agtechfocus_06_Vegetablemarketgardening (1).pdf

2 Shutterstock.com/Arina P Habich Section Plant enterprises Shutterstock.com/audaxl CHAPTER 6 Vegetable market gardening CHAPTER SUMMARY Vegetables are one of the most used products in agriculture. Almost every household will use vegetables in daily life. Vegetables have been farmed for centuries, w...

2 Shutterstock.com/Arina P Habich Section Plant enterprises Shutterstock.com/audaxl CHAPTER 6 Vegetable market gardening CHAPTER SUMMARY Vegetables are one of the most used products in agriculture. Almost every household will use vegetables in daily life. Vegetables have been farmed for centuries, with Aboriginal peoples digging yam daisies from the ground prior to European settlement. Sustainable vegetable-growing practices, such as crop rotations and clever management of water and soil, enable farmers to grow vegetables efficiently. Investigation of the best growing methods for plants and knowledge of plant management techniques can be used to grow and monitor your own vegetables. How can we manage the environment to successfully grow vegetables? How can we sustainably grow vegetables in our own backyards? 130 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS 6.1 Introduction 800 600 400 200 es ni bl ta ge As ia n ve Pu Zu cc hi in s s pk an m ce Be ttu He ad le rb s ns Fr es h he io s On um rs ic ps Ca cu m be co li s es ot oc rr Ca Br Cu d ve ge ta bl m s s y af Le Le af y sa la M us hr oo oe at m To Po ta to es 0 Figure 6.1 Most popular vegetables produced in Australia by production value There are approximately 2300 vegetable farms in Australia. These are a mix of intensive farms (high production in small areas) or extensive farms on large areas of ground. Thirty per cent of these farms are less than 5 hectares. Most of these intensive farms are located close to major towns and cities, but these are under threat from urbanisation as cities and towns continue to expand. 6.2 Functions and structures herbaceous plants with little or no woody tissue, usually grown in one season perennial a plant that lives for more than two years without needing to be re-sown Functions Vegetables are plants of which at least one part is used for food.Vegetables come from different parts of a plant, such as the leaves, flowers, roots, seeds, buds, fruit and stem. They are typically classified as herbaceous plants that are grown seasonally. Some vegetables are harvested for a second year or can be perennial, such as asparagus and warrigal greens. Australian Horticulture Statistics Handbook, 2016/17 Production value ($m) There are many ways to define vegetables, but this chapter will look at the edible produce of market gardeners and larger scale vegetable growers, including crops grown for their fruit, leaves, stems, roots and seeds. The vegetable industry contributed $4.148 billion to the Australian economy in 2018-19. Potatoes are the bestseller with 1.3 million tonnes produced annually, valued at approximately $745 million. They are closely followed by tomatoes, mushrooms, leafy salad vegetables and carrots.Vegetables are the fourth-highest valued agricultural industry in Australia, after beef, wheat and milk. 9780170443111 CHAPTER 6 – VEGETABLE MARKET GARDENING 131 Table 6.1 Vegetables are classified according to the part of the plant that is eaten Examples root carrot, beetroot, turnip stem celery, asparagus leaf lettuce, kale, spinach bud Brussels sprouts seed corn, sugar snap peas flower broccoli, cauliflower, artichoke fruit of the plant tomato, capsicum, zucchini, watermelon bulb onion, fennel, garlic LET’S DISCUSS 1 Brainstorm different vegetables that can be eaten (try to think of ones not in the table above). 2 Categorise the vegetables according to the part that is eaten. Vegetables can be classified into other groups as well, including: country of origin: for example, Europe – celery, lettuce, asparagus; Asia – Chinese cabbage, bok choy, pak choy botanical name and the plant family they belong to, as seen in Table 6.2. Table 6.2 Plant families Family name Examples Allium garlic, onions, leek Brassica broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower Cucurbits pumpkin, cucumber, gourds Fabaceae beans, peas, snow peas Solanaceae potatoes, tomatoes, eggplant Umbelliferae carrots, celery DID YOU KNOW The most popular vegetables in Australia are carrots and potatoes, with 93% of Australian households purchasing these vegetables! CHAPTER 6 Part of the vegetable 132 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS Structure Parts of a plant Flower Leaves Fruit (contains seed) Stem Roots Figure 6.2 Diagram of a typical plant monocotyledon plants that have only one seed leaf and whose seeds contain endosperm to provide nutrients for the seedling Endosperm Embryo Radicle Cotyledon Seed coat Figure 6.3 Inside of a bean (dicotyledon) and corn (monocotyledon) seed Table 6.3 Parts of a seed Term Definition Embryo Initial stage of development for the future plant – a baby plant Radicle The first part of a seed to emerge; it becomes the roots of the plant Cotyledon The seed leaves; first leaves of the plant Seed coat Outside of the seedling, a protective cover Endosperm The tissue surrounding a seed embryo, providing it with nutrition Embryo Shutterstock.com/Imageman dicotyledon plants that, among other traits, have a pair of special leaves called cotyledons that emerge from the seed. These cotyledons contain a food source for the newly emerged seedling. Shutterstock.com/Ivaschenko Roman The seed 9780170443111 CHAPTER 6 – VEGETABLE MARKET GARDENING COMPARING TYPES OF SEED PURPOSE To identify the difference between a corn seed (monocot) and a bean seed (dicot) LET’S ENGAGE MATERIALS CHAPTER 6 The seed contains the embryo, or baby, of a new plant. It contains a source of nutrition for the embryo and is covered in a protective coating, allowing it to survive until the conditions are right for germination. During germination, the seed swells with water and a first root and shoot emerge. 133 germination the sprouting of a seed to produce a seedling Bean seeds Corn seeds Petri dish Water Scalpel Pen and paper RISK ASSESSMENT Scalpels should be handled with care. METHOD 1 2 3 4 Soak the seeds in water for at least a few hours (or overnight). When soft, gently dissect the seeds, cutting each in half. Draw a sketch of the inside of each seed. Label your sketch. Use Table 6.3 and Figure 6.3 to help you identify different parts of your seed. DISCUSSION 1 Describe the differences between the cotyledons of the two seeds. 2 Was one seed easier to dissect than the other? Can you explain why? 3 Identify the region in each seed that provides nutrition to the seed and newly emerged seedling. 4 Now germinate some of the seeds, and examine them during the process of germination. a Do shoots or roots emerge first? b Describe differences between the appearance of seed leaves. c What happens to the seed coat in each example? The roots Taproot Fibrous root Root hair Dicots Figure 6.4 Types of roots Root hair Monocots taproot a main root that descends from the base of the stem on a dicot plant seed as a primary root and produces numerous branches. Taproots often store sugars and starches. fibrous roots multiple roots that come off the base of the stem of a monocot plant seed and branch out in all directions 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS The roots anchor the plant into the soil, absorb minerals and water, and sometimes store sugars and starches. Water and dissolved nutrients are absorbed through tiny root hairs into the plant roots. Phloem Xylem The stem Sugars The stem holds the leaves and flowers up in the air. The stems also contain the phloem, which transports sugars, and xylem, which transports water and mineral nutrients around the plant. H2O Figure 6.5 The phloem and xylem OBSERVING STEMS 4 As soon as the dye starts to be taken up by the celery, cut a thin cross section from one stem and examine under a microscope. Make a drawing showing the location of the xylem (it will be stained by the food colouring). PURPOSE To identify how water travels up the stem of celery LET’S ENGAGE 134 MATERIALS Few drops of food dye Beaker of water Fresh stalk of celery DISCUSSION METHOD 1 Place a few drops of food dye in the beaker of water. 2 Cut off the bottom of the celery. 3 Place the stem into the beaker of water and observe at regular intervals over the next two days. 1 Draw a diagram showing the passage of water up the celery stalk. Make sure to label your diagram. 2 How long did it take for food colouring to reach the leaves? 3 What environmental or climate factors might affect how much water and nutrients will be transported up stems? The leaves The leaves are the most important part of the plant because photosynthesis occurs there. Photosynthesis is when the plant absorbs carbon dioxide and water and, using the energy from sunlight, produces glucose and oxygen. The leaves contain tiny holes called stomata. Carbon dioxide and oxygen travel through these holes, in and out of the leaves. Water evaporates through the stomata, and this causes more water to be sucked up the xylem, just like drinking though a straw. This process is called transpiration and brings water and dissolved soil nutrients needed for growth and development up into the plant tissue. Carbon dioxide + Water 6CO2 + H2O Solar energy Solar energy Glucose + Oxygen C6H12O6 + 6O2 Respiration is when the plant uses the glucose produced by photosynthesis and oxygen to supply itself with its energy requirements. Respiration occurs all the time, while photosynthesis only occurs in daytime. 9780170443111 CHAPTER 6 – VEGETABLE MARKET GARDENING 135 The flower CHAPTER 6 Flowers are the sexual reproductive structures of plants. Male sex cells, the Stigma pollen, are produced on the anthers. Female Anthers Style sex cells are called ovules and are held Stamen Ovary inside the ovary. Some plants have flowers Ovule with both male and female parts (example, tomatoes). Others possess these separately. For example, pumpkin plants have separate male and female flowers. Other plants, such as avocados, have only male or female Figure 6.6 Parts of a flower flowers. Plants reproduce sexually through a process of pollination followed by fertilisation. fertilisation the fusion of male and female sex cells to produce an embryo Table 6.4 Parts of a flower Term Definition Stigma A sticky surface to which pollen attaches during pollination Style A thin tube through which the pollen tube moves to reach the ovary Ovary Site of the female reproductive cells, or ovule Ovule Female reproductive cells (once fertilised will develop into seeds) Stamen Holds anthers up Anthers Site of pollen production WS Homework Review the functions of different parts of a plant with the NelsonNet worksheet. Pollination involves the transfer of pollen from the anthers to the sticky surface of the stigma. A plant can pollinate itself in a process called self-pollination. One flower can also pollinate a flower from another plant, a process called cross pollination. Pollination can occur via the wind (with plants such as corn), the movement of animals, and, importantly, through the actions of pollinators such as bees. Once the pollen lands on the stigma, it forms a pollen tube and the male sex cell is transported down the style to the ovary. The fusion of the male pollen cell and the female ovule is called fertilisation and produces an embryo or seed. LET’S REVIEW LOOKING BACK 1 2 3 4 Explain the role of the following plant parts: stem, leaves, roots and flower. How does water move through a plant? Explain the difference between cross-pollination and self-pollination. Group the following vegetables by the part of the plant that is eaten: Carrots Jalapeno Cucumber Eggplant Celery Asparagus Broccoli Pak choy Leek Onion Lettuce Pumpkin > 136 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS > Harvest to Home Quickfacts FOR YOU TO DO 1 Go to a grocery store and list all the different vegetables you can see. Highlight all the Asian-style vegetables in pink and all the European-style vegetables in yellow. 2 Make a poster showing all structures in a typical plant. 3 Pick a vegetable at Nielsen’s Harvest to Home Quickfacts webpage. a Describe how Australians purchased this vegetable in 2018. b Pick another vegetable. Describe how purchasing differs between the two. TAKING IT FURTHER 1 Investigate the different Asian vegetables that are now being grown in Australia. 2 Research the role of bees in the pollination process. 3 Investigate plants requiring wind pollination. a List some plants requiring wind pollination. b What type of weather would be best suited for these plants? c Where in Australia might you find these crops? d What factors would farmers have to consider when planting a crop requiring wind pollination? 6.3 Production Production cycle Ploughing and preparation of soil Sowing seeds Transplanting Fertilising Harvesting Monitoring Watering Figure 6.7 Vegetable production cycle Soil preparation WS Homework Make sure you know what tools to use and how to use these safely by completing the NelsonNet worksheet before you begin planting. Many different tasks need to be completed to prepare the soil before planting. These can include ploughing, soil testing, adding amendments or organic matter to the soil, and weed control. Soil testing Soil tests are conducted to test chemical and nutrient levels (such as nitrogen and phosphorus) as well as acidity (pH of the soil). Farmers can then add amendments to the soil, such as adding lime to very acidic soils or nitrogen to soils low in nitrogen, to ensure their crop is healthy and productive. 9780170443111 CHAPTER 6 – VEGETABLE MARKET GARDENING 137 Ploughing CHAPTER 6 Ploughing loosens the soil to allow seeds or seedlings to be planted. This allows them to better absorb the moisture and nutrients from the soil. Ploughing can be done by machines such as a rotary hoe, disc plough or by hand using tools such as a three-pronged cultivator. Weed control Farmers need to watch out for weeds, which are defined as any unwanted plants. Farmers can use ploughing, herbicides or other weed control measures to control weeds before sowing. Weeds outcompete seedlings for water, nutrients and sunlight. They can also harbour pests and diseases. Farmers can control weeds using integrated weed management (IWM) strategies such as those in Table 6.5. WS Homework Complete the Why are weeds so successful? worksheet to understand more about managing weeds in your local area. Table 6.5 IWM strategies IWM component Strategies Cultural Using correct planting density; choosing vigorous crops Physical Removal by hand or machinery Biological Using natural pests or predators Chemical Using herbicides Seed propagation and sowing Propagation refers to any form of growing new plants from existing plants. Some vegetable seeds, such as carrots, are best sown directly into the soil in which they will grow. This is called direct sowing. Other vegetable seeds are best sown into seedling trays or punnets and grown in greenhouses, shade houses or polytunnels until they are strong enough to be transplanted. Sowing Careful monitoring of the sowing depth is crucial to ensure successful germination. Too shallow, and the seed will dry out or be eaten by pests, too deep and the plant will not reach the surface. The rule of thumb is to plant the seeds two to three times as deep as they are long. While this generally works, it is always best to follow the sowing guide on the packet. To germinate successfully, seeds need water, warmth and oxygen. No nutrients are needed until the plant reaches the surface and its second leaves emerge. Shutterstock.com/ksj 520305 Transplanting Figure 6.8 A seed transplanting machine 138 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS row spacing the space between the rows plant spacing the space between the growing plants Use the Gardenate website to help determine row and plant spacing. DS Data scenario Homework How does plant spacing affect yield? To investigate, check out the data scenario on NelsonNet. Seed transplanting is planting a seedling into its permanent location. Seedlings propagated in polytunnels, greenhouses or shade houses should be hardened off before transplanting. This involves gradual exposure of the seedlings to the outdoor environment (for example, harsh sunlight or cool nights). When transplanting it is crucial to allow the plant to have adequate space to grow. Every vegetable requires different row spacing and plant spacing. A hole or trench is dug in the prepared seedling bed. Fertiliser, compost or other amendments are sometimes added to the hole or mixed into the soil before transplanting.The hole must be watered, then carefully remove the seedling from the tray or punnet, being careful not to disturb the roots and keep as much of the seed raising mix around the roots as possible.The seedling should be carefully placed in the hole, then backfilled up to the base of the stem. Seedlings can suffer from transplant shock.To avoid this (and make sure the seedling has a chance to grow into a productive plant), it should be watered regularly. Fertilising Fertilising is the act of adding essential nutrients to the soil to aid the growing crop. Fertilisers can be organic (such as animal manures or mushroom compost) or inorganic (such as superphosphate). Inorganic fertilisers such as urea can provide an immediate source of nutrients to the plants (quick-release fertiliser). The exact concentration of nutrients is known, so they can be measured precisely and the exact amount required used. Organic fertilisers, such as animal manures, need to be broken down before plant roots can absorb them; the nutrients are not immediately available to the plants (slow-release fertiliser). While large amounts of organic fertilisers are required, they help soil structure and microbial life. Fertilising soil can be done by other plants. Crop rotations and using legumes, such as snow peas, mung beans and soybeans, play an important part in maintaining healthy soil. The legumes put nitrogen into the soil, improving the soil quality naturally. Table 6.6 lists different methods of fertilising your plants. Table 6.6 Different methods of fertilising Fertilising method Description Direct placement Place at the base of the crop Direct Labour intensive Need to water after fertiliser has been placed Broadcast spreader Fast placement Spreads over crops via tractor attachment Can also have a hand-wheeled version Band Fertiliser placed in bands next to rows 2.5 cm over and 2.5 cm down from the seed Done at same time as sowing/transplanting Side dressing Similar to band but applied later Can be placed in circle around plants or alongside Extra nutrients for plants > 9780170443111 CHAPTER 6 – VEGETABLE MARKET GARDENING > Foliar spray Irrigation water CHAPTER 6 Apply liquid fertiliser direct to leaves Good short-term fix for struggling plants Should be used alongside soil fertilisers 139 Mix fertiliser with irrigation water Supply as per irrigation system used Process is called fertigation Macronutrients are nutrients that plants need in large amounts. Micronutrients or trace elements are nutrients that plants need in small doses. The three main macronutrients, nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, are often referred to as NPK. The NPK ratio of a fertiliser tells us how much of these macronutrients is present. Table 6.7 demonstrates why they are the most important nutrients for plant growth and development. Table 6.7 Most important nutrients Nitrogen (N) Phosphorous (P) Potassium (K) Promotes leaf growth Promotes development of roots, seeds, flowers and fruit Promotes stem, flowers and fruit growth LET’S DISCUSS 1 Which of the three major nutrients would be most useful for the following plants? a A seedling just transplanted, with a strong stem but weak leaves b A newly sown crop of carrots c A tomato plant yet to form any flowers d A plant with unhealthy, yellowing leaves Monitoring A growing crop needs monitoring for any sign of pest or disease problems. Some crops, such as tomatoes, require trellising. Regular weeding is required to reduce the competition and mulch should be added to assist with weed control. Irrigation trellising supporting growing plants with stakes or wires to grow up Irrigation is the process of watering the plants. Plants need to be watered regularly because natural rainfall is not reliable. Water is required for photosynthesis and transpiration, and therefore plant growth. Irrigation systems can be set up for larger areas to enable more efficient and effective watering. Irrigation systems include sprinkler, drip, sub-irrigation and sprayers. Harvesting Harvesting is the picking of the crop when it is ready. Growers inspect the crop and will often pick or harvest the crop before it is ready. This is to ensure the crop will arrive in the best possible condition ready for the consumer to use. Features the growers look for include size, shape, colour, texture, crispness, sweetness and blemishes. Tomatoes are ideally picked before WS Homework Use the information gathered in the production cycle section to plan your own vegetable garden with the NelsonNet worksheet. 140 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS Shutterstock.com/Jackson Stock Photography turning fully red. Broccoli should be picked when the flower buds are still closed. Potatoes are harder to see when ready because they grow underground. However, when the stems and leaves growing above the ground die, the potatoes are ready to harvest. Harvesting can be done by hand or machine, depending on the specific crop and growing method. Watch cabbage and carrots being harvested Watch tomatoes being harvested Figure 6.9 Carrots being harvested DID YOU KNOW Carrots were originally white, yellow and purple, but the Dutch selectively bred them to be orange as a tribute to the Dutch royal family. FROM SEED TO VEGETABLE LET’S ENGAGE PURPOSE To investigate ‘three sisters planting’, and successfully grow and monitor a bean, corn and squash crop. Three sisters planting is a type of companion planting: the bean crop is a legume, so provides nitrogen to the soil; corn provides trellising or support for the climbing bean; and squash suppresses weeds. Note: these crops like to be direct sown, so make sure you sow in a garden bed or large pots. MATERIALS Garden area or large pots (approx. 50 cm diameter) Seed-raising potting mix Bean seeds Corn seeds Squash seeds Water can Mulch Fertiliser Paper cups or seedling trays > 9780170443111 > CHAPTER 6 – VEGETABLE MARKET GARDENING Use the risk assessment template on NelsonNet to conduct a risk assessment for growing three vegetables. Consider the risks of working with soil and fertiliser. METHOD 1 If using pots, fill with seed-raising mix. Otherwise, prepare the garden bed and cultivate the soil to form a fine seed bed. 2 Prepare three holes for sowing, in a triangle, with 30 cm between each hole. 3 In one hole, sow two corn seeds, in the next sow two bean seeds, in the third two squash seeds, according to the packet instructions. 4 Mulch the area around the seeds but not over the seeds. 5 Water in well. 6 Do not water the bean seed again until it emerges; water the others as required until germination. 7 Thin out to one of each plant once germinated. 8 Monitor your growing crops! Make sure to water and fertilise as required. It will take around 60 days until they are ready to harvest, but this length of time varies between each of the crops. DISCUSSION 1 Keep a diary on the growing crop. Each week, take a photo and measure height. In your vegetable diary, keep track of key stages noted in the table below. Part Corn Bean Squash Days to germination Stem When the first leaf appears Sketch the first leaf When the second leaf appears Appearance of the flower(s) Fruit – when does the fruit/cob/pod start being produced When ready to harvest, pull out the plant and sketch the root system 2 Which were monocots, and which were dicots? (Hint: base your decision on the appearance of the first leaves.) 3 Outline the relationships between the plants. 4 Describe the differences in reproductive structures (flowers) of each crop. a How many flowers were they on each plant? b Which flowers produced the harvestable crop? 5 Explain how the following factors affect production: a temperature when transplanted b frequency of fertiliser use c use of mulch. Risk assessment template CHAPTER 6 RISK ASSESSMENT 141 142 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS Production systems There are a variety of methods to grow vegetable crops. Garden beds vs greenhouses The conventional method for growing vegetables is in prepared soil beds, usually exposed to the elements. In contrast, greenhouses are large shed-like structures that can be glass, special plastics or shade cloth. Greenhouses allow plants to be grown all year round in a controlled environment. Hydroponics Hydroponics is the practice of growing vegetables without soil. The vegetables are grown in trays using soil alternatives such as vermiculite, perlite, rockwool or coconut fibre.You can learn about hydroponics in Chapter 15. Polytunnels Shutterstock.com/city hunter Dreamstime/Eag1e Polytunnels are lightweight greenhouses, either small or large, that use poly pipes to form semicircular hoops which are then covered with builders’ film or shade cloth. The tunnels are often used to propagate seeds in seedling trays. Figure 6.10 Small and large polytunnel vegetable production COMPARING SEED PROPAGATION METHODS Risk assessment template Polytunnel kit LET’S EXPERIMENT PURPOSE To compare growing seedlings with or without a polytunnel HYPOTHESIS Do you think seedlings will grow fastest with or without a polytunnel? RISK ASSESSMENT Conduct a risk assessment using the template on NelsonNet. MATERIALS Polytunnel or polytunnel kit Six seedling trays (three for each treatment group) Seed-raising mix Radish or silverbeet seeds Icypole sticks Permanent marker Suitable area outside to place trays > 9780170443111 > CHAPTER 6 – VEGETABLE MARKET GARDENING CHAPTER 6 METHOD 143 1 Prepare the polytunnel using the instructions on the kit. 2 Fill each seedling tray with seed-raising mix. 3 Randomly assign 10 seeds to each tray. Ensure you have the same sowing density and sowing depth for each tray. 4 Use the icypole sticks to label the trays with the numbers 1 to 6, the date and the location. 5 Place three of the trays in the polytunnel. Place the other three trays in a warm, sunny place near the polytunnel. This is your control group. 6 Water all trays. Ensure each tray is watered the same amount at the same time each day. RESULTS 1 Construct a table to record the growth rates of three seedlings randomly selected from each tray. Measure their heights and calculate the average height for that tray. After all trays in a group are measured calculate the average of the group overall. 2 Draw a stacked line graph tracking the growth rate for each group over the 15 days (use the ‘Average of group’ columns to create your graph). DISCUSSION 1 2 3 4 5 Interpret your results. Which method produced the fastest growing rate? What kinds of climates would be best suited to using polytunnels? Were there any other advantages of using polytunnels in your experiment? How could you improve this experiment? Would you recommend farmers use polytunnels to grow seedlings? Give reasons for your recommendation. CONCLUSION Was your hypothesis correct, incorrect or partially correct? Organic farming Organic farming uses conventional growing methods without artificial fertilisers and chemicals. Organic growers use natural methods to control weeds, pests and diseases. Bush food production Bush foods are any food native to Australia that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples gather to eat. These peoples use the environment, creating meals that are rich in protein, fibre, nutrients and sugars. One interesting bush food is the yam daisy. This plant is a root vegetable that was very common before European settlement.You can still find yam daisies in the bush in Victoria and NSW. Yam daisies were dug out with sticks and the roots baked in earth ovens for food. Aboriginal Australians knew to harvest the yam daisies when the plants flowered – yam daisies produce a bright yellow flower, which makes it easy to tell when they are ready to harvest. The yam daisy is reasonably easy to grow, and seed is available through specialist stockists. It prefers a nice moist soil in full sun and will grow well in pots as long as it is not shaded by other plants or placed in an area with too much shade. Warrigal green is a popular leafy green vegetable that is native to Australia. It was used in early European settlements as a spinach substitute and is still used and cooked like spinach. While there isn’t much evidence that this plant was used by Aboriginal Australians, it was WS Homework Find out more about organic farming by completing the Organic Russian garlic worksheet on NelsonNet. 144 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS used by the Maori in New Zealand and as such is often called New Zealand spinach. The Maori would boil the leaves of the warrigal green with the roots of other plants to reduce the bitterness. This leafy green plant grows well in sunny to shady spots and a range of soils, although it prefers salty soil such as coastlines. The leaves can be harvested as required. DID YOU KNOW Warrigal greens should be boiled or blanched before eating because they contain a toxin that can be harmful to humans in large quantities – boiling or blanching reduces the levels of this toxin. LET’S DISCUSS Research how Aboriginal peoples use other vegetables in their meals. 1 How do Aboriginal production methods differ from European methods? 2 Which method do you think is most sustainable? LET’S REVIEW LOOKING BACK 1 2 3 4 Draw a diagram of the vegetable production cycle. Explain how to transplant a seedling. What is the difference between organic and inorganic farming? Describe the different systems used to grow vegetables. FOR YOU TO DO 1 Design an experiment to investigate how sowing depth affects germination. 2 Research the production systems used in your local area. Can you find a farm that uses each of the following production systems? Garden beds, hydroponics, greenhouses, polytunnels and organic farming. 3 Survey parents and teachers about their attitudes towards organic production. 4 Research how yam daisies were affected by grazing livestock. TAKING IT FURTHER Food forest Abundance Part 1: Walk with Morag and Wiruungga Organic vs inorganic fertilisers 1 Watch the video with Wiruungga Dunggiir, an Aboriginal Australian elder, discussing different native plants and how they can be used. Answer the following questions. a Describe the process to grow seedlings from seeds with bark. b What else can the bark be used for? c Research what a food forest is. d Design a plan for a food forest at your school farm. 2 Select a vegetable and design a leaflet detailing how to grow the vegetable. 3 Evaluate the effect of organic and inorganic fertiliser on the soil. 9780170443111 CHAPTER 6 – VEGETABLE MARKET GARDENING CHAPTER 6 6.4 Management 145 Environmental management Distribution of enterprise Vegetables are grown in many areas throughout Australia. The use of greenhouses and hydroponics means vegetables can be grown all year round, protecting them from the weather. In 2016–2017 there were 2300 Australian farm businesses growing vegetables. These farms ranged from less than 20 hectares to larger farms planting over 70 hectares. Climate Darwin The sun provides both heat and light for plants. The amount of each guides which vegetables are selected to grow at what time of year and where. Growing guides are Brisbane useful tools to help the grower select the Perth best vegetable for their region. Sydney Plants require a certain amount of Adelaide Canberra Melbourne day length to encourage flowering. The length of light period in a day is known Areas of vegetable production Hobart as the photoperiod. Some plants, such as chrysanthemums, are short-day flowering Figure 6.11 Location of vegetable production in plants (winter plants). They require an Australia amount of daylight below a critical length. Long-day plants, such as spinach or lettuce, require an amount of light above the critical length. A day-neutral plant, such as tomatoes or cucumbers, is not sensitive to the day length. Growing out of season can lead to disappointing results. As well as day length, temperature also guides when vegetables can be grown. Cool season vegetables, such as brassicas and peas, like to grow in low temperatures of 10–20°C. Warm season vegetables, such as potatoes and tomatoes, grow best in temperatures above 20°C. Intermediate season vegetables, such as root crops and leeks, prefer temperature ranges of 15–25°C. Soils Soils vary from sandy through to loams and clays. The soil type affects how the vegetables will grow because each soil type holds nutrients and water differently. While sandy soils may be easy to culitvate, they do not hold the nutrients that many vegetable crops need. Clay, on the other hand, can harden and crack when dry, causing root crops to grow in odd and stunted shapes. Loam soils hold moisture and nutrients, and are suitable for a wide range of vegetable crops. Soil pH can affect the growth and yield of vegetable crops. Most vegetables, including tomatoes, onions and cucumbers, prefer slightly acidic soils (pH 6.5-7). Some crops, such as potatoes and eggplant, thrive in more acidic soils of pH 5.25-6. Enterprise management Propagation Propagation is the deliberate production of new plants, either from seed or using techniques such as taking cuttings from an existing plant. You can explore the AusVeg webpage to find out more facts about Australia’s vegetable farmers. WS Homework Investigate which type of soil is best for growing radishes with the practical worksheet. DS Data scenario Homework Mulch can be used as a layer on top of soil to help retain water. Investigate different types of mulch by examining the NelsonNet data scenario. 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS Sexual propagation Sexual propagation involves growing plants from seeds. Sexual propagation allows for a mixing of genes through cross pollination, producing more genetic diversity. It can be used to create new varieties of plants. Asexual propagation Asexual propagation involves producing new plants from vegetative (non-reproductive) tissues including leaves, stems and roots. The new plants are genetically identical to the parent plant. This is useful when plant growers want to produce large harvests of identical crops. Table 6.8 Types of propagation Sexual propagation Asexual propagation Pollination Fertilisation of ovules to produce seeds Layering Grafting fruit trees Cuttings Tubers ASEXUAL PROPAGATION PURPOSE 2 To develop an understanding of asexual reproduction by taking a cutting from a rosemary plant 3 MATERIALS Scissors or secateurs Rosemary plant Pots Gloves Propagation potting mix Hormone rooting powder or liquid Icypole sticks Pen Secateurs and scissors should be handled with care. METHOD 1 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Fill a pot with the propagating potting mix. Prepare the cutting by removing the lower leaves and any large leaves. Dip the base of the cutting into the hormonal rooting powder or liquid. Use a dibbler or chopstick to make a hole in the potting mix and place in the cutting. Water the cutting. Write on the icypole stick the date and plant type, and place in the pot. Make a little mini greenhouse, using wire and a plastic bag. Put the wires into the pot then place the plastic bag over the pot to provide a moist environment. Monitor the growing plant. When ready, plant the cutting into the garden. Start with a healthy piece of rosemary plant – cut a piece of plant that is new DISCUSSION 1 Define the term ‘asexual growth of the plant. reproduction’. 2 Why is your new rosemary cutting considered asexual reproduction? 3 Discuss the benefits and detriments of creating new rosemary using asexual reproduction. 4 Research another type of asexual reproduction, such as grafting or layering. Science Photo Library/Phanie/Voisin LET’S ENGAGE 146 Figure 6.12 Rosemary growths 9780170443111 CHAPTER 6 – VEGETABLE MARKET GARDENING 147 CHAPTER 6 Record keeping and financial management Gross margins Gross margin analysis can be used to compare different enterprises and determine which one will be most profitable (see Chapter 4 for more information). Table 6.9 Example of a gross margin calculation Income 100 pumpkins @ $5.00/pumpkin Total income (A) $500 Variable costs Seedlings x 25 $2.50/seedling $62.50 Fertilisers 1 bag x 25 kg $75/bag $75.00 Vegetable dust x 3 containers @ $7.95 $23.85 Snail bait x 2 packets @ $6.99 $13.98 Mulch x 5 bags @ $16.50 $82.50 Total variable costs (B) $257.33 Gross margin (A – B) $242.67 $2.42 Gross margin/pumpkin PROFIT ANALYSIS PURPOSE LET’S ENGAGE To calculate how much it costs to grow a vegetable crop MATERIALS Computer Gross margin template Calculator 4 5 Estimate the possible income. Predict how much crop will actually grow to get a budget. Once harvested, calculate the gross margin. DISCUSSION 1 Identify any issues that might affect on your predicted income. 2 Calculate the gross margin using METHOD the template on NelsonNet. 1 Research and record all the costs involved in establishing and growing a 3 Compare the predicted income with the actual income. Did you vegetable crop on the school farm. accurately predict your income? 2 Identify all the variable costs. 3 Decide on a price to sell the crop. Gross margin template 148 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS LET’S REVIEW LOOKING BACK 1 2 3 4 5 Where are the main vegetable growing areas in Australia? How does the sun affect vegetable farming? Define sexual propagation and asexual propagation. Explain how soil type affects vegetable production. Outline the difference between a fixed and variable cost. FOR YOU TO DO Gardenate 1 Create a poster showing which vegetables grow best in Australia. Using a map of Australia, label where different vegetables would grow best. 2 Using the Gardenate website, identify four vegetables that can be grown in your region. Explain why these vegetables work in your region. 3 Investigate why potatoes are grown from certified seed potatoes rather than old potatoes or just seeds. 4 Design a weed control plan for your school farm. Plan to use each of the four methods of control. 5 Investigate the variable costs in growing the vegetable crop at school. Outline how these costs can be reduced. 6 Compare the gross margin for lettuce and tomatoes on the Department of Primary Industries website. Which vegetable would you recommend planting? TAKING IT FURTHER DPI Agriculture budgets 1 Investigate the importance of organic matter in the soil. Design an experiment to test the effect of organic matter on vegetable growth. 2 Research two weeds that are a problem in your region and discuss the impact of these weeds on the environment and in vegetable production. 3 Propagate strawberries from runners. You can watch the YouTube video on NelsonNet to help you. 4 Referring to Chapter 4, create a calendar of operations for a vegetable crop. How to propagate strawberries 6.5 Pests and diseases Dreamstime.com/Paul Reeves Shutterstock.com/Kosobu Pests Figure 6.13 Pests that affect vegetable production: snails (left) and cabbage white butterflies (right) 9780170443111 CHAPTER 6 – VEGETABLE MARKET GARDENING INDUSTRY IN FOCUS ENTOMOLOGIST Identify An entomologist is a scientist who specialises in the study of insects. Some entomologists work in pest control and are responsible for breeding biological controls that can be used in vegetable production. They also breed the food sources for the biological control insects. The entomologist visits the farms that use biological control insects to ensure they are carrying out the job effectively. They also monitor the pest problems on the properties, identifying the pests and making recommendations for the most suitable IPM control methods. Discussion 1 Define the following terms: entomologist, biological control and IPM. 2 What would be some of the issues facing an entomologist when breeding the biological control? 3 What type of skills and knowledge would you need to be an entomologist? 4 How would the work of an entomologist affect farmers? Diseases Diseases include microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses and fungi that can attack vegetables. Powdery mildew is a common fungus that attacks a large variety of vegetables. This disease usually occurs when conditions are warm, dry and cloudy. It causes a white mould layer, starting as spots and gradually spreading to cover the plant. Leaf roll virus in potatoes is carried by aphids and causes the leaves to roll upwards. The virus infects the growing tuber, stunting its growth. It remains in the soil and can be a source of infection for subsequent crops. Control methods Integrated pest management uses a combination of methods and ensures chemicals are only used when necessary. Cultural practices These strategies include ensuring increased hygiene of machinery and tools to minimise disease spread, using crop rotations, purchasing certified seeds and seedlings from reputable suppliers, ensuring correct plant spacing and trap cropping to attract the pests to another crop. CHAPTER 6 Snails are a common pest that attack vegetables, seedlings, leaves and the fruit of the plant. Other pests can include sucking insects, curl grubs and aphids. All these pests attack the growing crop and result in damaged vegetables and sometimes death, reducing the number of vegetables harvested and the overall yield. The cabbage white butterfly is a white butterfly with distinct black spots on the wings. The butterfly lays eggs on the leaves of predominantly Brassica plants such as broccoli, cabbage and cauliflower. The eggs hatch into green larvae, which then burrow into the leaves and the headforming section of the plant. 149 150 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS Companion planting is the practice of selecting plants that complement each other to naturally control pests and diseases and provide protection. Some plants, such as garlic and onions, give off a strong smell that can confuse insects and prevent them from finding other crops. Trap crops can also be used to aid natural controls of insect problems. The trap crop is grown nearby or surrounding the main crop to attract the insects away from the main crop. The trap crop can then be monitored to identify whether the insect infestation is developing into a problem and then be treated, which avoids spraying chemicals on the main crop. Genetic Growers must choose their breed of plant carefully. They can use genetically modified plants that have been engineered to be pest-resistant, or plants that have been altered to be resistant to chemicals. This means growers can spray chemicals without damaging their main crop. Biological Research other biocontrol agents for vegetable farmers. Natural predators can be used to control pests or pathogens. These can be purchased from suppliers. The benefit is that the biological control agent will die out after they attack the pest they have been released to control. Examples include aphidius (parasitoid of aphids) and cucumeris (predatory mite of thrips). Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a bacterium toxic to some insects. It has been developed into an insecticide, targeting insect larvae. Chemical Chemicals should be used strategically and only when necessary. See Chapter 3 Farm Resources and Technology for more information on how to safely use chemicals to control pests. LET’S REVIEW LOOKING BACK 1 Name three pests and three diseases that can affect vegetable production. 2 Describe an example of each of the control methods that can be used to control pests and diseases. 3 What is the difference between companion planting and trap crops? FOR YOU TO DO 1 Research one pest and one disease that can affect the vegetables you are growing at school. 2 Go out to your school farm and search your vegetables for signs of pests or diseases. Research any symptoms or signs you find – can you identify the pest or disease? 3 Design an IPM program for your school farm. TAKING IT FURTHER 1 Research exotic pests and diseases and the impact on the Australian vegetable industry if these reached Australia. Examples could be the carrot rust fly or bacterial ring rot. 2 Find out possible biological controls for a pest problem in your region. 9780170443111 CHAPTER 6 – VEGETABLE MARKET GARDENING CHAPTER 6 6.6 Social and ethical issues 151 Urbanisation LET’S DISCUSS 1 Should land around cities be protected from development, even if it means people have to live in high-density housing rather than have their own backyards? 2 Would you like to live near a farm? What issues might affect urban neighbours of farms? Hawkesbury Gosford Fairfield Hornsby Blue Mountains Penrith Liverpool Camden Wollondilly Pittwater Warringah Parramatta Randwick Auburn Bankstown © University of Technology Sydney Urbanisation is the biggest threat to the vegetable production in the Sydney Basin. The Sydney Basin currently produces enough food to feed 20% of Sydney’s population. This vegetable production occurs in the peri-urban areas within the Sydney basin. Currently this is under threat with the development and expansion of Sydney into these peri-urban areas. Urbanisation is due to the increase in population, with the land required for development of houses and infrastructure. This expansion occurs into the rural areas close to the towns and cities. The concern is that if the growth and expansion of Sydney continues in the current unrestrained way, then Sydney agriculture is gravely threatened. Current estimates predict that 60% of the agricultural land in the Sydney Basin will be lost by 2031, including 92% of the current vegetable production in the area. Sutherland Shire Wingecarribee Wollongong Shellharbour Kiama Shoalhaven Loss of food production (tonnes/year) 0–10 000 10 000–30 000 30 000 + NA Figure 6.14 Estimated 2031 urban sprawl and potential loss of agriculture land peri-urban areas that are the dynamic interface between cities and rural areas WS Homework Investigate the Sydney Food Futures plan for the Sydney Basin in the NelsonNet case study worksheet. 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS LET’S DISCUSS 1 Identify urban effects on agriculture around your town or city. Are there areas which used to be farmland but are now parts of towns? 2 Brainstorm solutions to the threat of urbanisation on Australia’s vegetable production. LET’S REVIEW LOOKING BACK 1 Define the terms: urbanisation, peri-urban and intensive vegetable production. 2 Describe two intensive vegetable production systems. 3 Explain current predictions of the effect of urbanisation on the Sydney Basin. FOR YOU TO DO 1 Design a leaflet for Sydney Food Futures, exposing the dangers of urbanisation and affect it will have on the Sydney Basin. 2 Research the use of genetically modified corn. TAKING IT FURTHER 1 Propose a solution to the current threat of urbanisation. Prepare a report detailing the problem and how it could be solved. 6.7 Sustainability Sustainable methods and practices No-dig gardens No-dig gardens are a simple and effective way to create an edible garden that uses organic materials to form the garden bed. The garden can be placed on cement, lawn or clay pans. The garden is made up layers of straw, lucerne, dried leaves, manure and newspaper as a base. The mix is similar to making Figure 6.15 A no-dig garden compost. © Can Stock Photo /rosealleydesigns 152 9780170443111 CHAPTER 6 – VEGETABLE MARKET GARDENING Crop rotations assist to break the disease cycle and help replenish the nutrients in the soil. Some vegetables such as tomatoes and potatoes are heavy feeders, taking the nutrients from the soil. Legumes such as snow peas and beans help put nutrients back in the soils Table 6.10 Sample crop rotation program Summer Autumn Winter Spring Garden bed 1 Legume (Beans) Heavy feeder (Broccoli) Light feeder (Lettuce) Green manure Garden bed 2 Heavy feeder (Tomatoes) Light feeder (carrots) Green manure Legume (snow peas) Sustainable technology Soil moisture sensors Soil moisture sensors monitor the moisture in the soils to the depth that the sensor is planted, and can be linked via computer to irrigation systems to automatically deliver water when the moisture falls below the designated setting on the device. This system encourages sustainable water usage by only watering when the plants require watering. ‘Hacking’ photosynthesis Photosynthesis is the process by which plants turn sunlight, water and carbon dioxide into energy. This energy is used to help the plants grow. Sometimes in the photosynthesis process, a plant might accidently absorb oxygen instead of carbon dioxide.This results in the production of a toxic compound, and the plant then has to expend energy getting rid of it. A team of scientists has genetically modified tobacco plants to dispose of the toxin more quickly, which mean the plants have more energy left to focus on growing.This has resulted in the modified tobacco plants growing 40% bigger than the unmodified ones. By growing bigger plants more quickly, enough food could be produced to feed the growing population. Sustainable decision-making AG IN FOCUS GREEN MANURE Identify Green manure crop rotations can be used to create better soil for farmers growing vegetables. Green manure crops are crops such as grasses or legumes that are ploughed or worked back into the soil before they seed or flower. Understand Australian farmers face many soil issues because they often grow European crops that aren’t suited to Australian soil or climate. They therefore use a high level of nutrients and cause greater levels of erosion. One solution is to use a green manure crop rotation. Green manure crops add nutrients and organic matter back into the soil and improve soil structure. While these are a low-cost seed, by scheduling a green manure crop farmers are not making any income as they are not producing anything. However, in the long term, their future crops will benefit from the increased nutrients and improved soil > CHAPTER 6 Crop rotations 153 154 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS > structure. Farmers must weigh the costs of losing income for several months versus the benefits to future crops and the environment. Discussion 1 2 3 What is a green manure crop rotation? How does green manure benefit soils? Evaluate the short- and long-term impacts of a green manure crop rotation. Make a recommendation to farmers. LET’S REVIEW LOOKING BACK 1 Define ‘sustainability’. 2 Why is sustainability vital in vegetable production? 3 Describe two technologies which are improving the sustainability of vegetable production. FOR YOU TO DO EnviroVeg Sydney Food Futures 1 Research environmental problems on your school farm or in your region. (Hint: think about any extreme weather events that have happened recently.) Pick one, and research two different technologies your school farm could use to help manage this environmental problem. 2 Investigate how AUSVEG encourages farmers to implement sustainable practices. 3 Visit the Sydney Food Futures website. Using the interactive map, select a scenario to view what potentially can occur in the Sydney Basin due to urbanisation. Debate the concerns about using the vegetable production areas to develop and create more homes. 4 Research how algae-based fertilisers can be used by vegetable producers. Conduct a class discussion on the sustainability and profitability of using these fertilisers. TAKING IT FURTHER Are algae-based fertilisers a more sustainable option? 1 Investigate permaculture and the role it plays in sustainable food production. 2 As a class, debate the topic: ‘Whose responsibility is it to ensure the sustainability of vegetable production systems?’ 6.8 Marketing The market Australia’s produce has two distinct markets: domestic and export. To help farmers meet buyer needs (and therefore ensure that supply meets demand), there are specifications in place to guide them. 9780170443111 CHAPTER 6 – VEGETABLE MARKET GARDENING CHAPTER 6 Domestic markets 155 Harvesting Grading Weighing Direct local markets Central markets Further processing Packaging Transport Wholesale or retail markets Figure 6.16 Marketing chain for vegetables showing three main destinations Most of the vegetables produced in Australia (50–60%) are sold through central markets in the major cities. These central markets set the market price for the vegetable industry. Over 15 000 growers supply to businesses operating within the central market system. There is a growing trend for local producers to sell at local produce markets, allowing consumers to buy direct from the growers. On average, Australians eat DID Growers are electing to establish themselves 160 kg of vegetables in a year. YOU at these local markets because they can KNOW ensure a fresh product for the consumer, more direct payment methods and a connection with the consumer. The diversifying of Australia’s population and recent increases in immigration from countries in Asia has driven up demand for Asian vegetables such as pak choy, bok choy and Chinese cabbage. These have grown in popularity because they are versatile and easy-toprepare and can be used in a variety of recipes.You can find out more about the demand for Asian vegetables in the case study in Chapter 4. Export markets Australia exports 190 000 tonnes of vegetables each year. Table 6.11 shows the top five markets and vegetable commodities for Australian exports. Table 6.11 Top export vegetables and markets Top 5 markets Top 5 commodities Volume (tonnes) Value ($ millions) Volume (tonnes) Value ($ millions) UAE 39 400 Singapore $45.3 Carrots Singapore 29 900 UAE $35.9 Potatoes 38 000 Asparagus $31 South Korea 21 200 Japan $34.2 Onions 25 800 Potatoes $30 Malaysia 21 000 Malaysia $20.7 Cauliflower and broccoli 7700 Onions $18 Japan 16 100 Hong Kong $15.7 Asparagus 6100 Cauliflower and broccoli $17 111 500 Carrots $91 Source: Ausveg website, 2018 WS Homework Find out more about the success of Asian vegetables in Australia by completing the Marketing bok choy worksheet. 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS Market specifications Market specifications are the guidelines that farmers can use to ensure they meet the requirements of the buyers. They identify the criteria the buyer is seeking in the product. These specifications cover the general appearance criteria, major defects, minor defects, and consignment criteria. FreshSpecs was created after a response from industry that there was a need to produce a uniform set of standards for fresh produce. JUNIOR JUDGING VEGETABLES PURPOSE To develop skills in assessing the quality of fruit and vegetables using market specifications FreshSpecs LET’S ENGAGE 156 MATERIALS Four samples of four different fruit or vegetables Market specifications (from the FreshSpecs website) Junior judging sheet METHOD 1 2 3 Select a fruit or vegetable. Set up four plates with four samples of the selected fruit or vegetable on each plate. Using the specifications, asses the quality of each plate. Record the placings in the chart below. 1 2 3 4 Placings Comments DISCUSSION 1 Discuss how your fruit or vegetables were placed. 2 Did the fruit or vegetables meet market specifications? 3 What impact would it have on the grower if the produce doesn’t meet market specifications? 4 What management techniques could you implement to make sure your fruit or vegetables meet market specifications? 9780170443111 CHAPTER 6 – VEGETABLE MARKET GARDENING Alamy Stock Photo/Jim West Alamy Stock Photo/Simon Littlejohn WONKY VEGETABLES Figure 6.17 Tonnes of tomatoes go to waste in Queensland. Identify A recent study showed up to 87% of tomatoes from a farm in Queensland were rejected by suppliers because they were wonky. Understand In a world with an ever-increasing population, farmers are striving to farm more produce on smaller land areas. However, large amounts of waste product limit supply. Researchers looked at a farm in Queensland that supplied to markets in Brisbane and Bundaberg. Across the entire supply chain, up to 87% of the tomatoes were rejected for being an odd shape, too big or too small. This is a problem across many countries including Australia, the UK and United States. In the UK, a study found that almost all celery produced was discarded before even leaving the farm. Meanwhile Americans throw away as much food as they eat. The problem is thought to be caused in part by the stringent standards mainstream supermarkets place on farmers, although the supermarkets claim this comes from consumer preferences for perfect fruit and vegetables. Some supermarkets are trialling ‘wonky veg’ products, such as the Odd Bunch range at Woolworths, to reduce food waste. However, until there are more clear demands from sustainably minded consumers, it is likely that huge amounts of food and produce will continue to be wasted. Discussion 1 What did the Queensland study reveal? 2 Describe the findings from studies in the UK and the United States. 3 Conduct your own survey with parents and teachers around their perception of ‘wonky veg’. Do you agree with the statement from mainstream suppliers that consumer preferences are the cause of wonky vegetable food wastage? CHAPTER 6 AG IN FOCUS 157 9780170443111 AG TECH FOCUS Marketing strategies Central market system and contracts Growers transport vegetables to central markets and supply the produce to wholesalers who operate at each of these markets. Another common scenario is that growers have contracts with supermarkets, restaurants and fast-food companies. To supply under contract, the grower needs to ensure the product meets the company’s specifications and ensure consistent supply. Direct selling DID YOU KNOW Farmers can sell direct to the consumers through a variety of methods such as onfarm sales, roadside stalls, farmers markets and ‘pick your own’ schemes. Selling direct to consumers gives the opportunity for the growers to interact with the consumer and gain direct feedback. Direct selling can also give growers the possibility of achieving higher returns. Only 1% of the total annual dollars spent on food advertising is on promoting vegetables. Nutrition Australia 158 Advertising and promotion In Australia there is very little advertising and promotion for eating vegetables. Campaigns tend to come from nutrition organisations, such the ‘Try for 5’ campaign from Nutrition Australia,which aims to get Australian’s eating five serves of vegetables a day. Figure 6.18 Try for 5 campaign LET’S DISCUSS 1 Why do you think fruit and vegetables are not advertised? Value-adding Growers can value-add to vegetables by freezing, canning, freeze-drying and pre-cutting them. While the value-adding market for vegetables is growing, there are still perceptions that pre-cut or canned vegetables are more processed and therefore less healthy than the fresh alternatives. AG IN FOCUS KIKAI FOODS Identify Kikai Foods is a Kenyan company founded by Caroline Mbogo. Mbogo recently participated in the Climate LaunchPad competition with her value-added fruit and vegetable products. > 9780170443111 CHAPTER 6 – VEGETABLE MARKET GARDENING 159 > Kikai Foods create value-added snack foods made from the waste of fruit and vegetable production. They solar-dry fruit and vegetables to create snack foods. Solardrying uses the sun to naturally dry products, making it a sustainable alternative to drying machinery. The produce they use would normally be waste product from the Kenyan agricultural chain. About half of Kenya’s potential fruit and vegetable exports are rejected before being exported due to the harsh specifications required by Western markets. By creating a product from this waste food, Kikai Foods also provides income to local farmers whose produce might otherwise be rejected from export. Discussion 1 2 3 4 How do Kikai Foods value-add? Describe the sustainable methods of production used to create the snack foods. Brainstorm fruit and vegetables you could create dried snacks from. Try solar-drying! Cut up some fruit or vegetables into thin slices and leave them on a tray to dry out in the sun. Once dried, taste your product. What fruits and vegetables taste best in dried form? 5 Design packaging for your new value-added dried fruit or vegetable product. Remember, you used a sustainable method of production, so try to think of sustainable ways of packaging your product. LET’S REVIEW LOOKING BACK 1 2 3 4 What are central markets? List the top five export vegetable markets by value. What are market specifications? Define three types of marketing strategy. FOR YOU TO DO 1 Check out the specifications for vegetables growing in your school farm. Describe what the perfect vegetable should look like. 2 Draw the marketing chain for frozen vegetables. You can use Figure 6.16, the simple vegetable marketing chain, to help you. 3 Create a marketing campaign to advertise your school vegetables. You could create a video advertisement, a poster or a leaflet. Refer to Chapter 4 to assist you. 4 Design a label and packaging for the vegetable that you are growing. 5 Go to a local market and talk to one of the farmers selling produce. How do they market their produce? TAKING IT FURTHER 1 Evaluate the advertising for one of the following products: cauliflower rice, vegetable noodles (e.g. zoodles), salad bowls or ugly vegetables. 2 Conduct a survey of the school community on the quality of the vegetables grown on the school farm. Analyse the results and make relevant modifications to improve the production and sale of the vegetable crop. CHAPTER 6 Understand 160 AG TECH FOCUS 9780170443111 Let’s summarise How can we manage the environment to successfully grow vegetables? Qz Complete the chapter review test on NelsonNet to review what you’ve learnt about vegetable market gardening. Different vegetables require different environments to grow most successfully. In Australia, where the climate and soil is often not suited to introduced European crops, farmers must carefully manage the environment to grow produce that meets market specifications. Use the words in the table below to discuss the different ways a farmer can control the environment to ensure the best crop. Greenhouse Polytunnel Day length Garden bed Soil type Location Hydroponics Soil pH Fertilising How can we sustainably grow vegetables in our own backyards? Vegetable farmers use many methods and technologies to ensure they are creating a sustainable enterprise. With reference to the below practices, create a mindmap showing how we can use these practices in our own backyards. No-dig gardens Crop rotations Organic farming Wonky vegetable waste Weed control Companion planting