AnaPhy Week 1 PDF

THE HUMAN ORGANISM b. REGIONAL ANATOMY focuses on SPECIFIC EXTERNAL - The body works to maintain HOMEOSTASIS, a AND INTERNAL REGIONS of the body (such as the BALANCE in the body’s internal environment....

THE HUMAN ORGANISM b. REGIONAL ANATOMY focuses on SPECIFIC EXTERNAL - The body works to maintain HOMEOSTASIS, a AND INTERNAL REGIONS of the body (such as the BALANCE in the body’s internal environment. head or chest) and how different systems work together in that region. ANATOMY - It investigates the body’s STRUCTURE. ANA (Upper), SURFACE ANATOMY TOMY (To Cut) – which means “to dissect or to cut - It is the study of the EXTERNAL FEATURES of the apart”. body. DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY: ANATOMICAL ANOMALIES - It is the branch of anatomy that covers the - It is the PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTIC/S that DIFFER STRUCTURAL CHANGES that cells, tissues, organs, from the normal pattern. and the human body undergo from FERTILIZATION TO ADULTHOOD. PHYSIOLOGY - It is the investigation of the FUNCTIONS or EMBRYOLOGY: PROCESSES of living things. It examines the body’s - It is the study of the DEVELOPMENT OF AN EMBRYO REACTION to STIMULI and the body’s MAINTENANCE from the stage of OVUM FERTILIZATION TO THE of STABLE internal conditions within a NARROW FETAL STAGE. The ball of dividing cells that results RANGE (normal levels) of values in a constantly after fertilization is termed an “EMBRYO” FOR changing environment. EIGHT WEEKS. From NINE WEEKS after fertilization, the term used is “FETUS.” CELL PHYSIOLOGY: - It examines the PROCESSES occurring in CELLS. CYTOLOGY: - It involves EXAMINING CELLS from bodily tissues or SYSTEMATIC PHYSIOLOGY: fluids to determine a diagnosis. - Considers the functions of organ systems. HISTOLOGY: STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATIONS OF THE - It is the branch of biology that studies the BODY microscopic anatomy of BIOLOGICAL TISSUES. 1. CHEMICAL LEVEL - It involves how atoms, such as hydrogen and carbon, INTERACT and COMBINE to GROSS ANATOMY form MOLECULES. (Simplest level) - It deals with the structures of the body that are 2. CELLULAR LEVEL - Cells are the basic structural and visible to the naked eye – without the aid of a functional units of all living things. Combinations of microscope. MOLECULES form CELLS. Structures inside cells called ORGANELLES (Little Organs) carry particular a. SYSTEMIC ANATOMY focuses on the anatomy of functions. different ORGAN SYSTEMS, such as the respiratory 3. TISSUE LEVEL - Groups of CELLS combine to form a or nervous system. TISSUE. It is composed of a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them.  The FOUR basic tissue types include: EPITHELIAL, The body must actively REGULATE RESPONSES to CONNECTIVE, MUSCLE, AND NERVOUS. changes in variables. 4. ORGAN LEVEL - Different TISSUES combine to form ORGANS. It is composed of TWO OR MORE FEEDBACK LOOPS: TISSUE TYPES that perform one or more functions. a. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK - “To DECREASE”. It is when 5. ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL - ORGANS combine to form any deviation from the set point is made SMALLER ORGAN SYSTEMS. They are A GROUP OF ORGANS or is RESISTED. The RESPONSE by the EFFECTOR is that work together. STOPPED once the variable RETURNS to its set point 6. ORGANISM LEVEL - It is any living thing considered (narrow range). as a WHOLE. It is the combination of all the ORGAN b. POSITIVE FEEDBACK - “To INCREASE”. It occurs SYSTEMS. when a response to the ORIGINAL STIMULUS in the deviation from the set point becomes even THE DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE GREATER. 1. ORGANIZATION - The SPECIFIC INTERRELATIONSHIPS among the parts of an THREE COMPONENTS: organism and how these parts INTERACT to perform 1. RECEPTOR SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS. 2. CONTROL CENTER 2. METABOLISM - The ability to USE ENERGY and to 3. EFFECTOR perform other VITAL FUNCTIONS. It refers to all the CHEMICAL REACTIONS taking place in the cells and HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISM internal environment of an organism. - (1) Many disease states result from the FAILURE of 3. RESPONSIVENESS - The ability to SENSE CHANGES NEGATIVE FEEDBACK mechanisms to maintain in its external or internal environment and ADJUST homeostasis. (2) Some POSITIVE FEEDBACK to those changes. mechanisms can be DETRIMENTAL instead of 4. GROWTH - It is the INCREASE in the SIZE and helpful. NUMBER of cells in an organism. 5. DEVELOPMENT - The CHANGES an organism TERMINOLOGY AND BODY PLANES undergoes through time – fertilization until death. a. ANATOMICAL POSITION - A person standing erect a. DIFFERENTIATION - CHANGES in a cell’s STRUCTURE with the FACE DIRECTED FORWARD, the UPPER and FUNCTION from an IMMATURE generalized state LIMBS HANGING TO THE SIDES, and the PALMS OF to a MATURE specialized state. THE HANDS FACING FORWARD. b. MORPHOGENESIS - The CHANGE in the SHAPE of b. SUPINE - Lying face UPWARD. tissues, organs, and the entire organism. c. PRONE - Lying face DOWNWARD. 6. REPRODUCTION - The FORMATION of NEW cells or NEW organisms. It allows all living things to PASS ON their GENES to their OFFSPRING. BODY PARTS AND REGIONS a. CENTRAL - Head, Neck, Trunk (Thorax, Abdomen, HOMEOSTASIS Pelvis, etc.) - Is the EXISTENCE and MAINTENANCE of a relatively b. QUADRANTS - Right-Upper, Left-Upper, Right-Lower, CONSTANT environment within the body. Left-Lower  c. REGIONS - Right Hypochondriac, Epigastric, Left SEROUS MEMBRANES OF THE VENTRAL BODY CAVITY: Hypochondriac, Right Lumbar, Umbilical, Left - The walls of the body cavities and the surface of Lumbar, Right Iliac, Hypogastric, Left Iliac internal organs are in contact with membranes called SEROUS MEMBRANES. Membranes that are PLANES DOUBLE LAYERED. The layer that lines the walls of a. SAGGITAL PLANE - Separates the body or a the cavities is called the PARIETAL (Wall) SEROUS structure into RIGHT and LEFT. MEMBRANE. While the layer covering the internal b. MEDIAN PLANE - It is a SAGGITAL PLANE that passes organs (Viscera) is the VISCERAL SEROUS through the MIDLINE of the body, dividing it into MEMBRANE. EQUAL RIGHT and LEFT halves. c. TRANSVERSE (Horizontal Plane) - It runs PARALLEL THORACIC CAVITY MEMBRANES: to the ground dividing the body into SUPERIOR and a. PERICARDIAL CAVITY (Peri = Around, Cardi = Heart) INFERIOR portions. - It is a POTENTIAL SPACE BETWEEN THE VISCERAL d. FRONTAL (Coronal Plane) - Divides the body into AND PARIETAL PERICARDIAL LAYERS, which meet at FRONT (Anterior) and BACK (Posterior) halves. lines of attachment on the surfaces of the heart and the great vessels. BODY CAVITIES b. PLEURAL CAVITIES (Pleuron = Side of the body, rib) 1. DORSAL BODY CAVITY - It encloses the organs of - It is a SPACE BETWEEN THE VISCERAL AND the nervous system, brain, and spinal cord. The PARIETAL PLEURA. The space contains a tiny amount CRANIAL CAVITY houses the BRAIN and the of serous fluid, which continuously lubricates the VERTEBRAL CANAL houses the SPINAL CORD. pleural surface and makes it easy for them to slide 2. VERTEBRAL BODY CAVITY - Houses the vast over each other during LUNG INFLATION AND majority of our internal organs, collectively referred DEFLATION. to as the VISCERA (Internal Organs). The THORACIC 1. Parietal Serous Membrane CAVITY is superior to the abdominopelvic cavity and 2. Visceral Serous Membrane houses primarily the HEART AND LUNGS. c. PERITONEAL CAVITY (Peri = Around, Tonos Stretched a. This cavity is subdivided into sections: (1) or Stretched around), this houses many internal organs such TWO LATERAL PLEURAL cavities each of as the liver, digestive organs, and reproductive organs. which encloses a LUNG and is surrounded by the ribs. (2) A MEDIAL MEDIASTINUM CHEMICAL REACTION (Middle Wall) which houses the HEART AND - Enter (Reactants) MAJOR BLOOD VESSELS, in addition to the - Produced (Product) thymus, trachea, and esophagus. The ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY is enclosed by a. SYNTHESIS REACTION - “ANABOLISM”. A synthesis abdominal muscles and consists of the superior reaction, also known as a direct combination or abdominal cavity and the inferior pelvic cavity. It is combination reaction, is a chemical process in housed within the PERITONEAL (To Stretch Over) cavity. It which two or more simple elements or compounds contains the majority of the DIGESTIVE ORGANS. combine TO FORM A MORE COMPLEX PRODUCT. It is represented by the equation: A + B → AB. b. DECOMPOSITION REACTION - “CATABOLISM”. It can ENERGY be defined as a chemical reaction in which ONE - It is the ability to do work, which is the ability to REACTANT BREAKS DOWN INTO TWO OR MORE exert a force causing displacement of an object. PRODUCTS. Any reactant substance decomposed by - POTENTIAL ENERGY - “STORED ENERGY”. It is the the action of heat or by the application of energy that an object has because of its POSITION electricity. It is represented by the equation: and is measured in Joules (J). AB → A + B. - KINETIC ENERGY - It is the energy an object has c. METABOLISM - It refers to the WHOLE SUM OF because of its motion and is also measured in Joules REACTIONS that occur throughout the body within (J). each cell and that PROVIDE THE BODY WITH - CHEMICAL ENERGY - It is specific to the POTENTIAL ENERGY. This energy gets used for vital processes ENERGY STORED in chemical bonds and is RELEASED and the synthesis of new organic material. OR ABSORBED during chemical reactions. d. REVERSIBLE REACTION - It can occur in BOTH a. ENDOTHERMIC REACTION - When energy is DIRECTIONS. The reactants can change to the ABSORBED in an endothermic reaction, the products, and the products can also change back to TEMPERATURE DECREASES. the reactants. b. EXOTHERMIC REACTION - When energy is e. IRREVERSIBLE REACTION - It can occur in only ONE RELEASED in an exothermic reaction, the DIRECTION. The reactants can change to the temperature of the reaction MIXTURE products, but the products cannot change back to INCREASES. the reactants. - THERMAL ENERGY - It refers to the ENERGY f. OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTION - “REDOX”. It is a CONTAINED within a system that is RESPONSIBLE type of chemical reaction that involves a TRANSFER FOR ITS TEMPERATURE. OF ELECTRONS BETWEEN TWO SPECIES. It is any - HEAT ENERGY - It is the energy that is chemical reaction in which the oxidation number of TRANSFERRED FROM ONE BODY TO ANOTHER as the a molecule, atom, or ion changes by gaining or result of a temperature difference. Hotter to a losing an electron. cooler object. Heat is a transfer of thermal energy - OXIDATION - LOSS of an electron. caused by a difference in temperature between - REDUCTION - GAIN of an electron. molecules. - IONIC BOND - The COMPLETE TRANSFER of electrons. In ionic bonding, one atom SPEED OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS DONATES electrons to the other. If a a. ACTIVATION ENERGY - It is the minimum energy compound is made from a METAL and a required to CAUSE A PROCESS TO OCCUR (such as a NON-METAL, its bonding will be ionic. chemical reaction). - COVALENT BOND - The PARTIAL TRANSFER b. CATALYST - It is a substance that SPEEDS UP a of electrons. In covalent bonding, the two chemical reaction, or LOWERS THE TEMPERATURE atoms SHARE electrons. If a compound is OR PRESSURE needed to start one, WITHOUT ITSELF made from TWO NON-METALS, its bonding BEING CONSUMED during the reaction. will be covalent. c. ENZYMES - These are proteins that ACT UPON SUBSTRATE MOLECULES AND DECREASE THE ACTIVATION ENERGY NECESSARY for a chemical reaction to occur by stabilizing the transition state.  d. TEMPERATURE - It describes the average kinetic c. SUSPENSION - A mixture containing MATERIALS energy of molecules within a material or system and THAT SEPARATE FROM EACH OTHER unless they are is measured in CELSIUS (°C), KELVIN (K), AND physically blended. FAHRENHEIT (°F). d. COLLOID - A mixture in which DISPERSED SUBSTANCE IS UNEVENLY DISTRIBUTED throughout INORGANIC CHEMISTRY the mixture. - It is the study of the production, reactions, and properties of chemical compounds that DO NOT ACIDS AND BASES INVOLVE A CARBON-HYDROGEN BOND. Inorganic 1. ACIDS - Proton donor compounds can be classified as acids, bases, salts, 2. BASE - Proton acceptor and oxides. 3. STRONG ACIDS OR BASES - DISSOCIATE ALMOST COMPLETELY when dissolved in water. WATER 4. WEAK ACIDS OR BASES - Only PARTIALLY - Water appears as a clear, nontoxic liquid consisting DISSOCIATE in water. of AN OXYGEN ATOM THAT IS COVALENTLY BONDED TO TWO HYDROGEN ATOMS essential for life and THE PH SCALE the most widely used solvent. - The H+ CONCENTRATION in a solution determines - The ATTRACTIVE FORCE for both adhesion and the pH scale. The scale ranges from 0 to 14. Neutral cohesion is called HYDROGEN BONDS. It helps hold solutions have EQUAL concentrations of H+ and OH-. together and move fluids through the body. - Solutions with pH LESS THAN 7 ARE ACIDIC and - The weight of YOUNG FEMALE ADULTS accounts for have a GREATER CONCENTRATION OF H+ THAN OH-. 50% of water. While YOUNG MALE ADULTS Meanwhile, solutions with pH GREATER THAN 7 ARE accounts for 60%. ALKALINE OR BASIC and have FEWER H+ THAN OH-. a. COHESION - Water is attracted to water. b. ADHESION - Water is attracted to substances. SALTS c. HYDROPHILIC - Water-loving - A compound consisting of a CATION other than H+ d. HYDROPHOBIC - Water-fearing and an ANION than OH-. It is formed by the interaction of an acid and a base in which the H+ of IMPORTANCE OF WATER: the acid is replaced by the POSITIVE IONS of the 1. Stabilizing Body Temperature base. 2. Protection a. An ANION may be defined as an atom or 3. Chemical Reactions molecule that is NEGATIVELY CHARGED. 4. Mixing Medium b. A CATION may be defined as an atom or a. MIXTURE - A combination of TWO OR MORE molecule that is POSITIVELY CHARGED. SUBSTANCES PHYSICALLY BLENDED, but not chemically combined. BUFFERS b. SOLUTIONS - Described in terms of one substance - These are CHEMICALS THAT RESIST CHANGES IN PH dissolving in another. THE SOLUTE DISSOLVES IN when either acids or bases are added to a solution. THE SOLVENT. OXYGEN MONOSACCHARIDES - It is an INORGANIC MOLECULE CONSISTING TWO - Are simple building blocks or simple sugars that OXYGEN ATOMS BOUND TOGETHER BY A DOUBLE commonly contain 3 CARBONS (TRIOSES), 4 COVALENT BOND. About 21% of the gas in the CARBONS (TETROSES), 5 CARBONS (PENTOSES), OR atmosphere is O2, and it is essential for most living 6 CARBONS (HEXOSES). organisms. - The monosaccharides most important to humans include both 5- AND 6-CARBON SUGARS. Common CARBON DIOXIDE 6-carbon sugars, such as GLUCOSE, FRUCTOSE, AND - It consists of ONE CARBON ATOM BOUND TO TWO GALACTOSE, are ISOMERS These are molecules that OXYGEN ATOMS. Each OXYGEN ATOM IS BOUND TO have THE SAME NUMBER AND TYPES OF ATOMS BUT THE CARBON ATOM BY A DOUBLE COVALENT BOND. DIFFER IN THEIR THREE-DIMENSIONAL Once carbon dioxide is produced, it is eliminated ARRANGEMENT from the cell as a metabolic by-product, transferred - GLUCOSE, OR BLOOD SUGAR, IS THE MAJOR to the lungs by the blood, and exhaled during CARBOHYDRATE IN THE BLOOD and a major nutrient respiration. for most cells of the body. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY DISACCHARIDES - These are composed of TWO MONOSACCHARIDES ORGANIC MOLECULES OR BIOMOLECULES BOUND TOGETHER THROUGH A DEHYDRATION - Carbon’s ability to form covalent bonds with other REACTION. For example, GLUCOSE AND FRUCTOSE atoms makes possible the formation of the large, COMBINE TO FORM A DISACCHARIDE CALLED diverse, complicated molecules necessary for life. SUCROSE (TABLE SUGAR) plus a molecule of water. Our cells utilize some of these molecules to Other disaccharide samples are LACTOSE AND synthesize ATP, while others are used as structural MALTOSE. components and regulatory molecules, among many other functions. POLYSACCHARIDES - The four major groups of organic molecules - These are LONG CHAINS OF MONOSACCHARIDES essential to living organisms are (1) covalently linked together. Three important CARBOHYDRATES, (2) LIPIDS, (3) PROTEINS, AND polysaccharides are GLYCOGEN, STARCH, AND (4) NUCLEIC ACIDS. CELLULOSE. - In addition, a HIGH-ENERGY FORM OF A NUCLEIC - GLYCOGEN, OR ANIMAL STARCH, is composed of ACID BUILDING BLOCK, CALLED ATP, is an important many glucose molecules and is the MAIN STORAGE organic molecule in cellular processes. FORM OF GLUCOSE IN HUMANS. - STARCH is an ENERGY-STORAGE MOLECULE IN CARBOHYDRATES PLANTS, similar to the role of glycogen in animals. - These are organic molecules composed primarily of - CELLULOSE is an important structural component of CARBON, HYDROGEN, AND OXYGEN ATOMS. The PLANT CELL WALLS. molecules are called carbohydrates because carbon (carbo) atoms are combined with the same atoms LIPIDS that form water (hydrated). - They (1) provide protection and insulation, (2) help regulate many physiological processes,  (3) form plasma membranes, and (4) act as major Proteins are POLYPEPTIDES composed of hundreds energy-storage molecules. of amino acids. - The major classes of lipids are (1) fats, which are - Covalent bonds formed between amino acid mostly triglycerides; (2) phospholipids; (3) molecules during protein synthesis are called eicosanoids; (4) steroids; and (5) fat-soluble PEPTIDE BONDS. (Dipeptide, Tripeptide, vitamins. Polypeptide). - FATS are a major type of lipid. TRIGLYCERIDES constitute 95% of the fats in the human body. It ENZYMES consists of two different types of building blocks: (1) - It is a PROTEIN CATALYST that increases the rate at ONE GLYCEROL AND (2) THREE FATTY ACIDS. which a CHEMICAL REACTION PROCEEDS WITHOUT THE ENZYME BEING PERMANENTLY CHANGED. TYPES OF FAT: a. The ACTIVE SITE is the region of the enzyme that 1. A fatty acid is SATURATED if it contains only SINGLE BINDS REACTANTS AND CATALYZES THEIR COVALENT BONDS between the carbon atoms. CONVERSION TO PRODUCTS. Sources of saturated fats include beef, pork, whole b. The LOCK-AND-KEY MODEL of enzyme action states milk, cheese, butter, eggs, coconut oil, and palm oil. that a reaction occurs when the REACTANTS (KEY) 2. The carbon chain is UNSATURATED if it has ONE OR BIND TO THE ACTIVE SITE (LOCK) ON THE ENZYME. MORE DOUBLE COVALENT BONDS between carbon c. The INDUCED FIT MODEL states that the enzyme is atoms. able to change shape slightly and better fit the 3. MONOUNSATURATED FATS, such as olive and peanut reactants. oils, have ONE DOUBLE COVALENT BOND between carbon atoms. NUCLEIC ACIDS: DNA AND RNA 4. POLYUNSATURATED FATS, such as safflower, - The NUCLEIC ACIDS are large molecules composed sunflower, corn, and fish oils, have TWO OR MORE of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and DOUBLE COVALENT BONDS between carbon atoms. phosphorus. There are two types of nucleic acids: 5. TRANS FATS are unsaturated fats that have been - (1) DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA), which is the CHEMICALLY ALTERED by the addition of hydrogen. genetic material of cells. Copies of DNA are 6. PHOSPHOLIPIDS are similar to triglycerides, except transferred from one generation of cells to the next that one of the fatty acids bound to the glycerol is generation. DNA contains the information that replaced by a phosphate-containing region. determines the structure of proteins. - (2) RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA), which is structurally PROTEINS related to DNA, and important in protein synthesis. - These are organic macromolecules that contain - The basic building blocks of DNA and RNA are called CARBON, HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, AND NITROGEN NUCLEOTIDES. These are composed of (1) A bound together by covalent bonds. MONOSACCHARIDE, (2) A NITROGENOUS BASE, AND - They (1) regulate body processes, (2) act as (3) A PHOSPHATE GROUP. transportation molecules, (3) provide protection, (4) - The monosaccharides are DEOXYRIBOSE FOR DNA help muscles contract, and (5) provide structure and and RIBOSE FOR RNA. energy. - The NITROGENOUS BASES consist of carbon and - The basic building blocks for proteins are the 20 nitrogen atoms organized into rings. AMINO ACID MOLECULES.  The nitrogenous bases are (1) CYTOSINE, (2) THYMINE, (3) URACIL, (4) GUANINE, AND (5) ADENINE. - DNA has two strands of nucleotides joined together to form a twisted, ladderlike structure called a DOUBLE HELIX. - ADENINE AND THYMINE ARE COMPLEMENTARY BASE pairs because the structure of these bases allows TWO HYDROGEN BONDS to form between them. - CYTOSINE AND GUANINE ARE COMPLEMENTARY BASE pairs because the structure of these bases allows THREE HYDROGEN BONDS to form between them. - A sequence of DNA bases that directs the synthesis of proteins or RNA molecules is called a GENE. The BASIC UNIT OF HEREDITY passed from parent to child. ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE - “The ENERGY CURRENCY OF CELLS”. It is the most IMPORTANT MOLECULE FOR STORING AND PROVIDING ENERGY in all living organisms. - ATP consists of (1) ADENOSINE (ribose with adenine) and (2) THREE PHOSPHATE GROUPS. - Removal of the third phosphate generates ADENOSINE DIPHOSPHATE (ADP), which has only TWO PHOSPHATE GROUPS and much LESS POTENTIAL ENERGY than ATP.