ANAPHY-PORTFOLIO.pdf

4.Attaches at the basal surface - The surface TISSUES of the cells that is anchored in place is called the BASAL SURFACE....

4.Attaches at the basal surface - The surface TISSUES of the cells that is anchored in place is called the BASAL SURFACE. BASAL SURFACE- Is held in the place through attachment to a non-living material that is somewhat like mortar for brick. BASEMENT MEMBRANE-provides structural support as it helps cells to attach and anchor to the underlying tissues. 5. Has specialized cell connections and matrix attachments - Adjacent epithelial TISSUES - group of specialized cells and cells are attached to each other by extracellular substances surrounding them. specialized cell connections. CHANGES IN TISSUE MAY RESULT: 6. Is avascular - Blood vessels in the underlying connective tissue do not Development- progression of a tissue over penetrate the basement membrane time Nonvascular epithelial tissue, found in Growth-tissue increases its size. organs and body surfaces, depends on diffusion and other methods for material Aging- becoming more stiff. This makes the intake. organs, blood vessels, and airways more rigid. HERE’S HOW NONVASCULAR EPITHELIAL TISSUE REACHES THE Trauma-Soft tissue injuries BASEMENT MEMBRANE: Disease- hereditary (genetic) connective 1. Diffusion- materials can diffuse from tissue diseases include Marfan syndrome, nearby blood vessels homocystinuria, and osteogenesis 2. Interstitial fluid- contains dissolved imperfecta. gasses, nutrients, and waste products, which can diffuse through the FOUR PRIMARY TISSUE TYPES extracellular matrix and reach the basal surface of the epithelial cells. 1. Epithelial tissues/Epithelium 3. Basal Lamina, or the basement membrane - is a specific Function: Epithelial tissue covers the extracellular matrix that separates surfaces of the body, line cavities and epithelial tissue from the underlying organs, and serves as a protective barrier. It connective tissue. It offers structural can also be involved in absorption, secretion, support to the epithelium and serves and sensory functions. as a barrier 4. Transport Proteins- certain molecules CHARACTERISTICS COMMON TO can be actively moved through MOST TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE: epithelial cells using specific transport proteins 1. Most;y composed of cells - is mostly 5. Cell-to-Cell Communication- composed of specialized cells. Epithelial cells use signaling 2. Covers body surfaces - includes the molecules to communicate with exterior surface: linings of digestive, urinary, nearby cells reproductive, and respiratory tracts, the heart and blood vessels, and the linings of many 7. Is capable of regeneration - Epithelial cavities. tissue has the ability to replace damaged cells with new epithelial cells. 3.Has an exposed surface -the surface that is Undifferentiated cells (Stem Cells) exposed is called FREE SURFACE or continually divide and produce new cells. APICAL SURFACE. FUNCTIONS OF EPITHELIA II. THREE (3) TYPES of EPITHELIUM 1. PROTECTS UNDERLYING BASED ON IDEALIZED SHAPES OF STRUCTURES THE EPITHELIAL CELLS 2. ACTING AS A BARRIER 3. PERMITTING THE PASSAGE OF 1. SQUAMOUS- cells are flat and SUBSTANCES scalelike. 4. SECRETING SUBSTANCE 5. ABSORBING SUBSTANCES CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIA I. MAJOR TYPES OF EPITHELIA ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF CELLS: 1. SIMPLE EPITHELIUM- Consist of a single layer of cells 2. CUBOIDAL - cells are cube-shaped about as wide as they are tall. 3. COLUMNAR - tall and thin. similar 2. STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM- Consist of to a column - cells tend to be taller than they more than one (1) layer of cells attached to are wide. the basement membrane. Epithelia are classified according to the number of layers and the shape of the cells. TYPES OF EPITHELIUM BASED ON IDEALIZED SHAPES OF THE 3. PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIAL CELLS: EPITHELIUM- Is a special type of simple epithelium. 1.SQUAMOUS - cells are flat or scale-like. PSEUDO- FALSE SQUAmous - SQUASHED -This tissue appears to be stratified but it is 2.CUBOIDAL - (cubelike) cells are not. cubed-shaped -It consists of one layer of cells 3.COLUMNAR - (tall and thin, similar to a -It appears to be 2 or more layer of cells but column) cells tend to be taller than they are it is just one layer of cells that differ in wide. height TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION 1. SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM -found in linings of blood vessels and heart -function is diffusion 2. SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM -found on the surface of ovaries, the lining of nephrons, the walls of the renal tubules, parts of the eye and thyroid, and in salivary glands. Secretion and filtration. 3. SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM BLAST- create the matrix, -found in linings of digestive system CYTES- maintain it, -may contain goblet cells that secrete mucus. CLAST, breakdown for remodeling. -secretes and absorbs. 4. PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX EPITHELIUM -found in the linings of the respiratory Three (3) Major Components: system tract and male reproductive tract. 1. PROTEIN FIBERS -secretes, absorbs, protects. 2. GROUND SUBSTANCE- consist of 5.STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS non-fibrous protein and other molecules EPITHELIUM 3. FLUID -also called KERATINIZED SQUAMOUS CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE EPITHELIUM. TISSUE -found in skin, linings of mouth and esophagus. 1. CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER -protects. A. LOOSE CONNECTIVE 6. STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL TISSUE EPITHELIUM consist of relatively few protein fibers that -usually 2 layers. form a lacy network, with numerous spaces -found in some sweat and urinary glands filled with ground substance and fluid. also in the conjunctiva of the eye. -secretes and protects. Three (3) Subdivision: 7. STRATIFIED COLUMNAR 1. Areolar – primarily consists of collagen EPITHELIUM fibers and a few elastic fibers. -maybe ciliated. -found in the linings of male reproductive tract. -secretes and protects. 8. TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM - type of SE that can be stretched. - appears cuboidal when relaxed and squamous when stretched. - found in linings of urinary organs. 2. Adipose – consists of adipocytes, or fat II. CONNECTIVE TISSUES cells, which contain large amounts of lipids Is a diverse primary tissue type that makes for energy storage. up part of every organ in the body. - it pads and protects the body and acts as Differs from the other three tissue types in a thermal insulator. that it consists of cells separated from each other by an abundant extracellular matrix. MAJOR FUNCTIONS CONNECTIVE TISSUE: 1. ENCLOSING AND SEPARATING OTHER ISSUES 2. CONNECT TISSUES TO ONE ANOTHER 3. SUPPORTING AND MOVING PARTS OF THE BODY 4. STORING COMPOUNDS 3. Reticular Tissue - forms the frameworks 5. CUSHIONING & INSULATING of lymphatic tissue, such as in the spleen 6. TRANSPORTING and lymph nodes, as well as in bone marrow and the liver. CELLS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE - The name of the cell identifies the cell functions by means of one of the following suffixes.  B. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE INTEGUMENTARY Has a relatively large number of CHON fibers that form thick bundles and nearly all SYSTEM the extracellular space. Two Subcategories of Dense Connective Tissue: 1. Collagenous- has an ECM consisting mainly of collagen fibers. Like: Tendons, Ligaments, Dermis (connective tissue of the skin) A. Dense, Regular Collagenous- In the tendons and ligaments, Its collagen fibers are oriented in the same direction. Also run in several directions in the dermis of the skin and organ capsule. Consist of the skin and accessory structures, such as hair, glands, and nails. INTEGUMENT Means covering. Is one of the most familiar systems of the body to everyone because it covers the outside of the body and is easily observed. B. Dense, Irregular Collagenous – In the MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE dermis and in the organ capsule. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM: The fibers are oriented in different directions. 1. PROTECTION - it provides protection against abrasion and ultraviolet light. 2. Dense Elastic Connective Tissue - consider it as the first line of defense. Has abundant elastic fibers - reduces water loss (prevents dehydration). among its collagen fibers. 2. SENSATION - it has sensory receptors Allows the tissue to stretch that can detect heat, cold, touch, pressure, and recoil. and pain. A. Dense, Regular 3. VITAMIN D PRODUCTION - when Elastic - collagen fibers and elastic skin is exposed to ultraviolet light, the skin fibers running in produces molecules that can be transformed Somewhat the into Vitamin D. same direction in elastic fibers run in Vitamin D- an important regulator of connective tissue Calcium homeostasis. of blood vessel wall. 4. TEMPERATURE REGULATION - the B. Dense, Irregular amount of blood flow beneath the skin’s Elastic – oriented in many different surface and the activity of sweat glands in directions in the the skin both help regulate body Walls of arteries. temperature. 5. EXCRETION - small amounts of waste MARFAN’S SYNDROME- inability to products are lost through the skin and properly maintain and form elastic fibers. in gland secretions. CELLS IN THE SKIN The skin is composed of multiple layers, and its primary cells include: 1. Keratinocytes: Produce the protein keratin, providing strength and waterproofing to the skin. 2. Melanocytes: Responsible for producing 3. SUBCUTANEOUS melanin, the pigment that gives skin its color where skin rests. and helps protect against UV radiation. a layer of connective tissue. not part of the skin. 3. Langerhans cells: Act as immune cells, connect the skin to underlying muscle or helping to protect the skin by identifying bone. and presenting antigens to the immune system. I. SKIN TWO (2) MAJOR TISSUE LAYERS: 4. Fibroblasts: Produce collagen and other 1. EPIDERMIS - is a stratified squamous fibers, contributing to the skin's structure epithelium. and elasticity. MITOSIS produces cells in the skin's deepest layer. 5. Adipocytes: Fat cells found in the deeper As the new cells form, they push layers, providing insulation and energy older cells to the surface, where they storage. slough, or flake off. KERATINIZATION 6. Mast cells: Release substances involved in - a process where cells change shape and inflammatory and allergic reactions chemical composition when skin moves. - cells become filled with KERATIN. KERATIN- a component which THE 3 LAYERS OF INTEGUMENTARY makes cells more rigid and durable. SYSTEM - After KERATINIZATION, epithelial 1. EPIDERMIS cells eventually die and form an outer layer Stratum Corneum- 20-30 cells of dead, rigid cells that resists abrasion and thick, uppermost layer. acts as a permeability barrier. Stratum Lucidum- 2-3 cells thick -is a continuous process. STRATA (distinct only present in thick skins. layers) can be seen in the epidermis. Stratum Granulosum- 3-5 cells thick. STRATUM BASALE Stratum Spinosum- 8-10 cells The deepest stratum. Consists of cuboidal thick, dendritic cells can be found and columnar cells that undergo mitotic cell here. division about every 19 days. Stratum Basale/germinativum- one daughter cell becomes the new stratum where new cells are generated. basale and can divide again.The daughter 2. DERMIS cell is pushed to the surface for about 40-56 Papillary dermis- upper thinner days layer. STRATUM CORNEUM Reticular dermis- deeper thicker most superficial stratum of the epidermis. layer. consists of dead squamous cells filled with 3. SUBCUTANEOUS keratin consists of fat cells (adipocytes) and composed of 25 or more layers of dead connective tissue. squamous cells joined desmosomes. include insulation, energy storage, produce thickened area called CALLUS provide a protective cushion for underlying structures. 2. DERMIS -composed of dense regulate body temperature. collagenous connective tissue containing FIBROBLAST, ADIPOCYTES, MAJOR FUNCTION OF THE 3 MACROPHAGES. Nerves, hair, follicles, LAYERS: smooth muscles, glands, and lymphatic 1. EPIDERMIS vessels extend in the dermis. Is the most superficial layer of the skin. prevents water loss. resist abrasion COLLAGEN AND ELASTIC FIBER- 2. DERMIS responsible for the structural strength of the a layer of dense connective tissue dermis. responsible for most of the skin’s structural strength.  COLLAGEN- are oriented in 1. Pigments in the skin different directions- can resist 2. Blood circulating through the skin stretch.- it produces cleavage lines, 3. The thickness of the stratum corneum. or TENSION Lines- most resistant to stretch. PIGMENT >MELANIN > An incision made across the cleavage lines - is a group of pigments primarily produces scar tissue. responsible for the skin, hair, and eye color. > An incision made across the cleavage lines -Mostly brown and blackSome yellowish or produces scar tissue. reddish. -Provides protection against ultraviolet light from the sun. It is determined by: generic factors exposure to sunlight hormones It is produced by cells called MELANOCYTES. MELANOCYTES-Irregularly shaped cells with long processes extending between deep epithelial cells in the epidermis. MELANOSOMES- pigment granule If skin is overstretched, the dermis can be produced by melanocytes. damaged, leaving lines that are visible through the epidermis called STRETCH MARKS An injection delivers substances, such as medicines, to the body by puncturing the skin. Although any genes are responsible for skin 1. INTRADERMAL INJECTION (ID)- color, a single mutation can prevent the Administering by tightening the skin and production of melanin. gently inserting a small needle at a 5 - 15-degree angle into the dermis. 1. ALBINISM- Is a recessive genetic trait EXAMPLE: tuberculin skin test. that causes a deficiency or an absence of 2. SUBCUTANEOUS INJECTION (SQ)- melanin. Accomplished by creating a skin tent ALBINOS have fair skin, white hair, through pinching and inserting a short unpigmented irises in the eyes. needle into the subcutaneous adipose tissue, 2. EXPOSURE TO ULTRAVIOLET as exemplified in insulin injections. (45 or LIGHT- Sunlight stimulates melanocytes to 90-degree angle) increase melanin production. EXAMPLE: insulin injection. 3. HORMONES SUCH AS ESTROGEN 3. INTRAMUSCULAR INJECTION AND MELANOCYTE-STIMULATING (IM)- Accomplished by inserting a long HORMONE- During pregnancy, increased needle at a 90-degree angle in the skin into melanin production in the mother leads to the muscle deep to the subcutaneous tissue. darkened nipples, pigmented circles around EXAMPLE: some vaccines and antibiotics. the nipples and genitalia, and pigmentation 4. INTRAVENOUS INJECTION (IV)- along the midline of the abdomen. involves delivering medication or fluids 4. Blood flowing through the skin imparts a directly into a vein (15 - 30-degree angle), reddish hue.blood flow increases, the red allowing for rapid absorption and systemic color intensifies. distribution throughout the body. EXAMPLE: redness due to inflammation EXAMPLE: injecting antibiotics and chemotherapy drugs directly into the vein. 5. Decrease in blood flow, decrease O2 – Bluish color of the skin called CYANOSIS. SKIN COLOR 6. Birthmarks- Are congenital disorders of the blood vessels (capillaries) in the dermis. FACTORS THAT DETERMINE SKIN 7. Carotene- A yellow pigment in plants COLOR like squash and carrots, carotene, if ingested in excess, accumulates in the skin's lipids, causing a yellowish tint. MUSCULAR 8. Scattering of light by collagen produces a bluish color. SYSTEM MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE II. SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE MUSCULAR SYSTEM:: It is where the skin rests. It attaches to the underlying bone and 1. Movement: Muscles enable body muscle and supplies it with blood vessels movements, including walking, running, and and nerve tissues. various activities. Sometimes called hypodermis. 2. Stability: Muscles provide support to It is a loose connective tissue. joints and help maintain body stability. Includes: 3. Posture Maintenance: Muscles contribute Adipose tissue- half of the body’s stored to holding the body in a particular position. lipid. 4. Joint Support: Muscles assist in An average woman has higher body fat than stabilizing and supporting the joints during males. movement. Acceptable percentage of body fat varies 5. Heat Generation: Muscles generate heat from 21%-30% for females and 13%-25% during contraction, contributing to body for males. temperature regulation. 6. Circulatory System Assistance: Muscle Exceeding the acceptable body fat contractions aid in blood circulation and percentage indicates OBESITY. lymphatic flow. 7. Facial Expression: Muscles in the face ACCESSORY SKIN STRUCTURE allow for a wide range of facial expressions. 8. Respiration Support: Muscles involved in HAIR- found everywhere on the skin, breathing help with inhalation and except on palms, soles, nipples, parts of the exhalation. and parts of genitalia. 9. Digestive System Movement: Muscles in -each hair arises from a hair FOLLICLE. the digestive tract facilitate the movement of FOLLICLE- an invagination of the food. epidermis that extends deep into the dermis. 10. Speech and Vocalization: Muscles in the larynx and mouth are crucial for speech and vocalization. These functions collectively contribute to the overall movement, stability, and functionality of the human body. Gross anatomy of a muscle The hair has a hard cortex, which is covered by the softer center called medulla. The medulla is covered by a CUTICLE CUTICLE- a single layer of overlapping cells that holds the hair in the hair follicle. HAIR PAPILLA- An extension of the dermis projecting into the hair bulb. HAIR is produced in cycles. The gross anatomy of a muscle includes various components: 1. Muscle (Belly): The main, fleshy part of the muscle responsible for generating force during contractions.  Movements: 2. Tendons: Tough, fibrous connective 1. Contraction (Systole): Heart muscles tissues that attach muscles to bones. squeeze to pump blood out. Tendons transmit the force generated by 2. Relaxation (Diastole): Heart muscles muscles to bones, allowing movement. relax to fill with blood. 3. Fascia: Connective tissue surrounding and 3. Atrial and Ventricular Contractions: Atria separating muscles, providing support and contract first, then ventricles, ensuring structure. efficient blood flow. 4. Epimysium: The outermost layer of 4. Heartbeat: Rhythmic cycle of muscle connective tissue that surrounds the entire contractions and relaxations, about 60-100 muscle. times per minute, maintaining blood 5. Perimysium: Connective tissue that circulation. divides the muscle into bundles of muscle fibers called fascicles. Smooth Muscle: Found in the walls of 6. Endomysium: Delicate connective tissue internal organs, such as the digestive surrounding individual muscle fibers within tract, blood vessels, and respiratory a fascicle. passages. Smooth muscles are involuntary 7. Muscle Fiber (Cell): Elongated cells and control various internal processes. containing myofibrils that contract during muscle contractions. Movements: 8. Myofibrils: Thread-like structures within 1. Contractions: Smooth muscles contract muscle fibers containing the contractile involuntarily in organs. units, sarcomeres. 2. Peristalsis: Wave-like contractions move 9. Sarcomere: The basic unit of muscle substances in the digestive tract. contraction, composed of actin and myosin 3. Blood Flow Regulation: Smooth muscles filaments. adjust blood vessel diameter for proper circulation. 4. Respiratory Adjustments: Control airway 3 types of muscle diameter through bronchoconstriction and bronchodilation. 5. Uterine Contractions: Play a role in childbirth and menstrual cycles. Skeletal Muscle: Attached to bones by tendons, skeletal muscles are responsible for voluntary movements like walking and reaching. They work in pairs and are under conscious control. Movements: 1. Contraction: Skeletal muscles contract voluntarily to produce movement. 2. Extension and Flexion: Extension straightens body parts, while flexion bends them. 3. Abduction and Adduction: Abduction moves body parts away, and adduction brings them closer. 4. Rotation: Muscles enable body parts to rotate around an axis. 5. Elevation and Depression: Elevation raises body parts, and depression lowers Cardiac Muscle: Exclusive to the heart, them. cardiac muscles form the heart's walls. 6. Supination and Pronation: Supination They are involuntary and possess unique turns the palm up, while pronation turns it characteristics that allow the heart to down. contract rhythmically and pump blood efficiently. 7. Dorsiflexion and Plantarflexion: Dorsiflexion raises the foot, and plantarflexion lowers it.  ligaments, giving mechanical support to soft SKELETAL tissues. Types of Bones SYSTEM 1. Long Bones: - Examples: Femur, humerus. 1. Support: - Function: Support and movement. - The skeletal system provides structural 2. Short Bones: support for the entire body, giving it shape - Examples: Wrist bones (carpals). and stability. - Function: Stability. 2. Protection: 3. Flat Bones: - Bones act as a protective framework for - Examples: Skull, ribs. delicate internal organs. For example, the - Function: Protection and muscle skull protects the brain, and the ribcage attachment. protects the heart and lungs. 4. Irregular Bones: 3. Movement: - Examples: Vertebrae, facial bones. - Bones, in conjunction with muscles and - Function: Varied functions, including joints, enable movement. Muscles attach to support and protection. bones, and when they contract, they pull on 5. Sesamoid Bones: the bones, causing movement. - Examples: Kneecap (patella). 4. Mineral Storage: - Function: Reduce friction and protect - Bones serve as a reservoir for essential tendons. minerals, primarily calcium and phosphorus. 6. Axial Skeleton Bones: These minerals can be released into the - Examples: Skull, spine, rib cage. bloodstream as needed for various bodily - Function: Protect vital organs. functions. 7. Appendicular Skeleton Bones: 5. Blood Cell Formation (Hematopoiesis): - Examples: Limb bones, shoulder, hip. - The bone marrow, found in the cavities - Function: Facilitate movement and of certain bones, is responsible for the support. production of blood cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Gross Anatomy of Bones 6. Fat Storage: 1. Compact Bone: - Yellow bone marrow, found in the central - Hard outer layer for strength. cavities of long bones, stores fat. This fat 2. Spongy (Cancellous) Bone: can be used as an energy reserve. - Inner, porous network with trabeculae for 7. Metabolic Regulation: support. - Bones are involved in the regulation of 3. Bone Marrow: minerals, such as calcium and phosphate, in - Soft tissue for blood cell formation (red the bloodstream. They play a role in marrow) and fat storage (yellow marrow). maintaining the body's overall mineral 4. Periosteum: balance. - Tough membrane covering outer bone 8. Endocrine Regulation: surface. - Bones produce hormones, such as 5. Endosteum: osteocalcin, which plays a role in glucose - Thin membrane lining the medullary metabolism and energy regulation. cavity. 9. Joint Stability: 6. Articular Cartilage: - Joints, formed where bones come - Smooth tissue covering joint ends for together, provide stability and allow for reduced friction. controlled movement. 7. Epiphysis: 10. Posture and Body Alignment: - Expanded ends of long bones, containing - The arrangement of bones provides the spongy bone. framework for maintaining an upright 8. Diaphysis: posture and proper alignment of the body. - Shaft or main portion of long bones, 11. Storage of Growth Factors: mostly compact bones. - Bones store various growth factors that 9. Medullary Cavity: are essential for tissue repair and - Central cavity in the diaphysis, maintenance. containing bone marrow. 12. Mechanical Support for Soft Tissues: - Bones provide a rigid framework for the 10. Epiphyseal Plate: attachment of muscles, tendons, and - Cartilaginous plate for bone growth. 11. Nutrient Foramen: - Openings for blood vessel entry. 12. Tuberosity, Tubercle, Crest: - Projections for muscle, ligament, or tendon attachment. 3. **Auditory Ossicles (Ear Bones):** - Malleus (hammer) - Incus (anvil) - Stapes (stirrup) Here is a list of axial bones: 1. **Skull Bones:** - Frontal bone - Parietal bones (2) - Temporal bones (2) 4. **Hyoid Bone:** - Occipital bone - U-shaped bone in the neck, not directly - Sphenoid bone connected to other bones. It supports the - Ethmoid bone tongue and provides attachment for certain muscles. 2. **Facial Bones:** - Nasal bones (2) - Maxilla (upper jaw) 5. **Vertebral Column (Spine):** - Mandible (lower jaw) - Cervical vertebrae (7) - Zygomatic bones (2, cheekbones) - Thoracic vertebrae (12) - Lacrimal bones (2) - Lumbar vertebrae (5) - Palatine bones (2) - Sacrum - Inferior nasal conchae (2) - Coccyx - Vomer 6. **Rib Cage:** Tendons of the Body - True Ribs (1-7) - attached directly to the sternum by costal cartilage 1. Achilles Tendon: - False Ribs (8-12) - connected to the - Location: Back of the ankle. sternum indirectly or not at all - Function: Connects the calf muscles to - Floating Ribs (11-12) - do not attach to the heel bone. the sternum 2. Patellar Tendon: - Location: Front of the knee. - Function: Connects the quadriceps muscles to the shinbone. 3. Rotator Cuff Tendons: - Location: Shoulder joint. - Function: Support and stabilize the shoulder, connecting muscles to the upper arm bone. 4. Biceps Tendon: - Location: Front of the upper arm. - Function: Connects the biceps muscle to the shoulder and forearm. These are the Peripheral Bones 5. Triceps Tendon: - Location: Back of the upper arm. **Upper Limb:** - Function: Connects the triceps muscle to 1. Clavicle (Collarbone) the elbow. 2. Scapula (Shoulder Blade) 6. Hamstring Tendons: 3. Humerus (Upper Arm) - Location: Back of the thigh. 4. Radius and Ulna (Forearm) - Function: Connects the hamstring 5. Carpals (Wrist) muscles to the pelvis and lower leg bones. 6. Metacarpals (Palm) 7. Quadriceps Tendon: 7. Phalanges (Fingers) - Location: Front of the thigh. - Function: Connects the quadriceps **Lower Limb:** muscles to the kneecap. 8. Pelvic Girdle (Hip 8. Adductor Tendons: Bones) - Location: Inside of the thigh. 9. Femur (Thigh) - Function: Connect muscles of the inner 10. Patella (Kneecap) thigh to the pelvis and femur. 11. Tibia and Fibula 9. Extensor Tendons (Dorsal Side): (Lower Leg) - Location: On the top of the hand and 12. Tarsals (Ankle) fingers. 13. Metatarsals (Midfoot) - Function: Control the extension of the 14. Phalanges (Toes) fingers and wrist. 10. Flexor Tendons (Palmar Side):  - Location: On the palm side of the hand and fingers. NERVOUS - Function: Control the flexion of the fingers and wrist. SYSTEM 11. Peroneal Tendons: - Location: Around the outside of the FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS ankle. SYSTEM - Function: Stabilize the foot and ankle, connecting muscles to the bones 1. Sensory input - gathering information to monitor changes occurring inside and Joints of the Body outside the body (changes = stimuli) 2. Integration to process and interpret Fibrous Joints: sensory input and decide if action is needed. 1. Sutures: - Location: Skull (between cranial bones). 3. Motor output 2. Syndesmoses: - Location: Between tibia and fibula (lower A response to integrated stimuli leg), and between radius and ulna (forearm). 3. Gomphoses: - Location: Tooth sockets in the maxilla and mandible. Cartilaginous Joints: 4. Synchondroses: - Location: Growth plates in long bones (e.g., epiphyseal plate). 5. Symphyses: - Location: Pubic symphysis (pelvis), intervertebral discs (spine). Synovial Joints: 6. Ball-and-Socket Joints: - Location: Hip and shoulder joints. DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS 7. Hinge Joints: SYSTEM - Location: Elbow, knee, and A. Central Nervous System – includes the interphalangeal joints (fingers and toes). brain and spinal cord 8. Pivot Joints: - Location: Between the atlas and axis B. Peripheral Nervous System – consists (neck), proximal radioulnar joint (forearm). of all nerves and ganglia outside the 9. Condyloid (Ellipsoidal) Joints: CNS - Location: Wrist joint (radiocarpal joint). a. Sensory nervous system (afferent 10. Saddle Joints: nervous system) - Location: Carpometacarpal joint of the thumb. b. Motor nervous system (efferent 11. Gliding (Plane) Joints: nervous system) - Location: Between carpal bones of the wrist, between tarsal bones of the ankle. 1. Somatic motor nervous system – from CNS to voluntary muscles 2. Autonomic motor nervous system – from CNS to involuntary muscles Sympathetic autonomic nervous system – fight or flight Parasympathetic autonomic nervous system – rest and digest C. Enteric Nervous System – has motor and sensory neurons contained wholly in the digestive tract  TYPES OF NEURON ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS Bipolar SYSTEM ⮚ 1 axon, 1 dendrite Unipolar ⮚ 2 axons, no dendrite Multipolar ⮚ 1 axon, several dendrites CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Neurons / Nerve Cells / Nervous Tissue ⮚ Multipolar neurons – most neurons ⮚ Bipolar neurons – in the retina and NERVOUS TISSUE: SUPPORT CELLS nasal cavity (NEUROGLIA OR GLIA) ⮚ Pseudounipolar neurons - dorsal root ganglion 1. Astrocytes (CNS) - Star-shaped that encircles blood vessels and nerves thus Glial Cells provides blood-brain barrier ⮚ Astrocytes -major supporting cell, blood-brain barrier 2. Microglia (CNS) - Spider-like ⮚ Ependymal cells - produces CSF phagocytes ⮚ Microglia - immune cells 3. Ependymal cells (CNS) ⮚ Oligodendrocytes - myelin sheath of the CNS ⮚ NONCILIATED – produces ⮚ Schwann cells - myelin sheath of the PNS cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) ⮚ CILIATED – responsible for NEURON ANATOMY transport or circulation of CSF 1. Cell body - Center of the neuron and 4. Oligodendrocytes (CNS) - Produce contains the organelles myelin sheath in the central nervous 2. Dendrites - conduct impulses toward the system cell body 5. Satellite cells (PNS) - Protect neuron 3. Axons - conduct impulses away from the cell bodies cell body 6. Schwann cells (PNS) - Form myelin 4. Myelin sheath - Covers the axon and sheath in the peripheral nervous system helps speed neural impulses 5. Node of ranvier - Makes the transfer of information faster 6. Axon terminal - Form junctions with other cells NEURON MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS 4. Tissues ⮚ Gray matter - contains the cell bodies, dendrites and axon terminals of neurons, ⮚ White matter - made of axons connecting different parts of grey matter to each other Gray and White Matter Potentially disabling disease of the brain and spinal cord The immune system attacks the protective sheath (myelin) that covers axons RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL Generated by three main factors generated by the Na-K pump ⮚ Higher concentration of K immediately inside the cell membrane ⮚ Higher concentration of Na immediately outside the cell membrane ⮚ Greater permeability of the cell membrane to K than to Na CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER 4 FEATURES OF BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD 1. Bone ⮚ Brain – cranium ⮚ Spinal cord – vertebrae * Inner membrane: meninges 2. Cerebrospinal fluid ⮚ protects brain and spinal cord from trauma ⮚ supplies nutrients to nervous system SALTATORY CONDUCTION tissue ⮚ removes waste products from cerebral metabolism 3. Astrocytes ⮚ blood-brain barrier ⮚ supplying nutrients to nerve tissue and aiding in post-traumatic repair MOST COMMON and scarring processes NEUROTRANSMITTERS Acetylcholine Norepinephrine Serotonin Dopamine  Gamma aminobutyric acid acid (GABA) Endorphins NEUROTRANSMITTERS - Chemicals messengers that transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell across a synapse. Target cell may be a neuron or some other kind of cell. MORPHINE Mimics endorphins, the “happy hormone” EXERCISE AND ENDORPHINS ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE Most common form of dementia Associated with a decrease in Acetylcholine-secreting neurons REFLEX ARC MYASTHENIA GRAVIS Results from reduction in CRANIAL AND SPINAL NERVES acetylcholine receptors SPINAL CORD BRACHIAL PLEXUS Extends from the foramen magnum to the level of the 2nd lumbar vertebra ⚫ PLEXUSES Most of the spinal nerves are organized into 3 major plexuses 5 MAJOR NERVES OF THE where neurons of several spinal BRACHIAL PLEXUS nerves come together and Axillary nerve – innervates the intermingle ⚫ Reorganizes shoulder the neurons so that Radial nerve – innervates the branches of nerves extending from posterior arm and forearm each plexus contain neurons from Musculocutaneous nerve – different spinal segments innervates the anterior muscles of the ⚫ The⮚ 3 major plexuses are Cervical plexus (C1 to C4) arm Ulnar nerve – innervates 2 anterior forearm muscles and most of the ⮚ Brachial plexus (C5 to T1) intrinsic arm muscles ⮚ Lumbosacral plexus (L1 to Median nerve – innervates most of L4-S1 to S4) the anterior forearm muscles and some of the intrinsic hand muscles CERVICAL PLEXUS LUMBOSACRAL PLEXUS FOUR MAJOR NERVES OF THE LUMBOSACRAL PLEXUS Obturator nerve – innervates muscles of the medial thigh  Femoral nerve – innervates the Information relay between anterior thigh muscles cerebellum and cerebrum Tibial nerve – innervates posterior Breathing thigh muscles Swallowing Common fibular nerve – innervates Balance muscles of the lateral thigh and leg Chewing Sciatic nerve – tibial + common Salivation fibular nerve (bound together within a common connective tissue sheath) ⚫ THE BRAIN Brainstem ⮚ Medulla oblongata ⮚ Pons ⚫ ⚫ ⮚ Midbrain Cerebellum Diencephalon MIDBRAIN Involved with Relaying auditory signals ⮚ Thalamus Visual reflexes ⮚ Epithalamus Touch ⚫ ⮚ Hypothalamus Cerebrum BRAINSTEM Eye movements Pupil diameter Lens shape ⮚ Connects the spinal cord to the Regulation of body movement remainder of the brain (substancia nigra) ⮚ Controls several nuclei involved in ⚫ vital body functions like heart rate, RETICULAR FORMATION blood pressure, and breathing Group of nuclei scattered within the ⚫ ⮚ Consists of substance of the brainstem Medulla oblongata Involved in regulating cyclical motor Pons functions such as walking, ⚫ Midbrain respiration, and chewing Major component of the reticular activating system (RAS), which plays an important role in arousing and maintaining consciousness and ⚫ in regulating the sleep-wake cycle General anesthetics suppress the ⚫ reticular activating system Damage to the RAS can cause coma MEDULLA OBLONGATA Involved in Heart rate regulation, Control of blood vessel diameter, Breathing, Swallowing, Vomiting, Coughing, Sneezing, Balance, Coordination, Conscious control of CEREBELLUM skeletal muscles Attached to the brainstem (Pons) by large connections called cerebellar peduncles PONS Involved in Involved in Maintaining balance  Muscle tone Coordinating fine motor movement Learning motor skills (in partnership with the cerebrum) DIENCEPHALON Part of the brain between the brainstem and the cerebrum Thalamus HYPOTHALAMUS Epithalamus Most inferior part of the diencephalon Hypothalamus Plays a major role in controlling the secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland Involved in Body temperature Hunger thirst Sexual pleasure Rage Fear Relaxation after meals THALAMUS CEREBRUM Largest part of the diencephalon Most sensory inputs that ascend through the spinal cord and brainstem projects to the thalamus, where ascending neurons synapse with thalamic neurons The thalamus influences mood and registers an unlocalized, uncomfortable perception of pain CEREBRAL FISSURES EPITHALAMUS Small area superior and posterior to the thalamus Consists of a few small nuclei involved in emotional and visceral response to odors plus the pineal gland The pineal gland influences the onset of puberty CEREBRUM PINEAL GLAND = PUBERTY Largest part of the brain Frontal lobe – important in the control of voluntary motor functions,  motivation, aggression, mood, and Sensory input to the brainstem and olfactory (smell) perception diencephalon helps maintain Parietal lobe – principal center for homeostasis receiving and consciously perceiving Sensory input to the cerebrum and most sensory information cerebellum keeps us informed about Occipital lobe – functions in our environment receiving and perceiving visual input Temporal lobe – involved in The spinal cord and brainstem olfactory and auditory sensations and contain a number of ascending or plays an important role in memory, sensory tracts that transmit also involved in abstract thought and information via action potentials judgement from the periphery to various parts of Insula – “hidden” deep within the the brain lateral fissure (involved with the SENSORY AREAS OF THE sense of taste) CEREBRAL CORTEX BLOOD SUPPLY OF THE BRAIN The brain is very vulnerable to Ascending tracts project to specific compromises in blood supply regions of the cerebral cortex, called The blood supply to the brain is primary sensory areas, where divided into anterior and posterior sensations are perceived segments Primary somatic sensory The 2 main arteries that supply blood to cortex - general sensory input the brain are: 1. The internal carotid arteries Visual cortex in the occipital (anterior portion) lobe 2. The vertebral arteries (posterior Primary auditory cortex in brain and brainstem) the temporal lobe Insula – taste sense Cortical areas immediately adjacent to the primary sensory areas called association areas are involved in the process of recognition STROKE Stroke is when blood flow to an organ stops either by blockage or rupture of a blood vessel HOMUNCULUS SENSORY FUNCTIONS  Corpus striatum – deep within the cerebrum Substancia nigra – in the midbrain MOTOR NEURONS CEREBELLUM Upper motor neurons have cell Attached to the brainstem (Pons) via bodies in the cerebral cortex cerebellar peduncles The axons of upper motor neurons Involved in maintaining balance and form descending tracts that connect muscle tone and coordinating fine to lower motor neurons motor movement Lower motor neurons have cell Function inhibited by alcohol bodies in the anterior horn of the spinal cord gray matter or in cranial Along with the cerebrum, is involved nerve nuclei with learning new skills MOTOR AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL SPEECH AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX CORTEX Primary Motor Cortex – control of Sensory speech area in the parietal voluntary movement of skeletal lobe (Wernicke area) - functions in muscles understanding and formulating Premotor area – where motor coherent speech functions are organized before they are actually initiated in the primary Motor speech area in the frontal lobe motor cortex (Broca area) – controls the movement necessary for speech Prefrontal area – where the motivation and foresight to plan and initiate movements occur MEMORY Working memory Short-term memory Long-term memory BASAL NUCLEI Group of functionally-related nuclei ⮚ Declarative or explicit memory important in planning, organizing, ⮚ Procedural or reflexive memory and coordinating motor movements MENINGES Two primary nuclei - Connective tissues that surround and THE CRANIAL NERVES protect the spinal cord and the brain ⚫ ⚫ Dura mater The cranial nerves are 12 pairs of nerves that can be seen on the ⚫ Pia mater Archnoid mater inferior surface of the brain Some of these cranial nerves carry ⚫ Epidural space – between vertebrae sensory information from the organs and dura mater to the brain ⚫ Subdural space – between dura Other cranial nerves control mater and arachnoid mater voluntary muscles of the face, head, and neck ⚫ Subarachnoid space – between Other cranial nerves are connected to arachnoid mater and pia mater smooth muscles, glands or internal organs such as the heart and lungs CEREBROSPINAL FLUID Produced by the choroid plexuses, specialized structures made of 1. Olfactory nerve ependymal cells, which are located in 2. Optic nerve the ventricles 3. Oculomotor nerve 4. Trochlear nerve Fills the brain ventricles, central canal 5. Trigeminal nerve of the spinal cord, and the 6. Abducens nerve subarachnoid space 7. Facial nerve Arachnoid granulations penetrate the 8. Vestibulocochlear nerve superior sagittal sinus, a dural venous 9. Glossopharyngeal nerve sinus in the longitudinal fissure, 10. Vagus nerve through which the CSF passes from 11. Spinal accessory nerve the subarachnoid space into the blood 12. Glossopharyngeal nerve 12 PAIRS OF CRANIAL NERVES HYDROCEPHALUS – due to blockage of CSF flow CRANIAL NERVE I: OLFACTORY NERVE (S)  CRANIAL NERVE V: TRIGEMINAL NERVE (S/M) CRANIAL NERVE II: OPTIC NERVE (S) CRANIAL NERVE VI: ABDUCENS NERVE (M) EXTRAOCULAR MUSCLES CRANIAL NERVE III: OCULOMOTOR CRANIAL NERVE VII: FACIAL NERVE (M,P) NERVE (S,M,P) CRANIAL NERVE IV : TROCHLEAR NERVE (M) – INNERVATES SUPERIOR OBLIQUE MUSCLE CRANIAL NERVE VII: FACIAL NERVE (S,M,P) Affected in Bell’s palsy muscles on one side of the face become weak or paralyzed Caused by some kind of trauma to the seventh cranial nerve Seems to occur more often in people who have diabetes or are recovering from viral infections Vagus: Sensory to pharynx, larynx, viscera. Motor to palate, pharynx, larynx. CRANIAL NERVE VIII: Parasympathetic to the viscera of thorax and VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR NERVE (S) abdomen. When the swallow response is initiated, this center causes messages to be sent to the glossopharyngeal, the vagus, and the hypoglossal nerves. The glossopharyngeal is considered the major nerve for the swallowing center CRANIAL NERVE XI : SPINAL ACCESSORY NERVE (M) Motor to sternocleidomastoid and trapezius CRANIAL NERVE IX: GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL (S,M,P) CRANIAL NERVE XII: HYPOGLOSSAL (M) When the swallow response is initiated, this center causes messages to be sent to the glossopharyngeal, the vagus, and the hypoglossal nerves. The glossopharyngeal is considered the major nerve for the swallowing center CRANIAL NERVE X: VAGUS (S,M,P)  functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, heart rate, digestive processes, etc Has two divisions 1. Sympathetic autonomic nervous system 2. Parasympathetic autonomic nervous system AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM VS SOMATIC MOTOR NERVOUS SYSTEM SWALLOWING REFLEX (9,10,12) Usually in somatic motor neurons, axons from the CNS extend uninterrupted to When the swallow response is the effectors (neuron na may super initiated, this center causes messages habang axon) to be sent to the In the autonomic nervous system, axons from the CNS do not extend all the way Glossopharyngeal (CN IX) from the CNS to the target tissues Vagus (CN X) Two extra neurons are involved Hypoglossal (CN XII) Yung unang neuron, from the The Glossopharyngeal nerve is brain considered the major nerve for Yung ikalawang neuron, from the swallowing center the autonomic ganglia Ang tawag sa unang neuron preganglionic neuron SALIVARY GLANDS (CN 7,9) Ang tawag sa The parotid gland receives its parasympathetic input from the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) via SYMPATHETIC AUTONOMIC the otic ganglion NERVOUS SYSTEM The submandibular and Regulates “Fight or flight” response sublingual glands receive their Preganglionic cell bodies are in the parasympathetic input from the facial lateral horn of the spinal cord gray nerve (CN VII) via the matter between T1 and L2 submandibular ganglion Main function is to activate CRANIAL NERVES physiologic changes that prepares the 1. Olfactory nerve - sensory body for combat/escape 2. Optic nerve - sensory The Sympathetic autonomic nervous 3. Oculomotor nerve – motor, system prepares us for parasympathetic Fighting 4. Trochlear nerve – motor Fleeing 5. Trigeminal nerve – sensory, motor 6. Abducens nerve - motor SYMPATHETIC AUTONOMIC 7. Facial nerve – sensory, motor, NERVOUS SYSTEM parasympathetic 8. Vestibulocochlear nerve - sensory 9. Glossopharyngeal nerve – sensory, motor, parasympathetic 10. Vagus nerve – sensory, motor, parasympathetic 11. Spinal accessory nerve - motor 12. Hypoglossal nerve – motor AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) the part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily  - Produce testosterone, influencing male Endocrine System reproductive functions. 1. Hormone Secretion: - Glands produce hormones to regulate body functions. 2. Metabolism Regulation: - Hormones control energy levels and glucose balance. 3. Homeostasis Maintenance: - Hormones keep internal conditions stable. 4. Development and Growth: - Hormones contribute to tissue and organ growth. 5. Reproduction: - Sex hormones influence reproductive processes. 6. Stress Response: - Hormones help the body cope with stress. 7. Immune System Regulation: - Some hormones affect immune system activity. 8. Blood Pressure Regulation: - Hormones help control blood pressure and fluid balance. 9. Bone Density Maintenance: - Hormones influence calcium levels and bone density. 10. Circadian Rhythms: - Hormones regulate sleep-wake cycles and daily rhythms. Organs and Glands of the Endocrine system 1. Pineal Gland: - Produces melatonin, regulating sleep-wake cycles. 2. Pituitary Gland: - Regulates other endocrine glands; produces growth hormone. 3. Thyroid Gland: - Produces hormones regulating metabolism and energy levels. 4. Parathyroid Glands: - Regulate calcium levels in the blood. 5. Thymus: - Plays a role in immune system development. 6. Pancreas: - Releases insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar levels. 7. Adrenal Glands: - Produce hormones involved in the stress response. 8. Ovaries (in females): - Produce estrogen and progesterone, influencing reproductive processes. 9. Testes (in males):  LYMPHATIC SYSTEM THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM – ALSO CALLED THE LYMPH OR IMMUNE SYSTEM -Protects the body from invasion by bacteria or other germs. The active part of the system is lymph fluid–It drains into networks of tiny capillaries in tissue spaces that unite to form larger vessels called lymphatics. HOW THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM PROTECTS THE BODY The lymphatic system includes several components; It's a network of vessels, ducts, and nodes, as well as organs and diffuse tissue; these structures work to filter unwanted substances out of the bloodstream and body tissues. White blood cells play a key role. Some rush to attack any harmful microbes that invade the body, other white blood cells become specialists, adapted to fight particular pathogens. White blood cells, also called leukocytes, defend the body against disease, they normally account for only 1% of circulating blood volume but increase during infection or inflammation. Lymph nodes (lymph glands) -filtering and storage areas of the system, and they are scattered along the routes of the lymphatics. Lymph is not pumped. Lymph fluid contains large numbers of specialized white blood cells, particularly lymphocytes, which protect the body against Neutrophils are the most common type, non-self material such as invading comprising 60% to 70% of all WBC. microorganisms. A Macrophage is a large phagocytic cell THE AUXILIARY IMMUNE SYSTEM found in stationary form in the tissues or as a mobile white blood cell, especially at sites Many organs have a role in protecting the of infection. body against invading microbes, together they can be termed the auxiliary immune system, since they supplement the true internal immune system.  Blood vessels dilate around the injury site, inflaming the area. The vessel dilation allows more white blood cells to leave the bloodstream and enter the infected tissues. Phagocytes then do the job of consuming invading microbes. ∆This rapid response by the body to an infection is an example of innate immunity. Lymphocytes, the second most common type of white blood cells are produced in red bone marrow and move through the organs and tissues of the lymphatic system. They include several sub-types: B cells produce antibodies T cells target virus or fungal-infected cells, cancer cells, and transplanted cells. Natural killer (NK) cells attack and destroy Activated B cells multiply to produce large foreign microbes. numbers of clones, most of which become Phagocytes of humans and other animals are plasma cells. called "professional" or "non-professional" Plasma cells produce antibodies that depending on how effective they are at recognize antigens on foreign microbes. phagocytosis. The antibodies act as tags to identify the invaders. The professional phagocytes include many ∆This is called an antibody-mediated types of white blood cells (such as response. neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, mast cells, and dendritic cells). T cells, activated by antigens presented by phagocytes, multiply then seek out and destroy infected cells. The main difference between professional ∆This is called a cell-mediated and non-professional phagocytes is that the response. professional phagocytes have molecules called receptors on their surfaces that can LYMPH NODES detect harmful objects. The lymph nodes (or “glands”) are vital to The phagocyte binds to the microbe, the body’s defense system – they produce envelopes it, and then eats it. and hold immune cells (lymphocytes) that Enzymes within the phagocyte kill and protect the body from disease. digest the pathogen. When an infection occurs, fever elevates body temperature to accelerate the immune response. The reaction can happen relatively quickly. Lymph nodes are scattered throughout the EXOCYTOSIS STAGE body and also concentrated in groups. Harmless products of cell eating are Lymph fluid from most tissues or organs expelled through the white blood cell’s flows through one or more lymph nodes, membrane, or in tiny membrane-bound where it is filtered and cleaned, before exocytic vesicles to the extracellular fluid. draining into the venous blood stream. DEFENSIVE CELLS Various types of white blood cells (leucocytes) become involved in inflammation, including neutrophils and monocytes. The latter are immature leaving the blood vessels and enter the tissues, but rapidly develop into active cells called macrophages that replace neutrophils. A single macrophage (“big eater”) can consume up to 100 bacteria or similar-sized WHITE CELL TYPES items before dying. -There are numerous types of white blood cells, known by the general name of ALLERGIES - The immune system leukocytes. normally defends the body against infections, cancer, injuries, and damaging Monocyte - Largest cell in the blood, with substances such as toxic chemicals. big and rounded, or indented, nucleus engulfs pathogens. 1) Exposure to an allergen - Antibodies bind Lymphocyte - Chief immune cell, with a to the surfaces of mast cells. large nucleus that almost fills the cell; either A mast cell (also known as a mastocyte or a B or T, depending on development. labrocyte) is a migrant cell of connective Neutrophil - Granulocyte (having many tissue that contains many granules rich in small particles in the cytoplasm) with a histamine and heparin. multi-lobed nucleus; engulfs pathogens. 2) Antibodies triggered - Allergens come Basophil - Circulating granulocyte with into contact with the antibodies. If they link lobed nucleus; involved in allergic reactions. two or more antibodies, they cause the cell Eosinophil - Granulocyte that is important to burst. during allergic reactions; B-shaped nucleus; 3) Histamine released - Granules inside the destroys antigen– antibody complexes. mast cell release histamine as the cell bursts. Histamine causes an inflammatory response LOCAL INFECTION RESPONSE that irritates body tissues and produces the symptoms of an allergy. PHAGOCYTOSIS Various kinds of white blood cells can Allergic Rhinitis - Airborne allergens that surround, engulf, and ingest smaller items, irritate the lining of the nose and throat such as bacteria and cellular debris, in a cause allergic rhinitis; this allergy may be process known as phagocytosis (“cell seasonal or occur all year. eating”) In allergic rhinitis, the lining of the nose and ENGULFING STAGE throat becomes inflamed after contact with The white cell extends pseudopods (“false an airborne allergen. feet”) towards and around the unwanted items – here a bacterium. Food Allergies - Some allergies are caused -The pseudopods merge to engulf them. by an excessive immune response to certain foods, most commonly nuts, seafood, eggs, LYSIS STAGE Gluten from wheat, and milk. The items are trapped in phagocytic vesicles, Symptoms of food allergies may appear as which with enzyme-containing lysosomes soon as the food is eaten or develop over a form phagolysosomes, where lysis (breaking few hours. down) occurs.  2. Pharynx DIGESTIVE FUNCTION OF THE PHARYNX 1. Serves as a passageway for air and SYSTEM food 2. Food is propelled to the esophagus by 1.DIGESTION two muscle layers Breakdown of ingested food to the blood -Longitudinal inner layer 2. ABSORPTION -Circular outer layer Passage of nutrients into the blood. 3.Food movement is by alternating 3. METABOLISM contractions of the muscle layers Production of cellular energy (ATP) (peristalsis) Nasopharynx – not part of the digestive ORGANS OF THE DIGESTIVE system. SYSTEM Oropharynx – posterior to oral cavity. Two main groups Laryngopharynx – below the A. ALIMENTARY CANAL – continuous oropharynx and connected to the esophagus. coiled hollow tube B. ACCESSORY DIGESTIVE 3. Esophagus ORGANS 1. Runs from pharynx to stomach through the diaphragm 2. Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic squeezing) 3. Passageway for food only (respiratory system branches off after the pharynx) LAYERS OF ALIMENTARY CANAL Mucosa >Innermost layer >Moist membrane >Surface epithelium >Small amount of connective tissue (lamina propria) >Small smooth muscle layer A. ORGANS OF THE Submucosa ALIMENTARY CANAL >Just beneath the mucosa 1. Mouth >Soft connective tissue with blood vessels, PROCESSES OF THE MOUTH nerve endings, and lymphatics 1.Mastication (chewing) of food Muscularis externa – smooth muscle 2.Mixing masticated food with saliva >Inner circular layer. 3.Initiation of swallowing by the tongue >Outer longitudinal layer. 4.Allowing for the sense of taste Serosa Lips (labia) – protect the anterior opening >Outermost layer – visceral peritoneum. Cheeks – form the lateral walls >Layer of serous fluid-producing cell.s Hard palate – forms the anterior roof Soft palate – forms the posterior roof Uvula – fleshy projection of the soft palate Vestibule – space between lips externally and teeth and gums internally Oral cavity – area contained by the teeth Tongue – attached at hyoid and styloid processes of the skull, and by the lingual frenulum Tonsils -Palatine tonsils -Lingual tonsil STOMACH ANATOMY STRUCTURE OF THE STOMACH MUCOSA Located on the left side of the abdominal Gastric pits formed by folded mucosa. cavity Glands and specialized cells are in the Food enters at the cardioesophageal gastric gland region. sphincter Regions of the stomach >Cardiac region – near the heart >Fundus >Body >Phylorus – funnel-shaped terminal end Food empties into the small intestine at the pyloric sphincter Rugae – internal folds of the mucosa External regions SMALL INTESTINE ANATOMY >Lesser curvature >Greater curvature Primary digestive organ Layers of peritoneum attached to the Location for nutrient absorption into the stomach blood >Lesser omentum – attaches the liver to Muscular tube from the pyloric sphincter to the lesser curvature the ileocecal valve >Greater omentum – attaches the greater Suspended by the mesentery from the curvature to the posterior body wall. posterior abdominal wall >Contains fat to insulate, cushion, and protect abdominal organs. SUBDIVISION OF SMALL INTESTINE Duodenum >Attached to the stomach >Curves around the head of the pancreas Jejunum >Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum Ileum >Extends from jejunum to large intestine CHEMICAL DIGESTION IN SMALL INTESTINE Source of enzymes that are mixed with chyme. FUNCTION OF STOMACH >Intestinal cells Act as a food storage reservoir >Pancreas Location for food breakdown Bile enters from the gall bladder. Initiates chemical breakdown of proteins Transports processed food (chyme) to the small intestine SPECIALIZED MUCOSA OF THE STOMACH Simple columnar epithelium >Mucous neck cells – produce a sticky VILLI OF THE SMALL INTESTINE alkaline mucus >Gastric glands – secrete gastric juice >Chief cells – produce protein-digesting enzymes (pepsinogens) >Parietal cells – produce hydrochloric acid >Endocrine cells – produce gastrin MICROVILLI OF THE SMALL INTESTINE FUNCTION OF LARGE INTESTINE Absorption of water Eliminates indigestible food from the body DIGESTION IN THE SMALL as feces INTESTINE Goblet cells produce mucus to act as a Enzymes from the brush border lubricant >Break double sugars into simple sugars >Complete some protein digestion STRUCTURE OF LARGE INTESTINE Pancreatic enzymes play the major Cecum – saclike first part of the large digestive function intestine >Help complete digestion of starch Appendix (pancreatic amylase) >Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that >Carry out about half of all protein sometimes becomes inflamed (appendicitis) digestion (trypsin, etc.) >Hangs from the cecum Pancreatic enzymes play the major Colon digestive function >Ascending >Responsible for fat digestion (lipase) >Transverse >Digest nucleic acids (nucleases) >Descending >Alkaline content neutralizes acidic chyme >S-shaped sigmoidal Rectum ABSORPTION IN THE SMALL Anus – external body opening INTESTINE Water is absorbed throughout the small FOOD BREAKDOWN AND intestine. ABSORPTION IN LARGE INTESTINE End products of digestion No digestive enzymes are produced >Most substances are absorbed by active Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients transport through cell membranes >Produce vitamin K and B >Lipids are absorbed by diffusion >Release gasses Substances are transported to the liver by Water and vitamins K and B are absorbed the hepatic portal vein or lymph Remaining materials are eliminated via feces PROPULSION IN THE SMALL INTESTINE PROPULSION IN LARGE INTESTINE Peristalsis is the major means of moving Sluggish peristalsis food Mass movements Segmental movements >Slow, powerful movements >Mix chyme with digestive juices >Occur three to four times per day >Aid in propelling food Presence of feces in the rectum causes a defecation reflex LARGE INTESTINE ANATOMY >Internal anal sphincter is relaxed >Defecation occurs with relaxation of the Larger in diameter, but shorter than the voluntary (external) anal sphincter small intestine Frames the internal abdomen  B. ACCESSORY ORGANS Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic chyme. Salivary glands Endocrine products of pancreas Teeth >insulin Pancreas >glucagon Liver Gall bladder LIVER Largest gland in the body SALIVARY GLAND Located on the right side of the body under Saliva-producing glands the diaphragm >Parotid glands – located anterior to ears Produces BILE >Submandibular glands >Sublingual glands BILE - produced by cells in the liver SALIVA >mixture of mucus and serous fluid ROLE OF THE LIVER IN >helps to from food bolus METABOLISM >contains salivary amylase Detoxifies drugs and alcohol >dissolves chemicals so they can tasted Degrades hormones Produce cholesterol, blood proteins TEETH (albumin and clotting proteins) To masticate or chew foods Break foods into smaller pieces GLAND BLADDER Stores bile from the liver by way of the CLASSIFICATION OF TEETH cystic duct 1. Incisors - the sharp, chisel-shaped PROCESSES OF THE DIGESTIVE front teeth (4 upper and 4 lower) SYSTEM used for cutting food. Ingestion - getting food into the mouth 2. Canines - sometimes called cuspids, Propulsion - moving foods from one these teeths are shaped like points region of the digestive system to another and are used for tearing foods. Peristalsis - alternating waves of 3. Plemolars - these teeths have 2 contraction pointed cusps on their biting surface. Segmentation - moving materials back and Sometimes called bicuspids, used for forth to aid in mixing crushing and tearing. Mechanical Digestion 4. Molars - used for grinding, these Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue teeth have several cusps on the biting Churning of food in the stomach surface. Chemical Digestion Enzymes break down food molecules into their building blocks Each major food group uses different enzymes >carbohydrates are broken to simple sugars >proteins are broken to amino acids >fats are broken to fatty acids and alcohols Absorption End products of digestion are absorbed in the blood or lymph Defecation Elimination of indigestible substances as feces PANCREAS Produces digestive enzymes that break down all categories of food Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum  RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Functions: 1. Breathing: Inhaling and exhaling. 2. Gas Exchange: Swapping oxygen and carbon dioxide. 3. Oxygen Transport: Moving oxygen to body cells. 4. CO2 Transport: Taking away carbon dioxide. 5. pH Regulation: Balancing body acidity. 6. Defense: Filtering and protecting against pathogens. 7. Speech: Enabling vocal cord vibration. PARTS OF THE RESPIRATORY BODY ENERGY BALANCE SYSTEM Energy intake = total output (heat + work + energy storage) 1. Nose and Nasal Cavity: Filters, warms, >energy intake is liberated during food and humidifies incoming air. oxidation 2. Pharynx: Connects the nose and mouth >energy output to the larynx and esophagus. -heat is usually about 60% 3. Larynx: Contains the vocal cords and -storage energy is in the form of fat or facilitates speech. 4. Trachea: Windpipe that directs air from glycogen the larynx to the bronchi. 5. Bronchi: Tubes branching from the trachea into the lungs. 6. Lungs: Organs where gas exchange occurs. 7. Bronchioles: Smaller airways within the