Know the different ways that our bodies lose (excrete) water. Which method loses the greatest volume of water? 38. What is a diuretic and what does it do to your urine production? 39. Know that if you're a healthy individual, the volume of water in your body remains stable all the time. You drink in what you lose out so you never really get too little or too much water in your system. 40. How many sperm cells form from a primary spermatocyte? 41. Know about sustentacular cells and what effect they have on spermatogenesis. Do they provide support and nutrients? 42. Know the different sections of a sperm and what each section contains. (head contains a nucleus, etc.) 43. What is the function of the bulbourethral gland and what fluid does it secrete? Also know that it's the first fluid expelled from the urethra during ejaculation. 44. Know that prostaglandins and nutrients are part of the sperm composition. 45. How many spermies are in a milliliter of ejaculate? 46. What is a prepuce and what is the name of the surgery that removes it? 47. Know the order of where the sperm travels. (epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, etc.) 48. Know the function of the epididymis (that's where sperm cell mature). 49. Know that an erection is when the parasympathetic neurons release nitric oxide, causing dilation of small arteries in the penis. 50. Know that most of the male hormones are released from the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and the testes. 51. Know that one of the functions of testosterone is to develop and maintain the secondary male sex characteristics (facial hair, deeper voice, etc.) 52. What do the interstitial cells of the testes produce? Androgens! 53. Know what the cervix is and that it's a tube that extends downward into the upper vagina. 54. Know that the secondary oocyte is also called an egg, or ovum. 55. Know the reason for a pap smear and that it's used to detect abnormal cells in the cervix. 56. Know that the uterine tube is located between the ovary and uterus. 57. Where do we want fertilization to occur? In the uterine tube! 58. Know that the labia minora is a hoodlike fold that covers around the clitoris. 59. Know that the endometrium is the inner mucosal layer of the uterine wall. 60. Know what female structure is analogous (comparable) to the penis. 61. Know that the female urethra is anterior to the vagina. 62. Be familiar with menopause and it's largely due to the aging of the ovaries. 63. Know that estrogens are largely responsible for the development and maintenance of female secondary sexual characteristics (more adipose tissue in breasts, hips, thighs). 64. Be familiar with luteinizing hormone (LH) and that it triggers ovulation. 65. Be familiar with the hormones involved in menopause and that hot flashes are caused by an increase in gonadotropic concentration and a decrease in estrogen concentration. Also know other signs of menopause include vaginal, breast, and uterus shrinkage. Lovely! 66. What are some female secondary sex characteristics due to estrogens? 67. How many lobes does a mammary gland contain? 68. Know that most oral contraceptives contain synthetic estrogens and progesterones. 69. Know about the non-surgical alternative to vasectomies that blocks sperm from the testis to the urethra. 70. Know the difference between chemical and mechanical barriers of different contraceptive methods. (a cream would be chemical, a condom would be mechanical) 71. Know that testes are descended from the body because the sperm need a lower temperature to survive. 72. What is endometriosis? 73. What are the symptoms of gonorrhea? 74. Be familiar with genital warts, human papilloma virus (HPV) and its risk of cervical cancer. 75. Know that spermatogenic cells that are in the seminiferous tubules produce sperm. 76. Know that the prostate gland secretes a substance that neutralizes the acid in semen. 77. Know that the primary oocyte production begins before the female baby is born. 78. Know that the oocyte (egg) moves with the help of ciliary action in the uterine tubes. 79. Be familiar about the alveolar glands and that they produce milk. 80. Know that an erection is engorgement of erectile tissue with blood in the penis. 81. Be familiar with acrosome, the enzyme on the head of the sperm. 82. Know how many weeks it takes for human prenatal development (38). 83. Be familiar with the ductus arteriosus and that it carries blood directly into the aortic arch of the fetus and bypassing the lungs. 84. Know that placental estrogens and progesterone maintain the uterine wall during the last 6 months of pregnancy. 85. Know that oxytocin creates uterine wall contractions. 86. Know that the ductus venosus is a fetal vessel that takes blood from the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava. 87. Know about human choriogonadotropin (hCG) and its functions, such as it protects the blastocyst from being rejected. 88. Know about the chorion and that it's the membrane that projects into the endometrium and helps form the placenta. 89. How many chromosomes does each cell of a zygote have? 46! 90. Know about the zona pellucida and that it surrounds the cell membrane of the secondary oocyte.