Human Physiology & Anatomy PDF

LESSON 1: ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY: ***Anatomy*** - Refers to the [internal] & [external structure]. ***Physiology*** - Science that studies [body functions]. *ANATOMY (STRUCTURE)\ PHYSIOLOGY (FUNCTION)* **LVLS OF ORGANIZATION**: 1. Ex: 2. 3. 4. Ex: Stomach, The Heart, Lungs 5....

LESSON 1: ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY: ***Anatomy*** - Refers to the [internal] & [external structure]. ***Physiology*** - Science that studies [body functions]. *ANATOMY (STRUCTURE)\ PHYSIOLOGY (FUNCTION)* **LVLS OF ORGANIZATION**: 1. Ex: 2. 3. 4. Ex: Stomach, The Heart, Lungs 5. Ex:\ ***Integumentary System***- Skin, Hair, Glands, Nails ***Skeletal System*** - Bones, Cartilage, Ligaments, Tendons ***Nervous System*** - Brain, Spinal Cord ***Muscular System*** - Smooth, Skeletal, Cardiac Muscles ***Cardiovascular/Circulatory System*** - Heart, Blood Vessels, Blood ***Respiratory System*** - Lungs, Trachea, Airways ***Lymphatic System*** - Glands, Lymph Vessels, Nodes, Ducts ***Endocrine System*** - Pancreas, Thyroid, Pineal, Gonads ***Digestive System*** - Stomach, Mouth, Esophagus, Small and large intestine, Gallbladder, Anus\ ***Reproductive System*** - Uterus, Penis, Vagina, Testicles ***Urinary System*** - Kidneys, Bladder, Urethra 6. **AUTOPSY:** ***Post Mortem Examination*** - [Examination] & [dissection] of the body to *determine the cause of death*.\ When life processes haven't been maintained.\ \ *CATABOLISM* (Complex → Simple) - Ex: Proteins → Amino Acids\ (By digestive processes that catabolize) *ANABOLISM* (Simple → Complex) - Ex: Bone development, Muscle gain, Mineralization **LIVE PROCESSES**: - - - - - - **CLINICAL TERMS:** Disorder - Abnormality of structure/function\ Disease - Specific illness by signs & symptoms.\ Ex: Subjective → Anxiety\ Objective → Asthma **AGING & HOMEOSTASIS:** - - Ex: Body Temp\ Blood Pressure (BP) Water & Nutrient Levels **FEEDBACK SYSTEMS** Cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is: - - - - - BASIC COMPONENTS: - - - - **NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEMS**: Reverses the change in a CC (Controlled Condition)\ Most homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback systems.\ *(Negative means Opposite not Bad.)* Simplified Explanation:\ The body gives a response so that the change can go back to normal. These reverse a change in the variable.\ \ *(Bringing it back to normal)*\ Ex: HBP is detected then lowered to normal BP. **POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEMS**: Few homeostatic mechanisms of this type. These systems strengthen change & need to be shut down by an external force.\ \ Easier Explanation:\ Your body reacts to change, but instead of trying to reverse it (like NFS) it continuously tries to force it externally until it breaks the cycle. Ex: - - - **ANATOMICAL TERMS** Precise use of language to define position, direction, location in the body. - -  - - *Crania*l (Brain)\ *Vertebral* (Spinal Cord)\ *Thoracic* (Chest cavity)\ *Pleural/Pericardial & Mediastinal* (Region between the lungs) - - - -  Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)\ Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)\ Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ) - - -  LESSON 2: CELLS: PARTS & FUNCTIONS **Cell Structure:** - - - **Cell membrane:** - - -  MEMBRANE FUNCTION: - - - - (Depending on which direction the active site faces.) - - (Unless you have an identical twin)  **Membrane Function:** - - - - ***Intracellular (ICF)***/ *Intracellular Fluid* - - - ***Extracellular (ECF)** Extracellular Fluid* - - - - Difference between ICF & ECF: - - **PRINCIPLE OF DIFFUSION:** ***Diffusion*** - This is a passive process in which particles are randomly mixed in a solution because of its kinetic energy. Factors influencing diffusion rate across plasma membranes: - - - - - **3 Types of Diffusion:** ***Simple Diffusion:*** - High concentration region → Low concentration region (No protein or ATP is required) \ ***Requirements for Simple Diffusion:*** - - ***Pathways of Simple Diffusion:*** - - **Facilitated Diffusion:** - High concentration (with transport) → Lower concentration  **Osmosis:** Diffusion of water across selectively permeable membrane: - - Types of solutions surrounding human RBCs - - - ***Isotonic*** - Any solution that has the [same] solute concentration and water concentration. ***Hypotonic*** - Has a [lower solute concentration] compared to the intracellular solute concentration. ***Hypertonic*** - Has a [higher solute concentration] compared to the intracellular solute concentration. **ACTIVE TRANSPORT:** - - - - - ***Primary Active Transport:*** - Lower concentration area → Higher concentration area  ***Secondary Active Transport:*** ***Symporters*** - move 2 substances in the [same] direction\ → → → → → → → → → → → → → → → → → → ***Antiporters*** - move 2 substances in [opposite] directions\ → ← → ← → ← → ← → ← → ← → ← → ← → ← ***Transport in Vesicles:*** - - ***Endocytosis*** - [Importing] materials into the cell. ***Phagocytosis*** - [Ingestion of particles] such as bacteria into white blood cells (WBCs) ***Pinocytosis*** - Ingestion [of fluid] ***Exocytosis*** - [Exporting] materials ***2 Main types of Phagocytosis:*** ***Macrophages*** - Located in many body tissues ***Neutrophils*** - Type of white blood cell ***Pinocytosis (Bulk-Phase Endocytosis)*** -  ***Exocytosis:*** - 1. 2. **CELL ORGANELLES:** - - - - - - - ***Cytoplasm:*** - - - **Cytoskeleton:** - - - - ***Cytoskeleton*** - A structure that helps the cell *maintain* its [shape] and [internal organization]. Also provides mechanical support that allows it to do *movement* and *division*. **Centrosome:** Structure - - - - Function - Moves chromosomes to the ends of the cell during cell division. **Cilla & Flagella:** - ***Cilla*** - in groups -  ***Flagellum*** - [Single tails-like] structure on sperm - **Ribosomes:** - - - - - Endoplasmic Reticulum = (ER)  **Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)** Structure - *Network* of folded membranes Functions - [synthesis] of glycoproteins and phospholipids intracellular transport **Types of ER:** ***Rough ER*** - [Studded] with ribosomes (Sites of protein synthesis) ***Smooth ER*** - [lacks] ribosomes - - - - - **Golgi Complex:** Structure - Flattened membranes (cisterns) w/ bulging edges (pita bread daw???)  ??? Functions - *Modify proteins* → glycoproteins and lipoproteins - - - **Small Bodies:** ***Lysosomes*** - Contains digestive enzymes - - ***Tay-Sachs Diseases*** - Hereditary disorder - - - ***Peroxisomes*** - Detox; abundant in the liver - ***Proteasomes*** - Digests unneeded or faulty proteins - **Mitochondria:** Structure - *Sausage-shaped* with many folded membranes (cristae) and liquid matrix containing enzymes - Function - [Generate ATP] through [reactions] of cellular respiration. - - Abundant in muscles, liver, and kidney cells. -  **Nucleus:** Structure - [Round or oval structure] surrounded by nuclear envelope with nuclear pores Contains nucleolus - Makes ribosomes that cytoplasm through nuclear pores [Store genetic material] (DNA) in genes arranged in 46 chromosomes - ***Protein Synthesis:*** Nucleus = [Transcription ] Ribosomes in the Cytoplasm = [Translation] ***Transcription***: - - Types of RNA formed: 1. 2. 3. Translation: - ***Messenger RNA*** (mRNA) - from the nucleus direct sequencing of amino acids. ***Ribosomes*** (rRNA) - Are the sites of translation ***Transfer RNA*** (tRNA) - Carry amino acids to sites of mRNA ***Somatic Cell Division:*** - ***Interphase*** - - ***Mitotic Phase*** - - ***Cytokinesis*** - Division of cytoplasm  **Mitosis:** ***Prophase*** - - (Some chemotherapy drugs fight cancer cells by inhibiting formation of the mitotic spindle) - ***Metaphase*** - ***Anaphase*** - ***Telophase*** - - **Cell Destinies:** - - - ***Apoptosis*** - A type of cell death w/ molecular steps leading to a cell's death. ([Programmed death].) ***Necrosis*** - Death of [cells in body tissue]. Occurs when there's little blood in the tissue. **Cellular Diversity** Structure determines function, cells differ in structure related to their functions. - - - Most cells are microscopic, barely able to be seen with the naked eye. ***Sperm cell*** - Has a *[flagellum]* that it uses for locomotion. ***Red blood cell*** - [Disc shaped] RBC for a large surface for efficient ability in passing oxygen. ***Smooth muscle cells*** - Can produce effective contractions due to their shape. ***Nerve cells*** - Have long extensions that permit them to conduct nerve impulses over a long distance **Aging** - - - - - ***Progeria (Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome)*** - Symptoms: Dry wrinkled skin, baldness, birdlike facial features. Death usually occurs by *13*. ***Werner Syndrome (Adult Progeria)*** - Most affected die before reaching *50.* LESSON 3: ***Tissue*** - Groups of cells with common embryonic origin and functions. ***Histology*** - Is the science that deals with the study of tissue. **4 BASIC TYPES:** 1. - - - - -  **Categories:** Cell Shapes: Arrangement of cells in layers **Simple Epithelium**: 1 Layer of cells  - ***Endothelium*** - When in lining heart, blood and lymphatic vessels. ***Mesothelium*** - When in serous membranes Squamous = single layer of flat cells. **[Simple Squamous Epithelium] -** Single layer of flat cells **[Simple Cuboidal Epithelium] -** *[Single layer of cube-shaped cells]*; round centrally located nucleus. - Function: *Secretion* & *Absorption* **[Simple Columnar Epithelium]** - Cilated  **[Simple Columnar Epithelium] -** Noncilated **Stratified Epithelium**: More than 1 layer  **[Stratified Squamous Epithelium]** - Apical layer is flat - - - ***Keratinized stratified squamous epithlium*** - Develops a tough [layer of keratin] in *apical layer* Ex: Skin, Sole of foot, Epidermis of palm ***Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithlium*** - Does [not contain large amount] of *keratin* (Moistened by mucus) Ex: Pharynx, Rectum, Vulva, Vagina **[Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium]** - Rare **[Stratified Columnar Epithelium]** - Rare  **[Transitional Epithelium]** - Variable in appearance; cells can stretch **Pseudostratified Epithelium**: Appears stratified, but is 1 layer in different heights  **[Pseudostratified Columnar]**: **Glandular Epithelium** Main Function - Secretion - ***Gland Classification:*** ***Endocrine*** = Hormones  ***Exocrine*** = Secrete products into ducts that empty on surface 2. - - - - - *Fibroblasts* - Present in several tissues - *Macrophages* - Formed from monocytes - *Plasma cells* - Develop from B lymphocytes - **Connective Tissue Cells** ***Mast cells*** - Near blood cells - ***Adipocytes*** - [Fat cells]/adipose cells - ***White blood cells*** (WBCs) - [Response to certain conditions], they migrate from blood into connective tissues. *Neutrophils* - Gather at sites of infection (Phagocytosis) [Lymphoctes] - Antibody production *Monocytes* - Largest WBC (Phagocytosis) *Eosinophils* - in parasitic invasion, allergic response *Basophils* - Contain histamine, hypersensitivity rxn **Classification of Connective Tissues** 1. *Mesenchyme* - Forms almost all other types of connective tissue *Mucous connective tissue* - umbilical cord of fetus, support. 2. *Loose connective tissues* - - - *Dense connective tissues* - - - *Cartilage* - - - *Bone tissue* *Liquid connective tissue* - - **Loose Connective Tissues** ***Areola Connective Tissue*** - called "*packing material*" of the body. Provide strength, elasticity, support. ***Adipose Tissue*** - Derived from fibroblasts, reduces heat loss & serves as an energy reserve. ***Reticular Connective Tissue*** - Forms [a supporting network of] organs, removes worn out blood cells in spleen and microbes in lymph nodes. **Dense Connective Tissues** ***Dense Regular Connective Tissues*** - Forms tendons, most ligaments and aponeuroses. [Provides strong attachment] between various structures. ***Dense Irregular Connective Tissues*** - Provides tensile (*[pullling]*) strength in many directions. ***Elastic Connective Tissues*** - Elastic fibers with fibroblasts, allows for stretching of various organs **Cartilage** - Dense network of collagen and elastic fibers embedded in chondroitin sulfate. **Classification of Cartilage** ***Hyaline*** - Appears clear because fibers are not easily seen. Ex: Ends of long bones, fetal skeleton ***Fibrocartilage*** - Fibers visible - Ex: Vertebral discs, knee cartilages (menisci) ***Elastic*** - Chondrocytes in threadlike elastic network Ex: Ear cartilage ***Hyaline Cartilage*** - Most [abundant] & [weakest type] of cartilage. Provides smooth surfaces for movement at joints. (Flexibility) ***Fibrocartilage*** - [Support] and [joining] structures together. (*[Strongest]*) ***Elastic Cartilage*** - Provides [strength] and [elasticity]; [maintains shape] of certain structures. **Bone: Osseous Tissue** - - - **Bone Tissue is classified as:** **[Compact]** - Basic unit is osteon or haversian sys **[Spongy]** - Lacks osteons. Consists of columns of bone called *trabeculae*. **Liquid Connective Tissue** ***Blood*** - Found within blood vessels - - - ***Lymph*** - Found within lymph vessels - - - **Body Membranes 4 Types** ***Mucous Membranes*** - Line body cavities and passageways [open to the exterior] ***Mucous Membrane*** - Lubricates food as it moves through the GIT. Secretes some enzymes for digestion. - ***Serous Membranes*** - Line [closed] cavities and [surrounds] organs located there - - - ***Serous fluid*** (Watery lubricant) - [Allows] organs to [glide easily over one another] against walls of cavities.  ***Cutaneous Membranes*** - Skin; [Covers entire surface of body] and consists of a superficial portion called *Epidermis* and a deeper part called *Dermis*. ***Synovial Membranes*** - Line cavities of [most joints]. - - ***Synovial Fluid*** - [Lubricates] and [nourishes] the cartilage covering the bones and movable joints. (Contains macrophages that remove microbes) 3. ***Functions*** - Motion, Posture, Heat production, protection. **3 Types:** ***Skeletal Muscle*** - Pulls on bones [allowing body movements] ***Cardiac Muscle*** - Forms wall [of hear]t; [pumps blood through blood vessels]. ***Smooth Muscle*** - [Walls of hollow] organs such as stomach and bladder. 4. Functions - Conduct nerve impulses Types of cells: ***Neurons*** (Nerve cells) - [Convert stimuli into nerve impulses] and conduct them ***Neuroglia*** - Don't generate nerve impulses but [serve supportive functions.] **Tissue Repair** - - - - - - **Factors affecting tissue repair** - - - **CLINICAL CONNECTION**: *Anabolic Steroids* - Increasing proteins in muscle = [Increasing strength] - Such as: Liver cancer, kidney damage, risk of heart disease, stunted growth, wide mood swings, acne, increased irritability & aggression. - - **Atrophy** - Waste away, Gradual decline of effectiveness/use. IM Administration - Injected deep into the muscle, past the dermis and SQ. **Most Common Sites for giving IM Injections:** ***Dorsoglueteal Region*** - Upper outer quadrant [within the butt]. ***Ventrogluteal Region*** - Drug is injected into the triangle [formed by the index, middle finger, and iliac crest]. ***Deltoid*** - 2.5 to 5 cm below the acromion process ***Vastus Lateralis*** - Middle 3rd of the line joining the greater trochanter of the femur and the lateral femoral condyle of the knee. LESSON 4: