Anatomy and Physiology PDF

1 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF RIZAL SYSTEM - FIRST YEAR COLLEGE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING - 1ST SEMESTER...

1 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF RIZAL SYSTEM - FIRST YEAR COLLEGE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING - 1ST SEMESTER MEL.GRLD LECTURE 3 - HISTOLOGY b. Simple cuboidal epithelium – almost all sides of the cells are equal; found inovary lining EPITHELIUM and kidney tubules  Membrane composed of closely–packed c. Simple columnar epithelium – cell height cells with very little intercellular substance. is greater than width; found in stomach and  They cover surfaces and line body cavities intestines; for filtration  Simple epithelium, stratified epithelium, exocrine glands, and neuroepithelium Variations: are the main types Columnar ciliated – cilia removes mucous and dust. ORIGIN / HISTOGENESIS Columnar with striated border – found in  Embryo passes through the stage during intestines; has microvilli for absorption and which they consist of 3 simple layers protection. (gastrulation), as the embryo develops, Pseudo-stratified columnar – false several tissues and organs also develop layers; columnar cells provided with cilia. A. Ectoderm - designated to become the skin, Found in trachea; basal cells undergo mitosis epithelium and some parts of the nervous while goblet cells produce mucous, making system. the surface moist B. Endoderm - give rise to digestive tubes, glands and respiratory tubes. 2. Stratified Epithelium – consist of 2 or more C. Mesoderm - give rise to supporting tissues layers of compact cells. (connective tissue, bones and muscles) a. Stratified Squamous Epithelium Non– keratinizing – found in the linings of the mouth, GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF inner portion of the ears, anus, vagina, nose and skin. EPITHELIUM b. Stratified Squamous Keratinizing – with 1. Since the cover surfaces and line the additional surface cells modified into keratin cavities, one end is free the other is (dead cells); makes the skin tough to bacteria, attached to another structure such as: injury and foreign bodies; makes the body a. Basement membrane – water proof; extended up to esophagus. homogenous fibroblar/ reticular tissue that c. Transitional Epithelium – found in the lies to the basal part of the epithelium. urinary bladder or excretory passages of the b. Tunica propia – connective tissue kidney; when empty the bladder assumes that project fibers to the epithelium; it is here domed shaped cells, when it is filled up with where blood vessels nurture epithelium the urine, they stretch or the cells become flat. 2. Avascular/ not provided with blood vessels; gets nutrition by osmosis & diffusion from underlying connective tissue papilla- outgrowth of tunica propia 3. Moist cellular tissue ( except skin – only epithelium that is dry) CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIUM 1. Simple Epithelium a. Simple squamous epithelium – a layer of flattened cells which includes. Endothelium - lines the heart cavity and the blood vessels. Mesothelium - lining of internal organs (pavement epithelium) Simple and Stratified Epithelium  2 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF RIZAL SYSTEM - FIRST YEAR COLLEGE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING - 1ST SEMESTER MEL.GRLD 3. Exocrine glands Glands – cells on the surface grow inward into the connective tissue. They develop secretory units to meet the body demands. 1. Exocrine Glands - conduct secretion out of the body, with ducts 2. Endocrine Glands - ductless glands; secrete hormones (substance secreted into blood stream to activate certain organs to function) Formation of Glands CONNECTIVE TISSUE Classification of Exocrine Glands: a. According to the shape of secretory units-  Connects tissue to tissue and cell to cell tubular& alveolar supporting tissue to all other tissues & to the connective tissue itself b. According to the number of ducts – simple GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC or compound 1. There are very few cells but many intercellular substance c. Based on the secretion behaviour 2. Presents different appearance because of a. Holocrine Glands – cells of secretory different contents. units accumulate secretion & dies; cells itself is a. Cells also secrete (ex. Sebaceous glands) Mobile cells: plasma cells (produces b. Apocrine Glands – only part of the antibodies), macrophages (phagocytic cells), cell is removed (cytoplasm): ex. Mammary fibroblasts (produces collagen fibers) and glands & armpit glands undifferentiated mesenchymal cells (stem cell). c. Merocrine Glands – cells do not die, Fixed cells: adipose cells, reticular cells, purely secretions. Ex. Salivary Glands pigment cells and mast cells b. Fibers – collagenous white fibers & 4. Neuroepithelium – lines the nose & elastic yellow fibers olfactory epithelium, ear receptors & papilla of tongue (taste buds) with nerve 3. They are vascular (except mucous endings. connective tissue & cartilage)  3 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF RIZAL SYSTEM - FIRST YEAR COLLEGE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING - 1ST SEMESTER MEL.GRLD CLASSIFICATION Histologic Classification: 1. Connective tissue proper  Spongy bone – inner layer of all bones; w/ a. Loose connective tissue – fibers loosely irregular spicules that closes bound in random network intercommunicating space arranged in  Areolar tissue – most widely dispersed; lattices. fine pliable/elastic; basic supporting substance around organs muscles,  Compact bone - solid continuous mass nerves and blood vessels that cover all bones b. Dense connective tissue  Haversian System – makes up the unit  Regular – white fibrous connective tissue; structure of the bone; in spongy bones & in collagenous fibers are arranged in between outer and inner table of compact parallel bundles; between compact bones; consists of Haversian bundles are fibroblasts or tendon cells; canal, separated by large cementing lines they also form capsules & fibrous (canaliculi) & concentric lamella (matrix membrane surrounding organs layers)  Irregular – occurs in the dermis of the  Lacunae – spaces where bones cells are skin; fibers are less numerous; lodged collagenous fibers come in large bundles cut a different angles; elastic c. Dentin teeth – similar to the bone fibers are abundant. tissue formation. It is sensitive, hard tissue of the teeth & is covered w/ enamel, w/c is the 2. Loose Connective tissues w/ special hardest of all tissues due to inorganic salts. properties a. Adipose tissue – specialized areolar d. Blood – fluid tissue that originate from tissue (loose) w/ many fat containing mesenchyme/ connective. Blood cells cells; act as a resilient packing around & originated from fibroreticular tissue of blood- between organs, bundles of muscle fibers, forming organs like liver & bone marrow. protects body from excessive heat loss. e. Hematopoietic/ Hemopoietic tissue – b. Reticular tissue – framework of delicate, red bone marrow is the blood – forming tissue branching fibrils found in lymphoid organs, the RBC & WBC originate in the capillary bone marrow & in the liver sinusoids of bone marrow found in the medullary canals of all bones (marrow cavity) 3. Specialized connective tissue a. Cartilage – yields a firm matrix between f. Lymphoid tissue – found in lymph cells (chondrocytes) nodes, thymus, spleen & lymphocytes (WBC) lie within. They play a role in immunity. Hyaline cartilage – widely distributed; precursor of skeleton; adult hyaline articular & fetal hyaline are the types Elastic cartilage – found in the external ear, auditory canal & epiglottis Fibrocartilage – intervertebral discs, tendons to bones. b. Bone – a firm structure of living tissue formed by impregnation of intercellular material with inorganic salts; forms the skeletal system  4 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF RIZAL SYSTEM - FIRST YEAR COLLEGE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING - 1ST SEMESTER MEL.GRLD NERVOUS TISSUE  highly specialized for irritability; divided into nervous tissue proper & accessory/ supporting cells (neuroglia); neurons consists of cell body & is processes (axon and dendrites) Types of Mascular Tissue Hemopoietic Tissue MUSCLE TISSUE  Has great capacity for contraction; elongated cells (muscle fibers) are bound Nervous Tissue together into sheaths or bundles by connective tissue. TISSUE TRANSPLANTATION Types: 1. AUTOTRANSPLANT - a transplant of the 1. Skeletal muscle – striated and voluntary; same individual from whom the tissue was striations due to pigment; can be removed, e.g. skin graft from the thigh to a controlled by the will; function for burned surface of the buttocks. locomotion or body movement; attached to bones/ skeleton 2. ISOTRANSPLANT - a transplant between the individuals of the same genetic 2. Smooth muscle/ Visceral muscle – non background, e.g. identical twins, or striated (absence of striations) and between animals of nearly the same involuntary; (cannot be controlled by the genetic background will); found internal organs; function for peristaltic movement (wave-like 3. HOMOTRANSPLANT - a transplant between contraction) of organs. two individuals of the same species with a different genetic background as from one 3. Cardiac muscle – striated and involuntary; patient to another found in the heart and great blood vessels (Aorta, superior and inferior vena cavae) 4. HETEROTRANSPLANT - a transplant between members of two different species as from cat to a dog  5 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF RIZAL SYSTEM - FIRST YEAR COLLEGE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING - 1ST SEMESTER MEL.GRLD LABORATORY TOPIC: THE SKIN LAYERS OF THE SKIN The integumentary system is made up of the The skin is composed of superficial epithelial skin and its accessory structures, such as hair, portion, the epidermis and a deeper nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands. connective tissue portion, the dermis (corium). Beneath the dermis is the "subcutaneous layer" (superficial fascia) which anchors the skin to deep fascia which in turn is continuous with muscles and bones. LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS (from most superficial to deepest layer): 1. Stratum Corneum  Composed of 20-30 layers of keratinized and cornified dead and flattened cells 2. Stratum Lucidum  Composed of lucid (clear) and thin layer of cells; abundant in palms of hand and soles of feet. 3. Stratum Granulosum The Skin  Composed of granular cells that contain keratin and deformed nuclei FUNCTION OF THE SKIN/ INTEGUMENT 4. Stratum Spinosum  The integument is a relatively waterproof  Several layers thick with some covering Langerhans cells (macrophages)  Protect the deeper tissues of the body by having dark and spiny projections keeping out foreign materials which 5. Stratum Basale/ Stratum germinativum include microorganisms.  Consist of a layer of actively dividing  It prevents loss of body fluids cells and the keratinocytes (produce  It helps to regulate body temperature keratin), melanocytes (produce  Provides an extensive area for receiving melanin), and Merkel cells sensory input, such as touch, pain, and (photoreceptor cells) are present temperature.  It acts as an excretory organ where sweat gland sebaceous glands discharged their products on the surface of the body.  It is a site for synthesis of vitamin D.  It has absorbing power, absorbing oily material placed in contact with it. RULE OF NINE The "rule of nine" gives the relative distribution of skin in the total body surface area. Head and neck 9% Anterior trunk 18% Posterior trunk 18% Upper extremity (9x2) 18% Layers of the Epidermis Lower extremity (18x2) 36% Perineum 1% Total 100  6 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF RIZAL SYSTEM - FIRST YEAR COLLEGE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING - 1ST SEMESTER MEL.GRLD LAYERS OF DERMIS APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN 1. Papillary layer 1. HAIR  The superficial part which makes up one  Its layers consist of an inner layer of fifth of the thickness of the total layer. It medulla that contains keratin and air, consist of areolar connective tissue outer cortex which contains pigment with the surface area greatly that gives hair color, and a cuticle, the increased by projections called dermal outermost layer which has cells that papillae indenting the epidermis. overlap like scales.  Contain tactile receptors called  It has a hair follicle, which is a tiny cup- Corpuscles of touch/ Meissner’s shaped pit buried in the fat of the corpuscles, nerve endings sensitive to scalp, and its point from which the hair touch grows. The terminal part of the follicle is hair bulb where actively dividing cells  Also present are free nerve endings are found associated with sensations of warmth, coolness, pain, tickling and itching.  The hair shaft is the part of the hair that is seen above the skin and is made up 2. Reticular layer of dead cells.  The deeper part of the dermis which is attached to the subcutaneous layer, 2. NAILS consist of dense irregular connective  Are plates of tightly-packed, hard dead, tissue. keratinized cells of the epidermis.  Contain pressure receptors called  It consist of nail body (nail plate), the Pacinian Corpuscles portion that is visible, free edge, the part that extends past the end of the  Adipose cells, nerves, hair follicles, oil finger, and nail root, the portion that is glands, sweat gland are found not visible. between bundles of collagen and coarse elastic fibers.  The whitish, semi-lunar near the nail root is the lunula; nail growth occurs by the transformation of the superficial cells of the nail matrix into the nail cells, an average of 1 mm per week; the cuticle consist of stratum corneum. Layers of the Dermis Hair Structure  7 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF RIZAL SYSTEM - FIRST YEAR COLLEGE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING - 1ST SEMESTER MEL.GRLD b. Approcrine glands  Are found mainly in the skin of the axilla, groin, areolae (pigmented portion of nipples), and bearded regions of the face of adult men.  The secretory portion of the gland is located mostly in the subcutaneous layer, and the excretory duct opens in the hair follicles. The secretory product is more viscous than that of the NAIL STRUCTURE eccrine glands but contains the 3. SEBACEOUS GLANDS/ OIL GLANDS same components plus proteins  Are found all over the body, except in and lipids. the palms and soles of feet. It secretes sebum (mixture of waxes, fats, and  Apocrine glands function begins at hydrocarbons). The sebum has a very puberty, unlike eccrine gland important function of preventing the which function after birth. skin from drying. Apocrine glands are stimulated during emotional stress and sexual  Over-secretion of the gland would plug excitement, commonly called the hair follicle and result to “cold sweats”. blackheads, and because sebum is nutritive to certain bacteria, acne develops if the bacteria is Propionibacterium acnes, boils develop if the bacteria is Staphylococcus aureus.. 4. SWEAT GLANDS/ SUDORIFEROUS GLANDS a. Eccrine glands  Eccrine means secreting outwardly. A Diagram of Sebaceous Glands They are coiled ducts from the bottom of the skin (dermis) that connect to the surface.  They are more common than apocrine glands and are widely distributed throughout the skin of most parts of the body, except margins of the lips, nail bed, nail beds, glans penis, glans clitoris, labia minora and eardrums. They are most numerous in the skin of the forehead, palms and soles.  The sweat produced by the gland consist of water, ions (mostly sodium and chlorine), urea, uric acid, ammonia, amino acids, A Diagram of Sweat Glands glucose, and lactic acid.  8 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF RIZAL SYSTEM - FIRST YEAR COLLEGE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING - 1ST SEMESTER MEL.GRLD COMMON SKIN DISORDERS SKIN CANCER  Caused by excessive exposure to the sun  Three common forms are: Basal Cell Carcinoma – tumors arise from the cells in the stratum basale; rarely metastasize Squamous Cell Carcinoma – arise from squamous cells in the epidermis; variable tendency for metastasis; most arise from pre-existing condition of damaged tissue on sun-exposed skin Malignant Melanoma – arise from melanocytes; most prevalent and life- threatening among young women BURNS  A burn is a tissue damage caused by excessive heat, electricity, radioactivity, or corrosive chemicals that denature the proteins in the skin cells.  Burns destroy some of the skin’s important contributions to homeostasis – protection against microbial invasion and desiccation, and regulation of body temperature. PRESSURE ULCER  Also known as decubitus ulcers or bed sores; are a shedding of epithelium caused by a constant deficiency of blood flow to the tissues. Typically, the affected tissue overlies a bony projection that has been subjected to prolonged pressure to an object such as bed, cast, or splint.  If the pressure is relieved in a few hours, redness occurs but no lasting tissue damage occurs.  Prolonged pressure causes tissue ulceration; small breaks in the epidermis become infected, and the sensitive subcutaneous layer of deeper tissues are damaged. Eventually the tissue dies.