AGR 201 Introduction to General Agriculture PDF

Course Title Introduction to General Agriculture Course Code : AGR 201 Course Coordinator Oluwatosin Adeyeye (PhD) 1 ANTICIPATE SUNNYWISE @ FUNAABSU Section Title 1. Introduction 2. Definition of Agriculture 3. History...

Course Title Introduction to General Agriculture Course Code : AGR 201 Course Coordinator Oluwatosin Adeyeye (PhD) 1 ANTICIPATE SUNNYWISE @ FUNAABSU Section Title 1. Introduction 2. Definition of Agriculture 3. History of Agriculture 4. World Population and Food Supply 2  Introduction to Agriculture Agriculture is the backbone of developing countries. Agriculture has been recognized has the important vehicle for growth, development and poverty reduction throughout the world especially where it is the primary occupation Agriculture was initially practiced at primitive level but later improved due to various innovations introduced by the scientific and industrial revolution lead to unprecedented changes in agricultural production  In Nigeria, majority of the rural populace depend on agriculture as means of livelihoods. Traditionally, agriculture is referred to as the science of the cultivation of land The advantage derived from agriculture include but not limited to the following : a. Provision of food for an increasing population b. It is a source of income for farmers and also serve as foreign exchange for the nation c. Provision of herbs used by traditional healers and drug industries as well as supply of raw materials to industrial sector 4  Definition of Agriculture The term agriculture is an English word that was derived from two Latin words ager meaning field and colo meaning cultivate. The combination of these two Latin words form agricultura meaning field or land tillage. Agriculture can be referred to as the science and an art of cultivating the soil, gathering the crops and livestock rearing 5  Definition of Agriculture It is also defined as the science and techniques of crop and livestock husbandry as well as the managerial and informational practices that enable the system operate Agriculture is traditionally referred to as the science of the cultivation of land. It is also defined as the cultivation and exploitation of animals, plant and other forms of organic life for human use, this include food, fiber, medicines and fuel. 6  Definition of Agriculture The various field of agriculture include crop science, soil science, horticulture, forestry and wildlife management, agricultural biology, economics of agri-business, communication practices and the study of ecological environment. Others are animal science, agricultural engineering, fisheries, agricultural economics and agricultural extension 7  History of Agriculture Agriculture began independently in different parts of the world, agriculture was invented during the Neolithic era or the New Stone Age ( 7,000- 10000 BC). The Neolithic era ended with the development of metal tools The research revealed that from 9500BC, the eight Neolithic founder crops were cultivated. The crops were “ Emmer wheat, Lentils, Peas, Hulled Barley, Bitter vetch, Chick peas, Flat wheat and Einkorn wheat 8  History of Agriculture The history of agriculture began in the Fertile Crescent in the area of Western Asia in the early 1900s. The name Fertile Crescent was coined by the University of Chicago archaeologist named James Henry Breasted. Therefore, Fertile Crescent can then be referred to as the birthplace of agriculture and also known as “ Cradle of Civilization” Livestock such as pigs, sheep and cattle were respectively domesticated in Mesopotamia around 11,000BC 9  History of Agriculture The history of agriculture is traceable to 3 different stages; prehistory, early civilization and early to modern civilization. PREHISTORY This period was characterized by the Nomadic lifestyles (hunter and gatherers). The period was characterized by seasonal pattern for food supply. After some period, some degree of semi-nomadic lifestyle was exhibited. 10  EARLY CIVILIZATION The need for a specialized agricultural workforce for the societies to thrive as identified by the Sumerian civilization in the Middle East and other early pre Greco-Roman civilizations brought about early civilization around 5500 BC. The period was considered as a boom time in agricultural science and technology because irrigation agriculture was invented during that era 11  EARLY CIVILIZATION The agricultural practices witnessed final modern development in the 16th century when farmers came up with crop rotation. This is a situation where agricultural yield could increase by switching land use for different agricultural purposes. For instance, in order not to exhaust the soil every year, the field would have crops planted on it in a particular year, the following year it would be used for livestock and it would be kept. 12.  EARLY CIVILIZATION fallow during the third year Though, this system had earlier been used by the societies to a certain extent, but the method was perfected in the 16th century 13  EARLY TO MODERN CIVILIZATION A lot of innovations in the agricultural industries were achieved during this period which was referred to by the historians as the Arab Agricultural Revolution. It was a period of massive selective cross- breeding, particularly in animal livestock, and systems of organisation. In some areas of Europe, agricultural system was in form of medieval ridge and furrow strip farming. 14  EARLY TO MODERN CIVILIZATION The agricultural practices witnessed final modern development in the 16th century when farmers came up with crop rotation. This is a situation where agricultural yield could increase by switching land use for different agricultural purposes. For instance, in order not to exhaust the soil every year, crops would be planted on the land in the first year and could be used for livestock rearing in the second year and be kept fallow during the third 15  year. Though, this system had earlier been used by the societies to a certain extent, but the method was perfected in the 16th century. 16 General Agriculture AGR 201 EKUNSEITAN D. A. 1 Types and distribution of farm animals Classification of Animals EKUNSEITAN D.A. 2 Classification of Animals a) Stomach structure b) Type of food eaten c) Purpose of Keeping Stomach structure 1. Ruminants 2. Non-Ruminant Animals (Pseudo-Ruminants & Monogastric Farm Animals): The non-ruminant animal has an uncomplicated or simple stomach Stomach structure Ruminants Stomach is compartmentalized into a rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum  Stomach structure ❑ Ruminants ✓ The major advantages of the ruminant pre-gastric fermentation 1. Fibre is broken down into the three short-chain volatile fatty acids (VFAs) 2. Synthesis of rumen microbial protein 3. Enhanced digestion of coarse foods and breakdown of fibres Stomach structure ❑ Pseudo-Ruminants ✓Simple stomach ✓Feed on grasses and other materials but do not regurgitate (peristalsis) ✓Some of them exhibit “coprophagy/caecotrophy Stomach Structure ❑ Monogastric ✓ Stomach is simple in structure with a single stomach compartment within the digestive system (Therefore the name ‘Monogastric’) ✓ System not designed for ‘chewing the cud’ Stomach structure Stomach structure ✓Ruminants do not produce enzymes for protein digestion ✓Regurgitation occurs in ruminant animals ✓Stomach compartments Type of food eaten 1. Herbivores ✓Maintain continuous fermentation and absorption in sections of the GIT where cellulose-containing materials can be broken down ✓Functional differences between species is related to rates of passage of digesta through the GIT Type of food eaten 2. Carnivores ✓Obtain their food by feeding on other animals ✓Digestion relies largely on enzymes (enzymatic processes) rather than microorganisms’ fermentation/breakdown. Type of food eaten 3. Omnivores ✓Feed on both plants and animals ✓Digestion is mainly enzymatic ✓Microbial breakdown of plant material however occurs in the large intestine, and also in the stomach of the animal. Purpose of Keeping Farm Animal 1. Meat Animals: Cattle, sheep, goats, poultry 2. Dairy Animals : Cow, doe, ewe 3. Work Animals: Bull, mules, bullocks, buffaloes. 4. Egg-Laying Animals: Poultry birds 15  Write what should NOT be forgotten. Isabel Allende – Chilean Author 16 Significance of Farm Animals EKUNSEITAN D.A. 17  Significance of farm animals 1.Economic Role: Economic diversification and risk distribution, food supply, raw materials for industries, revenue generation (government) and income (individuals), power source 2.Socio-Cultural Role: enhances the status of farmers, used cultural and religious festivals , gifts, bride prices, sporting activities, 3.Roles in farming system: Land, animal and plant relationship Livestock Management/Production Systems The System of Management of farm animals in an enterprise is dependent on 1. Scale of output: farmer’s convenience, 2. Financial capacity 3. Available physical resources: Land, Labour and Pastures. Four Systems of Managing Farm Animals in Nigeria 1. Nomadic Herding 2. Free Range System 3. Semi-intensive System 4. Intensive System  Ultimate Objectives of Livestock Production 21 1. The health of final consumers: Residues of substances in products, AMR 2. Adequate supply of good-quality animal products 3. Huge profits on investment 4. Sustenance of livestock production systems  Requirements for Livestock Management 1. Selection of Good Animals 22 2. Feeding 3. Housing 4. Routine Practices: Grooming, debeaking, de- spurring, dehorning etc. 5. Watering 6. The technical expertise about the enterprise and the breed required  Requirements for Livestock Management 1. Selection of Animals: Genetic makeup, Health, Age, 23 Fertility and fecundity, breed, Conformation or body-build (Dairy production, Meat production, Farm power) 2. Feeding: Nutrient composition, physiological state, Basic Calculations 3. Housing: Location: fitted with necessary equipment Type of Animal, type of Production, type of Management 4. Grooming of Farm Animals 5. Watering  Requirements for Livestock Management 24 4. Grooming of Farm Animals ✓ Farm animals are groomed by brushing, washing and cleaning of their body 4. Benefits of Grooming 25 *Keeps animal free from ectoparasites and prevention of transfer to others *Taming of the animals to facilitate easy handling *Quick detection of wounds, cuts and injuries, sickness * Detection of animals on heat *Facilitate basic operations such as dehorning, tattooing and castration * To stimulate milking PRINCIPLES OF LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT 4. Grooming 26 of Farm Animals If you are always trying to be normal, you will never know how AMAZING you can be. Maya Angelou – American Poet  Requirements for Livestock Management 28 5. The technical expertise about the enterprise and the breed required 6. Knowledge of pests and diseases  Requirements for Livestock Management 29 5. The technical expertise about the enterprise and the breed required 6. Knowledge of pests and diseases  Disease Control in Farm Animals 30 Disease Control in Farm Animals POULTRY 31  POULTRY Diseases Bacteria: Salmonella, Fowl typhoid, Campylobacteriosis, 32 Pasteurellosis, Mycoplasmosis, Infectious Synovitis Virus: Newcastle, Gumboro, Marek, Infectious Bronchitis, Egg Drop Syndrome, Infectious Laryngotracheitis, Avian Influenza, Infectious Anaemia Fungi: Aflatoxin, Aspergillosis, Candidiasis, Protozoa: Coccidiosis(Eimeria spp), Histomonas meleagridis (Blackhead:Histomoniasis) Worms: Ascaridia, Heterakis, Tapeworm, Some important vitamin deficiency Diseases: Riboflavin, Vitamin E, Vitamin D3  Ruminant Animals 33 Bacteria: Anthrax, Blackleg, Mastitis, Tetanus, Brucellosis, Foot rot, Salmonellosis, Pneumonia Virus: Rinderpest, PPR, Foot and Mouth, Blue tongue, Foot and mouth disease, Peste de Petits ruminants Fungi: Ringworm, Aspergillosis, Foot rot Protozoa: Coccidiosis(Eimeria spp) Worms: Ascaridia, Tapeworms Arthropods: Mange, flea, louse, tick paralysis, Oestrus ovis  Typical Signs 34 a) Change in general posture of the animal, b) Loss of appetite, decreased weight gain and increased feed conversion ratios c) Raised hair coat d) Sneezing, coughing are general signs of respiratory congestion. e) In laying birds, drop of egg production Disease Control in Farm Animals 35 Measures & Control  Disease Control in Farm Animals 36 1. Prophylactic measures, 2. Biosecurity measures (strange/wild animals from farm, reasonable distance from other farms, quarantine) 3. Vaccination 4. Phytobiotics Basic Calculations Performance indices in Animal Production EKUNSEITAN D.A. 37  Basic Calculations 38 Weight gain: Final Weight – Initial Weight Average Daily Gain (ADG): Weight gain/number of days on feed Feed to gain (F/G)or FCR: Weight gain/feed Intake Feed cost: Total cost of all the diets and (or) feedstuffs that is fed to an animal Feed cost per weight gain: Weight gain per day of age (WDA):  Basic Calculations 39 Shrink weight : full weight – empty weight Percent shrink: (shrink weight ÷ full weight) X 100 Dressing loss: live weight – carcass weight Dressing percentage: (carcass weight ÷ live weight) X 100 Protein Intake:Protein intake=Feed fed x Crude Protein of feed Protein Efficiency Ratio PER: Weight gain ÷Protein Intake  40 hanks for stening  Classification of Animals Farm animals can be classified based on feeding habits (structure of their GIT system), type of food they eat and the purpose of keeping the animals 1. Stomach structure (feeding habit): Farm animals can be classified into three groups, namely: a. Ruminants A ruminant is hoofed, even-toed, usually horned mammals, having a stomach divided into four compartments and chewing a cud consisting of regurgitated. The stomach is sectioned into rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum, thereby having the capacity to process leaves, grasses, shrubs and other herbage high in cellulose and hemi cellulose. The Fibre fractions of these plants is broken down into three short-chain volatile fatty acids (VFAs: acetic, propionic, and butyric acids by bacteria and protozoans through the process of fermentation. Four-chambered stomach: cattle, sheep, goats, deer and giraffes. Three-chambered stomachs: okapis, pronghorn, camels. The major advantages of the ruminant pre-gastric fermentation are ✓ Breaks down of fibrous feeds into VFAs, synthesis of vitamins and Amino acids and protein in the rumen. ✓ Synthesis of rumen microbial protein by rumen microbes ✓ selective retention of particles occurs at the reticulo-omasum orifice, and the added opportunity for mechanical breakdown of fibres during rumination, enhance digestion of coarse foods; ✓ the large quantities of gas that are produced may be readily released from the system by eructation (belching) What is peristalsis? Does the process favour regurgitation? True or False b. Pseudo-Ruminants and Monogastric Farm Animals Pseudo: These are animals with simple stomachs that feed on grasses and other materials but do not regurgitate. Some of them exhibit a process called “coprophagy/caecotrophy” i.e., the re-ingestion of a special kind of faeces (soft faeces), this allows the food to pass through the entire digestive tract a second time thus enabling complete digestion and utilization of feed material. Coprophagy helps animals to overcome the disadvantage of locating the cellulose fermentation in the posterior part of the intestinal tract and also the loss of escaped nutrients. It is common in the rodent family e.g. rabbits, hares. Prevention of coprophagy/caecotrophy results in 1. rapid development of deficiencies of vitamin K, biotin and other vitamins; 2. reduced growth rate, protein utilization and nitrogen retention. Cellulose digestion in a large number of non-ruminant mammals e.g. horses, also depends on fermentation by symbiotic microorganisms in the distal part of the GIT, the caecum which is a large diverticulum from the intestine. Many birds have two large caeca suitable for cellulose fermentation. Horses and rabbits are non-ruminant herbivores whose digestive tracts have mono and polygastric capabilities. Mono: The stomach is simple in structure, and similar to that of man without compartments. Generally, non-ruminants such as pigs, poultry (chickens, ducks, turkeys, guinea-fowl and geese) require feed that contains high quality ingredients than ruminants. 1. Pigs – Non-ruminant animals that are omnivorous, thus consume both plant and animal matter. 2. Poultry – Non-ruminants that are omnivorous, and they have a complex foregut (three sections that replaces the normal stomach) and a relatively simple intestinal tract. 3. Dogs and cats – Non-ruminant animals that are carnivorous. 4. Horses and mules – Non-ruminant animals, but they are herbivorous and have a rather large and complex large intestine. `1  5. Rabbits - A non-ruminant animal that is an herbivore with a complex large intestine. 2. Basis of type of food eaten a. Herbivores: cattle, sheep, goat. Ruminant and non-ruminant farm animals that feed on plant materials are classified as herbivores. They maintain continuous fermentation and absorption in the GIT for breaking down of cellulose-containing materials. Functional differences between species are related to rates of passage of digesta through the GIT. Herbivores with monogastric digestion can digest cellulose in their diets by way of symbiotic gut bacteria. However, their ability to extract energy from cellulose digestion is less efficient than in ruminants. Herbivores digest cellulose by microbial fermentation. Pseudo herbivores that can digest cellulose nearly as well as ruminants are called hindgut fermenters while ruminants are called foregut fermenters In hindgut fermenters, the microbial fermentation occurs in the digestive organs that follow the small intestine: the large intestine and cecum b. Carnivores: These are farm animals that obtain their food by feeding on other animals. Digestion of food is majorly enzymatic. c. Omnivores: Pig These are farm animals feed on both plants and animals and their digestion is mainly enzymatic. Pig, an omnivore, is herbivorous under domestication because in addition to enzymatic digestion, a good deal of microbial breakdown of plant material occurs in the large intestine, and also, to a large extent in the stomach of the animal. 3. Basis of Purpose of Keeping Farm Animal a. Meat Animals are farm animals kept primarily for the production of meat e.g., beef cattle, goats, sheep, broilers, turkeys, geese. White meat is obtained from different animals. Veal (meat from young dairy animal: 24-40 weeks) and chicken meat are referred to as white. The redness of meat is due to the presence of myoglobin and other contents. Meat for Goat (chevon) sheep (mutton), pig (pork) and cattle (beef/veal) b. Dairy Animals are farm animals kept primarily for milk production e.g., cow, doe, ewe c. Work Animals are farm animals kept primarily for use as source of farm power e.g., bull, mules, bullocks, buffaloes. d. Egg-Laying Animals are farm animals primarily kept for egg production e.g., poultry such as hens. Livestock Management/Production Systems The system of management of farm animals used in an enterprise is dependent on 1. scale of output, farmer’s convenience, 2. Financial capacity and 3. Available physical resources: land, labour and pastures. Thus, traditional farmers largely keep their animals on free range, which is cheap and requires little or no care thus allowing more time to be allocated to crop production. However, more advanced and capital- intensive systems of livestock management evolved in response not only to increasing human demand for animal proteins, but also to meet the rising cost of living and urbanization. Management Systems in Nigeria i. Nomadic Herding: Nomadic herding is a form of migratory system and the first and oldest system of managing farm animals. It involves the movement of animals by man from place to place in search of water and pasture. Animals are thus exposed to natural hazards, diseases leading to poor productivity from animals. These animals have the tendency of overgrazing natural pastures and destroying farmlands in their tracks. Although the system is simple and cheap to practice it has constituted a nuisance by grazing over farmlands which has led to continuous increase in outbreak of conflicts between farmers and herdsmen. `2 ii. Free Range System: In this system, the animal farmer is settled in one area or village, while livestock are allowed to wander about either on their own or sometimes, under the supervision of a herdsman. Occasionally, the animals are fed on farm or kitchen wastes. In general, there is little or no care, and additional feed is rarely provided. The cost of production is low in terms of labour and investment, and therefore, stock production and quality are very low. The animals are exposed to hazards like in nomadic herding, resulting in very high losses and poor reproductive rates. iii. Semi-intensive System: It is an intermediate between the free range and intensive systems of livestock management. Farm animals are kept indoors part of the time where they are fed regularly, and sometimes allowed to graze outdoors and fend for themselves in specially allocated pastures called paddocks. iv. Intensive System: Farm animals are kept under the most thorough management techniques, such as indoor housing all the time with optimum temperature, balanced and precise feeding, for the maximum efficiency and output of the farm animals. It is very expensive and labour intensive. Principles of Livestock Management The ultimate objectives of livestock production are 1. The health of final consumers 2. Adequate supply of good and quality animal products and by-products 3. Profits on investment 4. Sustenance of production systems i.e., continuity of business. Basic Principle of Animal Farming. 1. Selection of Animals i. Genetic makeup: The details parent stock of the farm animals must be accessed and must be one with proven quality. This can be obtained through performance record. The history of the parent stock is of necessity as it affects the future of the farm and overall sustainability. ii. Health: Animal must be healthy, and this may be certified by looking at the eyes, which should be clean and clear i.e., free from mucus and being blood-shot. The nose should be fairly moist but not running, the mouth, tongue, teeth and gums should be moist, blood-filled, free from swelling wounds or cuts or any infections. The legs should be well formed and free from infection such as swellings, cuts and bruises. The skin coat should be shining, of the right colour and covering, and free from cuts, bruises and parasites and not ruffled. Birds: the source of the animals is of importance and the management style used in raising such animals. Birds acquired at point of cage or lay must have its records properly scrutinized especially the vaccination and medication records. iii. Age: Younger animals are better, cheaper, preferable and provide opportunity for maximum production. This also allows farmer to properly groom to taste. iv. Site-specific of breeds. This is needed when practicing organic livestock production v. Fertility and fecundity- For breeding enterprise, it is important to select animal from a well-known herd, must be very fertile and prolific. Records of animals must be made available and scrutinized by farmers. vi. Body conformation: The enterprise (meat or milk) determines the body conformation of stock acquired. Dairy production: Animals considered for milk production must be triangular in shape. Cows should be of slender body and low body weight; udders must be prominent with pronounced and open teats. Animals must also be docile for ease of handling. `3 Meat production: Beef animals should be very fleshy around the rump, forelimbs and chest, with short legs and a square rump and long, broad back, they must possess a blocky/rectangular structure. Farm power: Work animals should have long legs, thick muscular necks and broad shoulders for carrying farm implements. They should be strong and docile with good temperament 2. Feeding The quantity and quality of feed given to animals is highly important in management. Food should be given ad libitum without restriction unless in special farm enterprise (breeder birds), fresh and contain the pertinent nutrients (carbohydrate, fats and oil, protein, vitamins, minerals) for proper development of the animal. The physiological state of animals also dictates the nutritional requirement of animals: Pigs: Growers, weaners, lactating sow, dry sow. Birds: chick, grower, laying birds, Cattle: dairy, heifer, calf bull etc. 3. Housing Housing is a very important aspect of a good livestock management. It is built and oriented in the east-west direction. Biosecurity measures must also be in place in every farm house setup. The following factors must put into consideration: i. Type of Animal: Birds require smaller houses and more temporal structures while bigger animals such as cattle require stronger and more ventilated structures. ii. Type of Production or enterprise: iii. Type of Management: The management system determines the housing type. Housing is not necessary for the Free-Range System while elaborate housing is not also needed in the Semi-Intensive System but highly essential in Intensive System where animals are kept indoors. Essentials of a good housing unit include i. Protection of animals from rain, heat, wind, pests and pathogens; ii. Rid-off flies, avoidance of overcrowding; iii. Farm animals are housed to protect them from wild beasts, theft, strong wind, rain, intense direct sunshine, pathogens and pests. iv. Waste management: regular removal of excreta viii. Provision of strong fence to facilitate exercise by animals, and where possible, few trees for shade; ix. provision of feeding and water troughs within the building as well as on the paddocks; and x. Provision of sick bay and quarantine unit. Management Practices: 1. Grooming of Farm Animals: Grooming is a key part of any animal care; essential to an animal’s health and welfare. Lack of grooming can lead to health problems with some animals. Animals can also be groomed for competitions (e.g., Horse and Dog Shows). Some services are essential to the animal’s health and wellbeing; while other services may be more about the aesthetics and marketing. Farm animals are groomed by brushing, washing and cleaning of all their body parts. The benefits of grooming include: i. Keeps animal free from ectoparasites and prevention of transfer to others ii. Taming of the animals to facilitate easy handling during major or minor farm operation. iii. quick detection of wounds, cuts and injuries, sickness and iv. Detection of animals on heat v. Facilitate operations such as dehorning, tattooing and castration and vi. To stimulate milking. Functions of a Groomer: A groomer performs a range of tasks suited to the species or breed of the animal. a Hair removal: This is performed with the aid of clippers and brushes to remove various amounts of hair. Hair removal may be performed to help maintain an untidy coat to achieve a certain style or for health `4  reason such as to help an animal cope with a hotter climate or make it easier to find parasites such as ticks and likewise for ease of treatment. b Hair cleaning: Hair cleaning or washing may be performed to maintain the hygiene of an animal by removing dirt and reducing unwanted odour, to make the animal more aesthetically pleasing and for the health of the animal. c Nail Clipping is performed with the aid of nail clippers to physically remove the tip of the nail. Nail clipping is performed to help animals maintain a healthy nail length, without clipping nails can cause serious problems to the locomotion and health of an animal. Hoof trimming is also of necessity in hooved animals. 2. Debeaking 3. De-spurring 4. Dehorning 5. De-snooding Disease Control in Farm Animals Livestock diseases are of paramount importance to farmers because of their economic effects. Livestock diseases constitute a major factor for poor animal performance. Disease transfer can be 1. Vertical (mother to offspring), 2. Horizontal (one animal to other) 3. Autoinfection in nature. They cause loss of production through death and frequently, a loss of body condition. Animals can acquire these illnesses through contact with diseased animals, improper sanitation and improper management, feeding and care. Many diseases are transmissible between classes of animals and from classes of animals to Man (zoonotic diseases). Typical signs of diseases 1. Loss of appetite, 2. Decreased weight gain and increased feed conversion ratio 3. Raised or ruffled hair coat 4. Sneezing, coughing and general signs of respiratory congestion. 5. In laying birds: drop of egg production, thin shelled eggs or eggs without shell. 6. Sunken eyes 7. Dungs with poor consistency, 8. Blood-stained excreta 9. Dark/bloody urine discharge, 10. Laboured breathing. There are several common diseases associated with livestock, classified according to the etiological/causal agents responsible: viral, bacterial, protozoan, helminthic, ectoparasitic diseases. Also, the diseases require different measures of controlling them such as 1. Good sanitation, 2. Quarantine, 3. Dipping of animals 4. Culling of sick animals 5. Vaccination of animals Biosecurity measures (strange/wild animals from farm, quarantine, vehicular restriction, isolation from other animals, restriction of workers and visitors, screening of animals (rats) from feedstuff) `5  Poultry Ruminant Bacteria: Salmonella, Fowl typhoid Bacteria: Anthrax, Blackleg Virus: Newcastle, Gumboro, Marek Virus: Rinderpest, PPR, Foot and Mouth. Fungi: Aflatoxin, Aspergillosis Fungi: Ringworm, Aspergillosis, Foot rot Protozoa: Coccidiosis (Eimeria spp) Protozoa: Coccidiosis (Eimeria spp) Worms: Ascaridia, Heterakis, Tapeworm Worms: Ascaridia, Tapeworms Basic Calculations 1. Total Weight gain: the total weight an animal has gained for a given period of time. 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑔) = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡(𝑔) − 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡(𝑔) 2. Average daily gain (ADG): the average amount of weight an animal has gained each day for a given period of time the animal has been on feed. 𝐴𝐷𝐺 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 ÷ 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 3. Weekly Body Weight Gain 4. Feed to gain (F/G) – also called feed conversion ratio, this is the amount of feed that is eaten by an animal for each weight the animal gained. 𝐹𝐶𝑅 = 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑒𝑑 ÷ 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 5. Feed cost: the total cost of all the diets and (or) feedstuffs that is fed to an animal Ruminant (𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑡/𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑑 𝑋 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑔) + (𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑒𝑑 𝑋 ℎ𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡) Others: (𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑡/𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑑 𝑋 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑔) 6. Feed cost per weight gain: The feed cost for each weight that was gained by the animal = 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 ÷ 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 7. Weight gain per day of age (WDA): the average weight that was gained by animal for each day of its life. = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡) ÷ 𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 8. Shrink weight: the difference in an animal’s full weight and its empty weight (used to measure the total amount of weight an animal loses while being transported from one place to another). This weight loss is typically the contents of the stomach and intestines that has passed out of the animal = 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 – 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 9. Percent shrink: the proportion (percentage) of an animal’s weight that is lost during transport from one place to another relative to its full live weight before it was transported. = (𝑠ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ÷ 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) 𝑋 100 10. Dressing loss: This is the difference in weight between an animal’s live weight and its carcass weight. This weight difference is the parts of the animal that is removed during slaughtering and processing (head, feet, tail, guts, and hide, wool, or hair) = 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 – 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 11. Dressing percentage: the proportion (percentage) of an animal’s carcass weight relative to its live weight = (𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ÷ 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡) 𝑋 100 12. Protein Intake: This is calculated by multiplying the total feed intake by the crude protein (CP) percentage of the feed. 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 = 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑒𝑑 𝑥 𝐶𝑃 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 13. Protein Efficiency Ratio: This is the ratio of the weight gained by animal to protein intake by animal. 𝑷𝑬𝑹 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 ÷ 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 `6  AGR 201 Place of Fish farming in Agriculture by Dr. Abdulraheem Ikililu Department of Aquaculture and Fisheries Management 1 Definitions: Agriculture Science is the science, art and practice of cultivating plants and livestock; Different Sectors Of Agriculture; Crop farming Fisheries and Aquaculture Forestry Livestocks Integrated Agriculture (also known as mixed farming) is a farming system with simultaneous activities involving crop and animal. Essentially, the crop residues serve as feed to the livestock and fish, and in turn, the wastes from the livestock and fish serve as fertiliser to the crops. Fish farming or Pisciculture involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures such as fish ponds, usually for food. It is different from aquaculture which is the farming of aquatic animals such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and so on. Integrated fish farming; systems refer to the production, integrated management and comprehensive use of aquaculture, agriculture and livestock, with an emphasis on aquaculture. 2  Integrated fish farming Integrated fish farming is based on the concept that ‘there is no waste’, because waste product from a particular sector becomes a valuable material for another product. Its basic principles involve the utilisation of the synergetic effects of inter- related farm activities and the conservation, including the full utilisation of farm wastes. However, the main beneficiary are the fishes which utilises the animal and agricultural wastes directly or indirectly as food. As integrated farming involves the recycling of wastes, it has been considered an economic and efficient means of environmental management 3 Types of Integrated Fish Farming: 1. Paddy-Cum-Fish Culture: Rice fields which are water-logged for 3-8 months in a year, there is always small population of fishes that gain access to such waters. This probably had given rise to the practice of deliberate stocking of fishes and harvesting. (a) Objectives of Paddy-Field Aquaculture: (1) Paddy-field aquaculture provides additional income to the farmers. (2) In areas where rice and fish form the staple food, paddy-field aquaculture makes available an essential diet for the people (3) As paddy and fish can be grown either simultaneously or alternately in the same water mass, it requires very little extra input by way of additional costs, particularly in management and labour. (4) It provides off-season employment to the farmers and farm labours. (5) Combination of paddy and fish farming is mutually beneficial. Fish cultivation promotes better paddy production by way of exercising an effective control on unwanted weeds, molluscs, noxious insects and their larval stages. 4 (b) Fishes Suitable for Paddy-Cum-Fish Culture: All fishes are not suitable for such a type of culture as paddy-fields provide special ecological conditions such as shallow turbid water with high temperature. Fishes having the following criteria are generally selected for paddy- cum-fish culture: (1) Fishes that can adapt to shallow waters necessary for paddy crops. (2) Fishes that can tolerate high temperature. (3) Fishes that can thrive on low dissolved oxygen, which is the characteristic of paddy-fields especially in tropical countries. (4) Fishes that can tolerate fairly high turbidity. (5) As the duration of culture is quite short, fishes that have high growth rate is to be selected, so that it can reach marketable size within these few months. (6) Fishes that can live in confinement and do not tend to escape from the cultivated area. 5 (c) Management of Paddy-Fields: To increase the utility of paddy-fields as fish ponds, the following managements are required: (1) A continuous flow of water in the field, with proper inlet and outlet is to be maintained. (2) The water in the field is to be maintained at a desired level. (3) Proper drainage of water from the field has to be made in case of flooding. (4) At the point of entry and exit of water, some control means (such as screens) have to be provided to prevent the cultivated species from escaping and stopping the entry of wild fishes into the paddy-field. (5) Deep pits or other devices has to be provided as shelter to the cultivated fishes at the time of distress. 6 d) Types of Paddy-Field Aquaculture: Three major types of paddy-field aquaculture are generally practiced: (i) Simultaneous or combined or synchronous farming. (ii) Alternate or sequential farming or paddy- fish rotation. (iii) Relay farming. (i) Simultaneous or Combined or Synchronous Farms: In such farming paddy and fish are grown together and harvesting the paddy and fish at the end of the rice-growing season. In general, fishes are stocked not earlier than 5 days after transplantation of paddy seedlings, so as to enable the seedlings to form proper root. After transplantation of paddy, stocking in case of fry should be done after 10 days, while for fingerlings after 3 weeks. The methods of culture adopted are for production of either fingerlings or fish for consumption. Farmers generally cultivate local varieties of paddy which takes up to 6 months to be harvested, so that more than one crop per year can be grown. Generally organic manures are preferred over the use of fertilisers in the preparation of the paddy-fields. 7 The advantages of simultaneous cultivation are: (1) There is no additional cost for fish production. (2) Fishes contribute to the enhancement of paddy production by destroying weeds, causing tillering and mineral enrichment by their digging activity, and for the fertilisation of soil by their excrement and also by the unutilised artificial feed. (3) Due to fish cultivation paddy production gets increased by 5 to 15%. The disadvantages are: (1) The water depth being shallow hinders better fish raising. (2) For fear of harmful effect on fishes, herbicides and insecticides uses in paddy-field is generally prevented which ultimately limits paddy production. (3) Due to abrupt changes in temperature and dissolved oxygen, inadequate space and presence of piscivore birds, there is great loss of fishes which may be about 20-60%. Progressive agricultural areas have slowly discarded paddy-fish cultivation in favour of the rotation of paddy and fish crops. 8 (ii) Alternate or sequential farming or paddy- fish rotation: It is the simplest form, where flooded paddy-fields after harvest are used to raise one or more crops of fish or shrimp. In rotation system the paddy-field has to be prepared for raising fishes after the harvest of rice. To maintain the required depth of water the bunds surrounding the field have to be raised. After harvesting the rice, the stubbles are not removed. These submerged stubbles provide the substrate for the development of fish food organisms. These stubbles undergo decomposition, thereby fertilising the water and stimulating higher productivity. After fish harvesting, the residues remain in the soil which in turn serves as fertiliser for the paddy crop. 9 Advantages of Paddy-Fish Rotation: The paddy- fish rotation system has the following advantages: (1) There is no water depth limitation either to paddy or fish cultivation. Shallow water depth is maintained till the harvesting of paddy, after which the water depth is raised for the culture of fishes. (2) Through this adequate water level management, suitable water temperature and dissolved oxygen content can be maintained. (3) After harvesting of paddy, the submerged stubbles decompose and fertilise the water. This leads to the development of fish food organisms and ultimately stimulates higher productivity. (4) The interval between paddy harvesting and fish stocking is sufficient enough to allow degradation of pesticides. (5) Insect pest infestation gets reduced as their life-cycles are disrupted. (6) Either monoculture or polyculture can be practised. 10 The disadvantages are: Due to presence of piscivorous birds like herons, cormorants, etc., considerable loss of fish (20-60%) takes place. (iii) Relay Farming: This system is much complicated and it ensures prolonged period of fish culture. It involves transferring the stock of fishes to specially prepared ditches, channels or pools at the time of paddy harvest and re-stocking them in the field for a further growing period. This system provides better growth rate than what is possible in such a short duration of one paddy crop. For such a cultivation the farm should have additional holding or rearing facilities for the period between paddy harvesting and planting of new fish seedlings. The carps or shrimps can be grown to the required size through adequate feeding. This culture involves higher inputs including labour. 11 2. Duck-Cum-Fish Farming: Although duck and fish farming have been in practice in eastern Europe and China and their compatible nature being recognised since long, the interaction and benefits of the association have been understood only a few years back. During the last decade suitable methods have been developed in various countries for raising ducks in fish ponds. Undoubtedly, such a combined culture is highly profitable as it greatly increases the production of protein in terms of fish and duck per unit area. The combination of duck and fish farming is seen presently as a means of reducing the cost of feed for ducks, at one hand, and on the other, the excreta of ducks acts in an inexpensive way of fertilising ponds, which results in production of fish food organisms. 12 Thus, ducks can be said to be ‘living manuring machines’. The duck droppings contain 25 per cent organic and 20 per cent inorgaic substances along with a number of elements such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, etc. Moreover, ducks by agitating the shore areas of the pond, help to release nutrients. Besides this, ducks feed on a variety of organisms such as weeds, snails, unwanted harmful insects and their larvae (some being vectors of fish pathogenic organisms), tadpoles, frogs and water- borne disease-causing organisms infecting man, whose eradication is one of the important aspects of farm management. 13 (a) Ducks Culture and their Raising: Ponds provide a clean and healthy environment for ducks. Special strains of ducks have been developed that are suited for pond raising. Such suitable strains when used, approximately 50-60 per cent of their droppings when falls into the pond, is sufficient to fertilise the water. Reliable and timely supply of required strains of good quality ducklings are of great significance as it promotes successful farming. For supply of ducklings, small scale farmers have to depend on outside sources, while larger farms have their own breeding centres which is much convenient and profitable. 14 Raising of Ducks is done by one of the two ways: (i) Extensive Raising: In extensive raising ducks are stocked at approximately 150-500 per hectare of pond surface. Here small amount of supplementary feed is provided and the number of ducks is limited due to the food they can find in the pond water. As the number of ducks are limited, they contribute little amount of manure to the pond and its effect on fish yield is also limited. Such a type of method is usually employed in Europe. (ii) Intensive Raising: Here ducks are stocked at a much higher density, approximately 1000-2500 per hectare of pond surface and is usually employed in Africa. The ducks are fed at the same rates as on land. As ducks are held at a much higher density per unit area, higher amounts of manure are thus loaded into the fish pond which subsequently results in higher yields. 15 (b) Duck Keeping: There are two basic ways of keeping ducks in fish ponds: (i) Free-Range System: Here the ducks are allowed to have free access to the whole pond (Fig. 6.43). As they are allowed to swim freely around the whole pond surface, a good proportion of their droppings fall directly into the pond water and are distributed more or less uniformly. The ducks are able to forage around the whole pond. Adjacent to the ponds, small duck houses are built with facilities for providing them with supplementary feed. In this system, as considerable energy is spent by the ducks in swimming activity, it is believed to affect the feed conversion ratio and growth rate of the ducks. 16 (ii) Confinement in Enclosures: Here, part of the pond area and the adjacent land area are enclosed with wire fences (Fig. 6.44). About one-fourth of the enclosure will be on the land and the rest in water. Within the wire fence suitable feeding and resting areas are made. Some of the droppings of the duck falls directly into the pond water, while the rest that drops on land is washed down into the pond. Under this system fish production is reported to be almost equal to the free- range system. Keeping ducks in enclosures is preferred by most farmers, who use special strains of ducks for better growth. 17 (c) Raising of Fish: For duck-fish farming the most suitable pond is the barrage type of ponds. This is made by damming shallow valleys, so that the ducks can lie on the natural slopes. There is every likely- hood that ducks may damage the earthen dykes while foraging. The problem can be solved with proper maintenance. Commonly the fish species cultured are herbivores and omnivores. The common carp was traditionally the main species but subsequently other species of Chinese carps are used to make full use of the food resources. Other important species used are male or hybrid tilapia, grey mullet, catla, eel, asian catfish and sea perch. Fairly high stocking rates are adopted and supplementary food is also provided. 18 (d) Advantages and Disadvantages of Fish-Cum- Duck Culture: (i) Advantages: (1) There is practically less additional cost for fish culture, as the excreta of the ducks fertilises the pond water. (2) Ducks by agitating the shore areas of the ponds help to release nutrients. (3) The cost of feed for the ducks gets reduced. (4) The ducks help to eradicate vectors of fish pathogenic organisms and water borne diseases — causing organisms infecting man, as they feed on a variety of organisms such as weeds, snails, unwanted harmful insects and their larvae, tadpole, frog, etc. (ii) Disadvantages: (1) The fingerlings released should be of more than 10 cm size, otherwise the ducks may feed on the fingerlings. (2) While foraging for food, ducks sometimes damages the earthen dykes. This problem can be solved with proper maintenance. 19 3. Fish-Cum-Poultry Farmings: Integrated fish farming with poultry is generally cultured as the poultry manure is a very efficient fertilizer for fish ponds. The poultry droppings comprises 2% nitrogen, 1.25% phosphoric acid and 0.75% potash. The low feeding cost per individual bird makes poultry farming along with fish, a common investment for poor farmers. (a) Poultry Raising: Both ‘broilers’ and ‘layers’ variety of chicken can be raised for fish-poultry farming. One day old chick are raised up to the pullet stage after which they are put in layer cages. 20 Fish culture with both intensive and extensive poultry productions have been integrated successfully. The most intensive type of poultry production is the battery type of housing, which is installed by the side of the pond. The floor of the house is cemented and is set up at a slope so that the eggs may roll forward. For layers, the floor area required is about 30 cm2 while for broilers, 15-20 cm2. The usual floor space allotted for each bird is 20 x 30 x 40 cm. The birds are confined to cages which are made up of standard, stout, galvanised wire. The cages are kept on trays for collection of droppings. For further on poultry refer chapter 5. For manuring one hectare pond water, the droppings of about 250 layers and four batches of 200 broilers each are adequate in a year’s time. 21 (b) Fish Raising: For fish raising the ponds are stocked with fingerlings of catla, silver carp, common carp, murrels, tilapia, giant freshwater prawns, etc. The stocking density of fishes is related with that of poultry and also with the period of culture. In one hectare pond area, when stocked with 5000 giant freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) and 1500 silver carp, and cultured for a period of four months, one can harvest 600 kg of prawns and an equal amount of fish, along with 250 culled birds. For culturing over a period of one year, ponds may be stocked with fingerlings of catla, common carp, silver carp and grass carp at a density of 5000-6000 fingerlings per hectare. At the end of twelve months of fish-cum-poultry culture, fish yield of over 3900 kg per hectare can be normally obtained along with 42,000 eggs and 200 culled birds. 22 (c) Advantages and disadvantages of fish-cum- poultry culture: (i) Advantages: (1) Chicken manure is a very efficient fertiliser, so no chemical fertiliser is needed for fertilising the pond water. This cuts down the expenditure of rearing fishes. (2) No supplementary fish feed is required. (3) The purchase and feeding cost per bird is low. (4) Chicks are readily available and their productivity can be improved with simple and cheap management. (ii) Disadvantages: (1) Chicks should be examined from time to time and diseased one should be isolated, otherwise they will destroy the entire stock. (2) Sufficient time should be given from one stocking of chicks to the next for renovation of the house and disinfectioning it. 23 4. Fish-Cum-Pig Culture: In integrated fish farming with pig, the ‘pig dung’ is useful for conditioning the soil and providing the necessary nutrients required for fertilising the pond water. Fish- cum-pig culture is considered as “costless fertiliser factories”. Pig dung contains about 70 percent digestible feed for fishes. The feed while passing down the pig’s alimentary canal, gets mixed up with enzymes which continue to act even after defecation. Such undigested solids serve as direct food source for tilapia and common carp. In tropical fish ponds, weeds are a major problem in fish culture. Such vegetation’s are considered as valuable food resource for pigs. 24 4. Fish-Cum-Pig Culture: In integrated fish farming with pig, the ‘pig dung’ is useful for conditioning the soil and providing the necessary nutrients required for fertilising the pond water. Fish-cum-pig culture is considered as “costless fertiliser factories”. Pig dung contains about 70 percent digestible feed for fishes. The feed while passing down the pig’s alimentary canal, gets mixed up with enzymes which continue to act even after defecation. Such undigested solids serve as direct food source for tilapia and common carp. In tropical fish ponds, weeds are a major problem in fish culture. Such vegetation’s are considered as valuable food resource for pigs. 25 Thus, pigs aptly play a role in biological control of weeds: (a) Pig Rearing: In fish-cum-pig culture the embankments of fish ponds are made wider (10m) to facilitate the building of pig sites and also for growing vegetables, fruit trees or other crops. In the slopes, grasses can also be grown which is used as fodder for grass carp and for other farm animals. Various aquatic plants, such as azolla, duck weed, Pistia, Wolffia, Lemna, and water hyacinth (Eichhor-nia) are grown in feeder channels and irrigation ditches associated with the pond farms. These and the foliage of other terrestrial plants (vegetables, rice, corn, etc.) are used for feeding the pigs. Pig sites or pen or sty are generally built on nearby land or on the pond embankment. Pig pen generally have a system of channels for transferring the organic matter into the pond water. 26 Alternatively, the sty or pen may be constructed above the pond water. The structure is made of wood and provided with a lattice type of floor which permits the excreta and uneaten food to fall directly into the pond water. Modern practices are to avoid direct washing of the wastes into the pond. The urine and dung of pigs are first allowed to the oxidation tanks (digestion chambers) where sedimentation and fermentation of the manure take place. The supernatant liquid, at regular intervals, are then discharged into the fish ponds. The sludge that remains is utilised as fertilisers in agriculture. Alternatively the pig manure may be kept in a heap on the pond embankment for later use. The production of manure depends upon the age and size of the pig. A piglet produces about 3.4 kg manure a day, while a one-year-old pig gives about 12.5 kg a day. The average production of faeces and urine per pig is about 7.8-8 tons per annum. A density of 60-100 pigs has been found to be sufficient to fertilise a one hectare fish pond. 27 (b) Fish Rearing: Polyculture is commonly practised in such integrated farming due to the variety of food that becomes available in the pond. Herbivorous and omnivorous fishes are used for culture; generally common and Chinese carps and less frequently catfishes (Pangasius), Indian carps and tilapia. Due to high productivity of the ponds, fairly high rates of stocking are generally practised — 60,000 fingerlings of different species (weighing 20-30 gm) per hectare. (c) Production and Duration of Culture: The duration of culture of fishes and pigs varies. Generally it is about one year, but culture for 6 months duration is also practised. The overall economics of combined fish and pig rearing depends on the local conditions. However, the pigs are generally sold when they have attained a weight of 90-100 kg. The production of fish generally varies between 2 and 18 tons per hectare per annum. 28 (d) Advantages and Disadvantages of Fish-Cum- Pig Culture: (i) Advantages: (1) Such integrated farming increases the productivity per area and thus, the farmers income becomes doubled or more. (2) Pig dung conditions the soil of a new pond and provides ready-made organic matter, containing the necessary nutrients. (3) Pig dung contains about 70 per cent digestible feed for fishes. The undigested solids present in the faeces of pig serves as direct feed source for tilapia and common carp. (4) Pigs aptly plays a role in biological control of weeds, as weeds are considered as valuable food source for pigs. (ii) Disadvantages: (1) Addition of too much pig manure may lead to increased nutrient load resulting in pollution of the water body and mortality of the fishes. (2) Considerable care and management skills are required to prevent pollution. It has been found that satisfactory fish production can be obtained with much lower manuring. 29 5. Other Animals in Fish Systems of Integrated Farming: (a) Fish-Cum-Cattle Farming: Cattle wastes and washings from the cattle sheds are conveyed through pipes into the ponds which acts as good fertiliser. Cattle wastes are generally collected in a pit for later use. In addition to fish yield, production of milk from cattle and beef adds to the economy. (b) Fish-Cum-Rabbit Farming: Rabbit farming has been found to be ideal for integration with small- scale fish culture. Rabbit manure have greater value as a direct food for fish compared to other livestock wastes. (c) Fish-Cum-Mulberry Farming: Mulberry plants are raised on the dikes of the fish farm and in the neighbouring fields for silkworm production. The mulberry wastes and silkworm larvae and pupae (after removal of silk) are used as feed for the fishes. It also fertilises the pond water. 30 Advantages of Integrated Fish Farming: The advantages of integrated fish farming are as follows: (1) Full utilisation of farm wastes. (2) Utilisation of the cooperative effects of interrelated farm activities. (3) It increases employment opportunities. (4) It increases nutritional source for the farmer’s family. (5) It gives higher and stable farm productivity and there is less risk (biologically and econo- mically). (6) It increases the income of rural population. (7) It is a means of land reclamation in certain areas. (8) It is an efficient and economic means of environmental management. Disadvantages of Integrated Fish Farming: Speculations are ripe that integrated fish farming with pigs and poultry may be a cause of influenza pandemic. This may be, as the pigs would act as ‘mixing vessels’ for avian and human influenza viruses, it can create new lethal strains of viruses by mutation. However, there is no conclusive evidence that integrated farming can become a public health hazard. For safety measures, pig-poultry combinations in integrated fish culture should thus be avoided. 31 32