agtechfocus_11_Beefcattle (1).pdf

CHAPTER 11 Shutterstock.com/Jeremy-Stenuit Beef cattle CHAPTER SUMMARY From...

CHAPTER 11 Shutterstock.com/Jeremy-Stenuit Beef cattle CHAPTER SUMMARY From large-scale northern cattle stations to intensive feedlots and studs, beef production is central to Australian agriculture and identity. In this chapter, you will learn about the management and handling of cattle and debate the merits of different production systems. You will explore the ethics of live export and dehorning, and debate whether beef can be grown sustainably. How has beef production adapted to the harsh Australian environment? How can farmers manage the production cycle to produce high- quality beef?  284 AG TECH FOCUS 9780170443111 11.1 Introduction Beef cattle farming is one of the cornerstones of Australian agriculture, dating back to the arrival of Black Cape cattle on the First Fleet. Cattle production extends from the tropical north to the cool and temperate south, covering three-quarters of Australia’s agricultural land. The majority of Australian farms carry beef cattle, some as sole enterprises and others as part of a mixed farming system with cropping and sometimes sheep. While all Australian cattle are raised on pasture, a growing number are being fattened in feedlots. Destined for local plates and overseas markets, Australian beef is perceived as a premium source of animal protein from farms with excellent environmental standards. Australia is a small producer by world standards but is the third-largest exporter of beef. Frozen and chilled premium beef, manufacturing beef and even live cattle are sold overseas to a range of countries including Japan, the USA, Canada, Korea and Indonesia. New Zealand beef production occurs mainly on the North Island, and usually alongside sheep farming. The dairy industry markets beef in the form of culled dairy cattle and male calves. Over 80% of all New Zealand beef is exported to a range of markets. 11.2 Functions and anatomy Functions Beef cattle are primarily grown for the production of beef and veal. In Australia, veal is the meat from beef cattle who have been slaughtered before they reach 150 kg live weight. Depending on the cut of meat, beef is generally richer, more flavoursome and more textured than veal, which is mild, tender and delicately flavoured by comparison. The quality and characteristics of beef depend, not only on the age of the animal, but also carcase the body of the on the part of the carcase the cut comes from. Some cuts of meat – for example, rump and animal after removal of tenderloin – are highly valued for their quality and are sold as fillets or steaks. Other cuts are head, feet, hide and internal organs sold as manufacturing beef for the production of processed beef products including sausages, rissoles and meatballs. Ox tail Rump Striploin Ribs Topside prepared Blade Offals Tenderloin Hanger Silverside Short ribs Knuckle Chuck Shin Flank Brisket Skirt Figure 11.1 Beef carcase cuts 9780170443111 CHAPTER 11 – BEEF CATTLE 285 While meat is the main product of beef cattle, no part of the carcase is wasted. Beef CHAPTER 11 by-products made from hooves, skin, bones, internal organs and other parts of an animal include leather, anti-aging cream, fertiliser, adhesives, deodorant, glass, medicines and confectionary. Some breeds of cattle are dual-purpose, producing both beef and milk. Beef cattle breeds Compared with dairy breeds, beef breeds are generally more compact and blocky. Their udders are much smaller and they show greater muscling over their shoulders and rumps. Bos Taurus and Bos Indicus cattle British and European breeds are known as Bos Taurus cattle and include Angus, Hereford, Shorthorns, Charolais and Limousin breeds. Bos Indicus breeds, on the other hand, are bred from Indian Zebu cattle. Bos Taurus cattle are highly valued for their carcase traits. They produce beef that is tender and has a lot of intramuscular (within the muscle) fat called marbling. Marbling makes meat marbling the amount of juicy and flavoursome. British Bos Taurus breeds, such as Hereford, Angus and Shorthorn, intramuscular fat (fat within the muscle belly) produce more fat than European Bos Taurus cattle. European breeds, such as Charolais, Simmental and Limousin cattle, are generally larger at maturity with leaner carcases. Bos Indicus cattle can be identified by the hump on their shoulders. They have adaptations to keep them cool in hot climates. Long, droopy ears and dewlaps allow efficient loss of excess body heat in tropical conditions. They are also more capable of walking long distances in search of water and pasture. Bos Indicus carcases are generally lean with little marbling. Their meat is less tender than Bos Taurus cattle and they stress more easily with handling, further affecting their carcase quality. Bos Indicus x Bos Taurus breeds Several Bos Indicus x Bos Taurus cattle breeds have been developed, including the Brangus, Braford and Santa Gertrudis. These cattle combine the best traits of the parental breeds and overcome some of the issues of growing cattle in the subtropical and tropical regions of Australia. Braford cattle, for example, are resistant to cattle ticks and eye cancer due to their Brahman heritage. They also produce an excellent carcase due to their Hereford genes. Dual-purpose breeds Some breeds are suited to both beef production and dairy production. They generally cannot compete with dairy cattle in terms of milk volumes but can offer small-scale farmers another source of income. Dexters and Shorthorns are both considered dual-purpose breeds. DID Dual purpose Dexter cattle are sometimes called ‘beefy little milkers’. They YOU are very short due to a genetic mutation that sometimes causes deformed KNOW calves. 286 AG TECH FOCUS 9780170443111 Table 11.1 Beef cattle breeds Bos Taurus cattle breeds Angus Hereford Alamy Stock Photo/Mariana Fernandez Images Shutterstock.com/visuall2 Figure 11.2 Angus cattle Figure 11.3 Hereford cattle Origin: Scotland Origin: Herefordshire, England Traits: Medium size, black or red, polled Traits: Medium size, red and white, horned or (hornless). Excellent carcase and good marbling. polled. Docile and good forager. Shorthorn Charolais Alamy Stock Photo/Design Pics Inc Alamy Stock Photo/Wayne Hutchinson Figure 11.4 Shorthorn cattle Figure 11.5 Charolais cattle Origin: England Origin: France Traits: Medium frame, red and white or roan Traits: Large frame, well-muscled, horned (pictured), horned or polled, highly fertile, good or polled. Late maturing and docile. milk production. Simmental Limousin Shutterstock.com/meunierd iStock.com/theasis Figure 11.6 Simmental cattle Figure 11.7 Limousin cattle Origin: Switzerland Origin: French Traits: Large frame, well muscled. Traits: Heavily muscled, excellent carcase, Good temperament and milk production. smaller than other European breeds. Dexter Murray Grey Alamy Stock Photo/Art Directors & TRIP Shutterstock.com/William Edge Figure 11.8 Dexter cattle Figure 11.9 Murray Grey cattle Origin: Ireland Origin: Australia (from Angus/Shorthorn cross) Traits: Dwarf breed, dual purpose. Traits: Medium size, silver to grey with excellent carcase. 9780170443111 CHAPTER 11 – BEEF CATTLE 287 Bos Indicus cattle breeds CHAPTER 11 Brahman Sahiwal Shutterstock.com/Johan Larson Shutterstock.com/Elton Abreu Figure 11.10 Brahman cattle Figure 11.11 Sahiwal cattle Origin: India Origin: Pakistan Traits: Medium size with hump. Intelligent Traits: Heat and drought tolerant, excellent but shy. milk production Bos Indicus x Bos Taurus cattle breeds Brangus Santa Gertrudis Alamy Stock Photo/Terry Smith Images Dreamstime.com/ Lifeontheside Figure 11.12 Brangus cattle Figure 11.13 Santa Gertrudis cattle Origin: USA (Brahman/Angus cross). Origin: USA (from Brahman/Shorthorn cross) Traits: black or red, polled, tick and heat Traits: Mainly red with small hump, excellent heat resistant. Excellent mothers with good milk tolerance and good milk production. production. Braford Droughtmaster Shutterstock.com/paintings Shutterstock.com/Shooter11 WS Homework Analyse beef cattle breeds with this worksheet. Figure 11.14 Braford cattle Figure 11.15 Droughtmaster cattle Origin: Australia (from Brahman/Hereford Origin: Australia (Brahman/Shorthorn/Hereford cross) cross) Traits: Red and white with hump, heat tolerant, Traits: Excellent mothers, quiet temperament, high growth rates. resistant to bloat and heat. Anatomy Terminology Beef cattle are classified according to their age, sex and production use. They are also categorised according to: 1 dentition: age can be estimated by examination of the lower incisors. Cattle do not possess upper incisors, and their molars grow continually and wear down with grazing. Permanent incisors erupt according to a pattern that is reasonably reliable.  288 AG TECH FOCUS 9780170443111 2 secondary sex characteristics: the presence of features associated with sexual maturity in males, such as muscling of the neck and shoulders and development of the external genitalia, is used to help classify male cattle. Table 11.2 Aging cattle using dentition Number of Breed Average age permanent (months) teeth present 2 Bos Taurus 24 Bos Indicus 26 4 Bos Taurus 31 Bos Indicus 33 6 Bos Taurus 38 Bos Indicus 41 8 Bos Taurus 46 Bos Indicus 51 Table 11.3 Beef cattle terminology Term Definition Bull Male with intact testes, capable of reproduction, used for breeding WS Calf Young animal with no permanent incisor teeth or secondary sex characteristics Homework Carcase Body after removal of head, feet, hide and internal organs Poll Review what Forehead you know about Cow Mature female with permanent teeth, used RumpforLoin breeding anatomy with the Nostril worksheet on Finisher Cattle that have reached market weight and are ready for processing Hump (crest) Tail head NelsonNet. Heifer Young female that has not yet produced a calf Neck Steer Male that has been castrated (had testes removed), with no secondary sex Jaw characteristics Stifle Point of shoulder Vealer Young animal under 150 kg live Tail weight that has been weaned for no more than seven days Thigh Dewlap Weaner Young animal that has been weaned from milk and placed on pasture Knee Prepuce Yearling 12–18 months old with no permanent teeth andFlank no secondary sex characteristics Hoof Parts of a bull and cow Poll Poll Loin Forehead Loin Rump Rump Tail head Forehead Hump (crest) Nostril Tail head Neck Jaw Neck Tail Stifle Point of shoulder Tail Stifle Dewlap Shoulder Thigh Knee Dewlap Flank Flank Prepuce Udder Knee Navel Hoof Hoof Dewclaw Figure 11.16 Anatomy of a beef bull and cow Poll Loin Rump Tail head Forehead Neck Tail 9780170443111 CHAPTER 11 – BEEF CATTLE 289 LET’S REVIEW CHAPTER 11 LOOKING BACK 1 Define the terms: marbling, vealer, calf, bull, steer, heifer and cow. 2 Outline the main differences between beef and veal. 3 Identify five products derived from beef cattle, apart from meat. 4 Name and describe two Bos Indicus and two Bos Taurus breeds of beef cattle. FOR YOU TO DO 1 Assess the use of Bos Indicus and Bos Indicus x Bos Taurus cattle for tropical beef production. 2 a Examine the dentition of cattle at the school agriculture plot or a local farm to estimate their age. b Research other methods of determining the age of cattle. 3 a Assess the local climate and make a list of breeds you think would be best suited to your location. b Investigate breeds of cattle in your local area. Are these similar to the ones you predicted? TAKING IT FURTHER 1 Draw an outline of a beef steer on the white board or on a large sheet of butcher’s paper and colour it in to show the location of various cuts of meat. Use the True Aussie beef website to learn more about cuts of meat from beef carcases. 2 In groups, create a set of trading cards for beef breeds. Include an image, origin, characteristics and unusual facts. True Aussie beef 11.3 Production Cycle The production cycle of beef cattle is based on the reproductive cycle of the cow. Cows are joined to bulls for a period of 6–12 weeks. This allows farmers to time when calves are born, ensuring cows have access to the best feed possible to maximise their milk production. After a gestation (pregnancy) period of 283 days, calves are born. Producers aim to achieve a 96% calving rate (96 calves born live for every 100 cows joined) within a calving period of nine weeks. Achieving Target 969, as this rule is known, is an indication of a productive and profitable beef enterprise. Within two months of calving, the cows have been joined once again to a bull. In some very large farms in the northern part of Australia, bulls may be left with cows all year round. Calves are weaned off their mothers between four and nine months of age.Vealer calves are sent for processing at this age. Other calves are then generally reared on pasture. This period of time finishing a period before is called backgrounding and is an important part of the beef production cycle as good nutrition slaughter when animals are fed high energy and/ during backgrounding ensures beef calves grow well and produce an acceptable carcase. Calves or protein feeds to improve may be sold as yearlings at 12 months, they may be finished on pasture or they may be sent to a weight gain and carcase feedlot for finishing. quality  290 AG TECH FOCUS 9780170443111 Joining cow with bull two months after calving (for 6–12 weeks) Calving after 283-day gestation period Weaning calf at 4–9 months of age Finishing on pasture Backgrounding (growing) of calf Feedlotting Figure 11.17 Production cycle for beef cattle Systems Grass-fed production Most beef cattle in Australia and New Zealand are grass-fed. Grass-fed production is an stocking rate the average extensive system involving keeping animals at relatively low stocking rates. Farmers who area available to each graze livestock are called graziers. animal in a production system, usually expressed Grass-fed beef production is often part of a mixed farming enterprise, with the production as the number of animals of crops such as cereal grains and oilseeds occurring in rotation with beef production. These per hectare mixed farms are more common in the southern parts of Australia, with beef cattle grazing pasture and on the stubble from harvested crops and forage crops grown specifically for grazing. Cattle are also sometimes grazed strategically on crops that will later be harvested for human consumption. Feedlotting Feedlots are intensive production Alamy Stock Photo/Jim West systems. Cattle are kept at high stocking rates in yards of up to 6000 m2 with mechanical or hand feeding and watering. These enterprises are generally found in areas of grain production and good water access. Cattle finished in feedlots are referred to as grain-fed. Around 2% of Australian beef Figure 11.18 Feedlot production cattle are housed in feedlot systems at any point in time. Australian feedlot cattle are raised in grass-fed systems and then finished in feedlots for an average period of 50–120 days. 9780170443111 CHAPTER 11 – BEEF CATTLE 291 Northern and southern production systems CHAPTER 11 Northern Australian cattle enterprises are generally very large with low stocking rates. These grass-fed systems are dominated by the heat-tolerant Bos Indicus breeds, with animals foraging over vast distances. Cattle are either exported live to Asian markets or transported south for feedlotting before supplying other markets such as the Australian domestic market or American `hamburger meat’ market. Southern production systems usually involve Bos Taurus breeds. These systems are often more intensive than northern production systems and have higher stocking rates. Cattle are backgrounded on pasture and sometimes finished in feedlots. Southern beef farms supply the domestic and high-value export markets with superior-quality beef. Organic Organic beef is produced in grass-fed systems on certified farms. Cattle must not be treated with any pesticides, hormones, antibiotics or other non-certified chemicals. They must also not be fed genetically modified feeds. AG IN FOCUS ALEXANDRIA STATION Identify © The North Australian Pastoral Company Pty Ltd Located on the Barkly Tableland in the Northern Territory, Alexandria Station is Australia’s second- largest farm, covering over 1.6 million hectares and running around 70 000 head of cattle. Understand Alexandria Station is owned by the Northern Australian Pastoral Company, which Figure 11.19 Alexandria Station originally ran Shorthorns on the property, selecting the longest legged bulls for breeding to produce animals that could range long distances for food and water. Shorthorns are good mothers but struggle in the northern conditions. High calf losses and the impact of cattle ticks convinced the owners to introduce Brahman cattle to the property. Alexandria composite cattle – a variety based on crossbreeding between the original Shorthorns and the Brahmans – are processed for domestic and export sales of chilled beef. The station has two outposts and employs over 50 staff to perform a number of roles including stock handling, catering, driving road trains, flying planes and helicopters, checking water supplies and working in offices. Discussion 1 Describe the production system used on Alexandria Station. 2 Why did Shorthorn cattle struggle in Alexandria? 3 Identify two features of Brahman cattle that are advantageous for this production system. > 292 AG TECH FOCUS 9780170443111 > 4 Stocking rate is calculated in the following way:  Number of stock Stocking rate (animals/hectare) = Land area (hectares) a Calculate the stocking rate for Alexandria Station. b Mt Fyans in Dundonnell, Victoria, runs 5000 Angus cattle on 5900 hectares. Calculate the stocking rate for Mt Fyans and compare it with that of Alexandria Station. c Each cow in a feedlot has, on average, approximately 25 m2. Convert this to a stocking rate (remember, one hectare = 10 000 m2). d Deduct some of the factors that might be responsible for the difference in stocking rates between Alexandria, Mt Fyans and an average feedlot. 5 Investigate what life would be like on a northern Australian cattle station. Imagine your life as a teenager, and write a report on: a chores you would be required to do (including farm work) b schooling c connections with friends and the local community d prospects and opportunities after school. LET’S REVIEW LOOKING BACK 1 How long are cows and bulls joined for in southern and northern production systems? 2 State the length of gestation of cows and the age of weaning of calves. 3 What is backgrounding and why is it important? 4 Identify two differences between: a grass-fed and grain-fed production b northern and southern production systems. FOR YOU TO DO 1 Assess the costs associated with grass-fed and grain-fed cattle production. Consider feeding, management, environmental impacts and infrastructure (all of the necessary buildings, roads and other structures). 2 Conduct a poll of students’ parents and guardians to determine their attitudes to grass-fed and grain-fed beef. Design questions to determine: a As consumers, are they aware of the production systems these cattle are grown in? b Do they have any concerns about environmental impacts or animal welfare? c Is there a perceived difference in quality and price between the two types of beef? TAKING IT FURTHER 1 Use Google Earth to locate the following properties. Explore them and compare their location, vegetative cover, topography, proximity to towns and markets, and any infrastructure. a Alexandria Station, Northern Territory b Mt Fyan, Victoria c Sandlewood Feedlot, Irvingvale, Queensland. d Beaumont Station, Central Otago, New Zealand 9780170443111 CHAPTER 11 – BEEF CATTLE 293 11.4 Management CHAPTER 11 Environmental management Distribution Beef cattle are farmed over more than half of Australia’s landmass. Queensland boasts the highest proportion of the national herd. Feedlots are found mainly in south- eastern Queensland and the Riverina and Northern Tablelands districts of WS New South Wales. Homework Climate Investigate the climate Northern production zone of two different beef Southern production zone production areas in Beef farming occurs over a wide range Australia and analyse how climate affects of climates in Australia. Enterprises production with the Comparing climates in the northern tropical region Figure 11.20 Distribution of beef cattle in Australia worksheet. must contend with highly variable monsoonal rainfall, while coastal production is affected by humidity and heat. Extensive grass- fed systems must adapt to the climate of a particular location. Climatic management includes choice of cattle breeds, appropriate stocking rates and grazing management. Environmental management of feedlots Cattle in feedlots can suffer from excessive heat load, or heat stress. This can cause decreased growth rates, organ failure and death. Excessive heat load is a particular risk for cattle that have been transported to feedlots from milder climates. Apart from high temperatures, feedlots must also manage humidity, airflow and the build-up of noxious gases. Shades and sprinklers can be used Shutterstock.com/Jen Watson to cool cattle. Sprinklers must be set to deliver large droplets that cause evaporative cooling, rather than mist, which can stay suspended in the air, increasing humidity. Airflow can be difficult to manage. Large fans used in orchards to reduce frost damage have been suggested as an option for summer. Helicopters and light aircraft have also been used to improve airflow around feedlots. Pasture management Figure 11.21 Native pasture supporting beef cattle Pasture is a mix of grasses, legumes and herbs that are managed by a farmer for feeding grazing animals. Australian and New Zealand cattle rely on pasture or other green feed for at least part of their lives. Feedlot cattle are fed grain for a short period of time but spend most of their life grazing on pasture. 294 AG TECH FOCUS 9780170443111 Improved pastures Shutterstock.com/Young Swee Ming Improved pastures, composed of highly nutritious introduced grasses, clovers and other plants, are dealt with in our discussion of dairy production in Chapter 10. These pasture types play an important role in beef production, especially in coastal and irrigation areas where sufficient water is available to support them. Native pastures Native pastures are found throughout the northern production area and in some Figure 11.22 Kangaroo grass WS parts of the southern production area. They exist as grasslands or woodlands, and contain a mix of grasses, lilies, daisies, sedges, rushes Homework and herbs that have adapted to the harsh Australian conditions over millions of years. Native Collect native grass species and explore pastures vary depending on the location and climate. Many now contain introduced species of whether they can be used for grazing grass, legumes and herbs. livestock with the Kangaroo, Mitchell and Weeping grass are three native grasses that can be used for grazing practical NelsonNet worksheet. beef cattle. Careful management of native grasses relies on identifying the species that are present and understanding their patterns of growth and reproduction. Table 11.4 Advantages and disadvantages of native pastures Advantages Disadvantages Many are perennial species, so do not Generally less nutritious than introduced require sowing each season species Deeper, denser roots reduce erosion and Less palatable (tasty) can combat salinity Not as responsive to irrigation or fertiliser Drought and heat tolerant Can be easily overgrazed Disease resistant More difficult to establish in a pasture Higher native biodiversity Support relatively low stocking rates Very water efficient Require few inputs (fertiliser, water etc.) Good source of drought feed Enterprise management Binocular 25–50° Cattle handling Cattle behaviour DS Safe cattle handling is only possible when cattle behaviour is understood. Cattle are Data scenario Homework herd animals and will mob together. This Investigate how the behaviour and makes mustering herds easy but can make Monocular Monocular temperament of cattle affects weight gain. drafting animals into smaller groups more difficult. Isolated animals are likely to panic and can be particularly dangerous: WS never place yourself between an isolated Homework animal and its mob. Find out more Cattle have a very wide field of about cattle behaviour Blind spot 40° with this worksheet. vision, but only a small part at the front Figure 11.23 Cattle field of vision 9780170443111 CHAPTER 11 – BEEF CATTLE 295 of the animal is binocular. Cattle are Blind spot CHAPTER 11 unable to judge distances with their monocular range of vision and need to Edge of Handler’s position be given extra time to locate and focus flight zone to stop movement on gates and fences. Flight zone and point of balance 45° Handler’s position The flight zone is a perimeter around to start movement binocular vision or sight an animal. If a handler moves inside using both eyes, allowing 90° for depth perception this perimeter, the animal will move away. Flight zone size is different monocular vision or sight Point of balance using one eye or lens between different animals and can even change for individual animals Figure 11.24 Flight zone and point of balance for beef according to circumstances. If the cattle animal is stressed its flight zone will generally be larger. Handlers can use the flight zone to move cattle. When the handler steps into and out of the flight zone, cattle will be encouraged to move without being stressed or pressured. Mobs of cattle also have a collective flight zone that can be used in the same way for mustering. Point of balance refers to a line drawn perpendicular to the shoulder. Cattle will move backwards if a handler stands in front of the point of balance, and forwards if they are approached from behind the point of balance. Handlers can make cattle move forwards or backwards by walking parallel to the cattle, past their point of balance. Cattle yards and facilities At a minimum, a cattle yard should include: WS 1 a holding yard for containing a mob Homework 2 a crush, a device for restraining cattle, used for drenching, vaccinating, castrating, tagging, Make sure you know how pregnancy testing and other husbandry activities to safely handle cattle with the Cattle yards and 3 a race, a narrow laneway leading to the crush husbandry worksheet. 4 a forcing pen, a smaller area that can be used to force cattle into the race 5 a ramp for loading and unloading livestock. Safe handling relies on operators being aware of how to use these facilities correctly. Ideally, cattle should be able to be worked through yards without handlers needing to be in the same pen or yard as the animals. Ramp Holding yard Forcing pen Crush Race Figure 11.25 Cattle yard facilities  296 AG TECH FOCUS 9780170443111 LET’S DISCUSS 1 What kinds of materials have you seen used in cattle yards? Which materials do you think are the safest and most durable? HANDLING CATTLE PURPOSE b safety during handling To observe best practice cattle handling c the importance of techniques, create a risk assessment communication for handling cattle at school and then d features of good yard design practise using flight zones, point of e using parallel movement. LET’S ENGAGE balance and parallel movement to work 3 Draw a diagram of the school cattle cattle through yards yards or yards at a local farm. 4 Write a risk assessment for handling RISK ASSESSMENT cattle in these yards using the online template. Use the online template to create a risk assessment for this 5 Under the supervision of your teacher, activity. View the videolink for muster cattle and move them through details on safe cattle handling. cattle yards. Use point of balance, Risk assessment template parallel movement and flight zones. MATERIALS DISCUSSION Internet access 1 Identify any features of your cattle Cattle and yards (if none at school, yards that need to be modified to use videolink and visit a local farm if ensure safe handling. possible) 2 Did your risk assessment take into account different types of METHOD cattle? How might your handling 1 Before handling cattle, watch the techniques change for bulls, calves Animals in Schools Best Practice or pregnant cows? Cattle Handling video. 3 Research the work of Temple 2 Take notes on the following topics Cattle handling Grandin in designing cattle-friendly covered in the video: yards and promoting humane a preparation for mustering and livestock handling. handling Basic husbandry Many basic husbandry procedures are carried out on beef cattle. Some of these are discussed in more detail in Chapter 10. Table 11.5 Beef husbandry procedures Procedure Description Castration Removal of testes from males to produce steers Vaccination Protection against diseases including clostridial diseases Tagging Compulsory NLIS tags placed in ears for identification Drenching Oral or topical (on the skin) dosing with anti-parasitic medication Dehorning Removal of horn buds or tissue > 9780170443111 CHAPTER 11 – BEEF CATTLE 297 > Procedure Description CHAPTER 11 Artificial insemination Semen introduced through cervix into the uterus of breeding cows to achieve pregnancy Pregnancy testing Rectal examination to detect empty (non-pregnant) or gravid (pregnant) uterus Weighing Monitoring weight gains using scales installed in crush Weaning Removal (drafting) of calves from mothers Some of these procedures are carried out at calf marking. This occurs when calves are around six months old and includes castration, vaccination, tagging and drenching. Weaning can occur at the same time or later. Digestion and nutrition Refer to Chapter 10 Dairy cattle for a detailed explanation of cattle digestion. Cows are ruminant animals and possess a modified digestive system that has evolved to allow them to digest tough plant materials such as lignin and cellulose. They do this via a symbiotic relationship with the microbes – bacteria, fungi and protozoa – that live in the rumen and reticulum. These first two stomachs are the site of microbial fermentation, the products of which microbial fermentation provide cattle with energy, protein and some vitamins. the breakdown of feedstuffs by microbes, in the absence Beef cattle diets depend on the production system, stage of production and available feeds. of oxygen Feeds can be classified as either roughages or concentrates. Roughages include pasture, hay, forage crops and silage. Concentrates – including cereal grains and high-protein meals – are used extensively in feedlot production as a source of energy and protein. Grass-fed cattle are often finished on concentrates. Grass-fed nutritional management Depending on seasonal conditions and the availability of other feed, pasture-based cattle may be fed any combination of feeds shown in Figure 11.26. Pasture is the cheapest and easiest feed. Knowledge of the quantity and quality of pasture in a paddock is an important management tool. Pasture quality varies with the type of pasture plants and their stage of growth. Early season growth may appear to be less productive, but is usually much more nutritious than later season mature grasses and seed heads. Stubble grazing – stalks, Native grasses Improved pastures – introduced chaff and fallen grain from and shrubs grasses and legumes requiring harvested crops fertiliser or irrigation Strategic grazing of crops – cattle Hay and silage – grazed at particular conserved fodder to times, crop later supplement grazing harvested Mineral licks to Forage crops – specifically provide essential grown for grazing Hand feeding grain nutrients by animals Figure 11.26 Feeding options for grass-fed beef cattle 298 AG TECH FOCUS 9780170443111 ASSESSING PASTURE YIELD AND DETERMINING STOCKING RATES PURPOSE 3 Place batches of the sample in the Dry matter yield is a measure of how open container in microwave next to LET’S ENGAGE much pasture is available in a paddock. the full cup of water. It is calculated in kilograms per hectare. 4 Heat for 1–2 minutes, then carefully toss sample. Keep heating until dry. RISK ASSESSMENT 5 Repeat with rest of sample. 6 Weigh entire dry sample and calculate Take care when using secateurs dry matter (DM) yield per hectare: to avoid injury. Ensure a mug of water is used in microwave to DM (kg/ha) = Weight of dry sample (kg) avoid fires. Drying samples may x 10 000 be hot. 7 Use the MLA Stocking Rate calculator MATERIALS to determine the stocking rate for: Wire coathanger quadrat (bent to a 200 kg steers form a square) b lactating cows Meat & Livestock Australia stocking rate Scissors or secateurs Assume a pasture growth rate of 10 kg calculator Bag for collection DM/ha per day. Microwave DISCUSSION Microwave-safe plastic container 1 Explain why 25 random samples Microwave-safe mug full of water were collected rather than just Electronic scales one. METHOD 2 Use the MLA calculator to determine the relationship 1 Collect 25 random samples from between duration of grazing and the paddock by throwing the stocking rate. quadrat. Harvest all the grass within the quadrat and place in the 3 Explain why the stocking rate bag. The quadrat should measure for steers is different to that for approximately 20 cm x 20 cm, so lactating cows. 25 samples will equal 1m2. 4 What are some of the limitations 2 Cut the samples up into 3–4 cm long of this system for working out pieces. stocking rates? What factors does it not take into account? Finishing and feedlotting cattle Some cattle are finished on forage crops or good quality hay, but many – including cattle in feedlots – are finished on a grain-based diet. Grains such as wheat, sorghum, triticale and barley are combined with lupins, cottonseed or canola meal and hay or silage, then supplemented with minerals and other additives to meet the exact nutritional needs of cattle for particular markets. DS Grass-fed cattle must be changed over slowly onto grain-based diets because a sudden change Data scenario to a grain diet can cause grain poisoning or acidosis, and death. Homework Investigate the effect Hormone growth promotants are implants placed under the skin of cattle to improve how of hormone growth efficiently they convert food into body weight. They are used in feedlots to help cattle reach promotants with the data scenario. target weights quicker. 9780170443111 CHAPTER 11 – BEEF CATTLE 299 CHAPTER 11 Roughage Rumen modifiers – hay or green chop Concentrates – momensin, tylosin, etc. – for rumen microbe – grain, molasses, – for production benefits health cottonseed and and to manipulate rumen canola meal microbe populations – for energy Minerals Buffers – calcium, phosphorus, – sodium bicarbonate to magnesium, etc. reduce chance of acidosis – for good rumen – bentonite to increase function and health microbial protein use of animal Figure 11.27 Components of a feedlot ration COMPARING FINISHING RATIONS AIM METHOD To compare the effect of different 1 Weigh cattle using live weight scales LET’S EXPERIMENT rations on the growth of steers or estimate the weight by measuring the circumference of the chest just HYPOTHESIS behind the front legs. Use an online Which diet do you think will produce the table to convert this length to a Weight by girth calculator highest growth rates? weight estimate. 2 Divide the cattle into two treatment RISK ASSESSMENT groups. Each group will be fed Refer to the Risk Assessment created in a different grain-based diet. the cattle handling activity. Choose locally available affordable ingredients. Formulate diets that  Grains, pellets and hay can contain: produce dust and allergens. 20% roughage (this can be Mix feed in a ventilated area. supplied by pasture or access to good quality hay) MATERIALS 80% grain or other concentrates (oats, sorghum, dried distillers This experiment relies on access to beef grain, pellets, etc.). steers. If cattle are not available, use on online ration calculator to estimate 3 Formulate rations for each group: results for this experiment: a Calculate the weight of concen- Minimum of two head of cattle, trates for each animal. We will preferably of the same sex, age and be feeding 2% of the animal’s body weight as concentrates Beef ration calculator breed each day: Concentrates and roughages, as needed depending on rations Weight of concentrates (kg) = Live weight x 0.02 Weigh scales or measuring tape > 300 AG TECH FOCUS 9780170443111 > b Start by only feeding half of this 2 Was this a valid experiment? How weight, then gradually increase could we improve its validity? to the full amount. Split the Explore the elements of good feed into a morning and after- experimental design in Chapter 5. noon ration if possible. 3 What advice would you give to beef farmers based on the results of this RESULTS experiment? 1 Weigh cattle at the same time of day 4 Determine the content of energy and before feeding each week and record protein in the formulated rations. your results in a table. Visit Agriculture Victoria to learn 2 If more than one animal was used about the feed value of selected per treatment group, calculate the foodstuffs. mean for each group. Feed value of selected CONCLUSION 3 Draw stacked line graphs of weight foodstuffs Was your hypothesis correct, incorrect gain over time for each diet. or partially correct? DISCUSSION 1 Interpret your results. Which diet resulted in the highest weight gain? Reproduction The bovine reproductive system and reproductive technologies are described in detail in Chapter 10 Dairy cattle. In this section we will be learning about selective breeding and the beef seedstock market. Beef seedstock Seedstock are breeding cattle registered with a breed association. They are used for breeding WS on cattle studs, also known as seedstock operations. Seedstock bulls have documented Homework pedigrees and their production traits are recorded as estimated breeding values (EBVs) through Understand EBVs with the BREEDPLAN, the Australian beef cattle EBV database. NelsonNet worksheet. EBVs are a numerical way of comparing the traits of a particular animal to that of the breed average. Weight gain, fertility and carcase characteristics are some of the production traits recorded as EBVs. BREEDPLAN keeps records for all beef breeds in Australia. Commercial producers can choose to buy semen from seedstock bulls based on EBVs. Seedstock operators also sell bulls, cows, heifers and embryos. Explore BREEDPLAN to find registered cattle from the school AG IN FOCUS or nearby stud. LOWLINE SEEDSTOCK Identify Lowlines originated from a 1974 NSW Department of Agriculture experiment on growth rates in Angus cattle. The resultant cattle are now a recognised breed. Understand While stud and commercial beef producers generally select stock for fast growth rates, researchers were curious about the value of slow growing cattle. They hypothesised that selecting for slower growth would lead to smaller breeding cows that would eat less feed and could be stocked at higher rates. > 9780170443111 CHAPTER 11 – BEEF CATTLE 301 > CHAPTER 11 Angus cattle were divided into Katie Fenlon three groups to examine the effect of growth rate on carcase traits, productivity and fertility: 1 lowlines, with slower growth rates 2 highlines, with faster growth rates 3 control, randomly selected from the same population. Herds were set up in Trangie Figure 11.28 Blackberry the bull: great-grandson and then Glenn Innes and Hamilton of Trangie K121 and Glenn Innes N355 as numbers increased. By the end of the experiment, the lowlines (so named because theirs was the low line on the growth rate chart) were 30% smaller than the highline calves and were less efficient and fertile than the control group. They were highly valued by small beef producers, and when the experiment finished, the herd was sold off, each animal possessing a Trangie, Glenn Innes or Hamilton number. Lowlines are generally docile and easy to handle. Read a summary of the Discussion Trangie research 1 Name and describe the three treatment groups for the Lowline experiment. 2 What advantage did researchers think the slow growing cattle might have over faster growing animals? 3 Evaluate lowlines as a breed for school agriculture plots. 4 Investigate the breeding of lowlines using the weblink provided. Australian Lowline Cattle Outbreeding and inbreeding Association Inbreeding involves the mating of two closely related individuals. This is sometimes performed to increase the likelihood of a valuable trait being passed on to the offspring. Breeders attempting to improve the genetics of their stock may sometimes breed daughters to sires (fathers) or grandsires (grandfathers) in a system called linebreeding. Inbreeding can increase the risk of diseases caused by recessive genetic traits. Arthrogryposis Multiplex or curly calf syndrome is a genetic disease of Angus cattle where calves are stillborn with twisted spines. Calves must inherit two copies of the mutated gene to develop the syndrome. Carrier cattle possess one copy of the mutant gene, which they can pass on to their offspring. Inbreeding can increase the chance of a calf inheriting two copies of this gene and therefore being affected. Outbreeding is any breeding strategy where unrelated animals from different breeds or populations are mated. Crossbreeding is the most common form of outbreeding in beef production. A common rule of crossbreeding is to select cows for country (the environment and conditions) and bulls for the market (desired characteristics of the carcase).  302 AG TECH FOCUS 9780170443111 The offspring of crossbreeding are Shutterstock.com/Martin Belli known as hybrids and possess hybrid vigour, performing better than the average of the parents in measures of performance, hardiness and health. For their first pregnancies Hereford heifers are often mated to Angus bulls. The offspring is a calf with distinctive facial markings and a lower birth weight than a pure Hereford. The small size of the crossbred calf causes fewer calving problems, but these Black Baldies, as they are known, have good growth rates and Figure 11.29 Black Baldy calf produce high quality carcases. Identification NLIS and data collection The National Livestock Identification System (NLIS) is a system of electronic tagging WS and tracing of livestock to track stock movements, control disease outbreaks, ensure Homework food safety and provide the market with information needed for quality assurance Practise interpreting of carcases. NLIS tags with this practical worksheet. When moving, selling or buying livestock, a National Vendor Declaration must be completed. This documents which properties the animal will be travelling between, its NLIS Shutterstock.com/DunnyPhotoAckstText number and relevant information relating to withholding period the biosecurity and withholding periods. 3A 3A minimum period of time BC 0001 BC D 12 Electronic NLIS tags are placed in the right 0 00 1 3X B0 B D 12 from when a chemical was ear or rumen of animals. A wand or panel reader is 3XBB0 applied to when an area can be accessed, or a plant or used to record the tag number. Databases of NLIS animal can be processed tags can be used to keep track of: and/or consumed 3ABCD1 234LB 1 production data such as weight gain 0022 E 2 2 reproduction data including pregnancy scanning data, breeding history and BREEDPLAN traits 3 health records, such as vaccination and drenching Figure 11.30 NLIS tag examples and information. placement Records and financial management Calendar of operations A calendar of operations is an organisational tool that allows farmers to plan out all the activities occurring on a beef property over the year. When using this tool, farm managers can plan for the purchase of inputs and labour requirements in advance. A calendar of operations for a NSW south coast grass-fed beef operation is shown in Figure 11.31. 9780170443111 CHAPTER 11 – BEEF CATTLE 303 Month Calendar of operations CHAPTER 11 Drench for liver fluke January Silage making Monitor for pinkeye Pregnancy testing Sell 18-month-old February Fertilise pastures steers and empty breeder cows Wean, drench, March vaccinate calves Drench for worms April and fluke Graze oats / May supplementary feed Select replacement June heifers July Calving August Purchase new bulls, Vaccinate bulls September sell cull heifers and cows October Joining Calf marking November (castrate, dehorn, NLIS tagging, vaccinate) Silage making December Vaccinate for pinkeye Figure 11.31 Calendar of operations for a beef property AG IN FOCUS GROSS MARGINS FOR NATIVE AND IMPROVED PASTURES Identify Gross margins can be used to compare farming enterprises or marketing options. They can also be used to make decisions about how to run a particular enterprise. For example, is it more profitable to run cattle on native pastures or invest in improved pastures? > 304 AG TECH FOCUS 9780170443111 > Understand Table 11.6 shows a gross margin budget for a 250-hectare, 100-cow enterprise producing yearling steers and heifers on unimproved native pasture. Table 11.7 shows the gross margin budget for a different 100-cow enterprise run on 173 hectares of improved pasture. Table 11.6 Gross margin budget for beef cattle on 250 ha of native pasture Income No. of head Income ($/head) Budget (No. of head x Income) Yearling steers 30 832 24960 Yearling heifers 15 533 7995 Cull for age bull 1 810 810 Cull for age cows 12 331 3972 Total income $ Variable expenses Cost ($) Vet costs 2061 Pasture management 0 Sales costs 4020 Variable costs $ Gross margin (GM) = Total income – Variable costs = $ Gross margin per hectare = GM/250 = $ Gross margin per cow = GM/100 = $ Table 11.7 Gross margin budget for beef cattle on 172 ha of improved pasture Income No. of head Income ($/head) Budget (No. of head x Income) Yearling steers 30 958 Yearling heifers 15 603 Cull for age bull 1 1020 Cull for age cows 12 561 Total income $ Variable expenses Cost ($) Vet costs 2003 Pasture management 10 081 Sales costs 4080 Variable costs $ Gross margin (GM) = Total income - Variable costs = $ Gross margin per hectare = GM/173 = $ Gross margin per cow = GM/100 = $ > 9780170443111 CHAPTER 11 – BEEF CATTLE 305 > CHAPTER 11 Discussion 1 Identify differences between the properties in income and costs. Can you account for these differences? 2 Calculate: a the budgeted incomes for yearling steers, yearling heifer and cull cows for the improved pasture property by multiplying the income per head by the number of head of stock for each category. b total incomes for both properties. c variable costs for both properties. 3 Now calculate the gross margins by using the formula in the table. Gross margins can be expressed in several ways. You will be calculating three versions of gross margin budgets and using them to compare the properties: a Calculate simple gross margins by subtracting variable costs from total income for each property. b Gross margin per hectare tells us how profitable an enterprise is per hectare. Use the formula in the table to calculate this. c Gross margin per cow allows us to compare profitability per head of livestock. Use the formula in the table to calculate this for both properties. 4 Use your calculations to evaluate the profitability of native pasture-based enterprises compared to improved pastured systems. LET’S REVIEW LOOKING BACK 1 Describe the distribution of the northern and southern production areas. 2 Explain what EHL is and identify two ways it can be prevented in feedlots. 3 Identify three native grasses. 4 Give three examples of how flight zone and point of balance can be used to move cattle safely. 5 Identify three operations included in the calendar of operations in Figure 11.31 and explain the importance of each one. FOR YOU TO DO 1 Decide whether the following costs are fixed or variable: seed, interest payments on tractor, fertiliser, land rates, drench, vet fees, transport to abattoir and internet access. 2 Use Tables 11.6 and 11.7 to compare native and improved pastures. a Which pasture system would be best suited to a seedstock stud on irrigated land? Why? b Which is more suited to extensive northern beef production? Why? 3 Construct a calendar of operations for the school cattle herd or a local beef property. 4 Examine cattle distribution maps at Meat and Livestock Australia. Explore the current distribution and examine recent changes. 5 Assess the benefits of hormone growth promotant implants in the following situations: a a northern Australian grass-fed cattle station b a feedlot finishing steers for market Livestock distribution maps c a southern grass-fed operation that exports beef to Korea and the European Union. >  306 AG TECH FOCUS 9780170443111 > TAKING IT FURTHER 1 Investigate incidents of stock theft in the past 12 months. a Search for news about cattle theft online. b Explain the role of NLIS tags in combating stock theft. c Find out what information needs to be reported to the police if stock has been stolen. Stock theft report template 2 Make a scale model of cattle yards using icypole sticks, matchsticks or other materials. In your design, include a crush, ramp, holding yard, forcing pen and race. 3 Visit the school agriculture plot or a local farm and investigate areas where NLIS tags could be used for data collection. Choose one area or problem and write a report outlining your proposed solution and the benefits of NLIS data collection. 11.5 Pests and diseases Pests Liver fluke Fasciola hepatica, the liver fluke, causes disease in a range of species including cattle, sheep and humans. Mature flukes lay eggs in the bile duct of an infected animal, which are then passed out onto pasture in the faeces. There the eggs hatch and the flukes spend part of their life cycle in freshwater snails. Tadpole-like larvae are then released and eaten by cattle or sheep during grazing. The flukes then burrow through the wall of the intestine into the abdominal cavity and make their way to the liver. After penetrating the liver capsule, they migrate to the bile duct and lay eggs, completing the cycle. The fluke lifecycle depends on the presence of freshwater snail hosts and a suitably damp environment. The parasite is a problem in areas where rainfall exceeds 600 mm a year or where irrigation is used on pasture. Fasciolitis, the disease caused by the fluke, can present as a sudden onset, severe outbreak in stock causing rapid death. It can also be chronic, with affected animals suffering from anaemia, fluid accumulation, and yellowing of the skin and mucous membranes caused by liver failure. Management of fluke involves controlling the environment to reduce fluke numbers and stock flukicide an ingestion, and the use of flukicides to treat infections. insecticide used to kill or reduce the numbers of flukes LET’S DISCUSS 1 How could beef farmers control the environment to prevent fluke infestations? Brown stomach worms Ostertagia, or brown stomach worms, cause disease in young newly weaned stock grazing infected pastures. Cows are also susceptible around the time of calving. Damage to the gut wall is caused by