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EFFECTIVE TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION SECOND EDITION  About the Author M Ashraf Rizvi is currently Director, Jaipuria Institute of Management, Lucknow. An eminent academician with more than thirty years of teaching,...

EFFECTIVE TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION SECOND EDITION  About the Author M Ashraf Rizvi is currently Director, Jaipuria Institute of Management, Lucknow. An eminent academician with more than thirty years of teaching, training, consulting and research experience in India and abroad, Dr. Rizvi has taught in top institutes including Indian Institute of Management Indore, Indian Institute of Technology Dhanbad, and Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman. He is widely credited for positioning IIM Indore as a national leader in executive education. He has also served as Chairman of Executive PGP Programme of IIM Indore; Coordinator for Collaboration with University of Pittsburgh, USA; and headed Media Management Centre of IIM Indore from 2007–2012. Professor Rizvi has delivered various lectures, presentations and keynote addresses at premier universities, institutes and business schools around the world including IIMs, NITs, Preston University, Sharjah, American University of Emirates, UAE, MARA University, Kuala Lumpur, and BITS Pilani Dubai Campus. Dr. Rizvi has trained and coached thousands of professionals including CEOs, top MNC executives, civil servants, judges, army officers, police officers, scientists, doctors, engineers, journalists, writers, university teachers, academic administrators, etc. His consulting and executive education experiences include engagements with several national and multinational organizations. Dr. Rizvi has designed and conducted innovative management and leadership development programmes for public sector as well as private sector companies including LG India, ONGC, Alstom, GAIL, Thomas Cook, Honeywell, Birla, Eicher, Godrej, NTPC, Vodafone, Reliance, Bharat Petroleum, EIL, SBI Life, PNB, and several other organizations. He has served as a consultant to a number of companies and government departments and agencies including Ministry of Home, Government of India, Ministry of Health, Government of Madhya Pradesh, IPCA Pharmaceuticals, Kotak Life Insurance, ONGC, etc. Dr. Rizvi is an author of eleven books, some of which include Communication for Retail Professionals (McGraw Hill Education, New Delhi, 2009), Effective Technical Communication: KIIT (McGraw Hill Education, New Delhi, 2009) Business Communication: Challenges and Prospects, (Paragon International Publishers, New Delhi, 2008); Resumes and Interviews: The Art of Winning, (McGraw Hill Education, New Delhi, 2007); Effective Technical Communication (McGraw Hill Education, New Delhi, 2005), Professional Communication (McGraw Hill Education, New Delhi, 2005). Professor Rizvi is also the author of over 60 journal articles, book chapters, reviews, working papers, cases, role plays, simulations, and notes. He is on the Editorial Boards and Review Panels of many scholarly journals including Profile: A Journal of Columbia University, Asian Case Research Journal, National University of Singapore, How: A Colombian Journal for English Teachers, Columbia, SEARCH Journal, Malaysia, Indore Management Journal, and IMT Case Journal, India.  EFFECTIVE TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION SECOND EDITION M ASHRAF RIZVI Director Jaipuria Institute of Management, Lucknow Former Professor Indian Institute of Management, Indore Indian Institute of Technology, Dhanbad McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited CHENNAI McGraw Hill Education Offices Chennai New York St Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogotá Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto  McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited 444/1, Sri Ekambara Naicker Industrial Estate, Alapakkam, Porur, Chennai 600 116 Effective Technical Communication, 2e Copyright © 2018, 2005 by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited. Print Edition ISBN (13): 978-93-5260-578-1 ISBN (10): 93-5260-578-0 e-Book Edition ISBN (13): 978-93-5260-610-8 ISBN (10): 93-5260-610-8 Managing Director: Kaushik Bellani Director—Science & Engineering Portfolio: Vibha Mahajan Sr. Manager Portfolio—Science and Engineering: Hemant Jha Associate Portfolio Manager: Mohammad Salman Khurshid Sr. Manager—Content Development: Shalini Jha Content Developer: Sahil Thorpe Production Head: Satinder S Baveja Assistant Manager—Production: Jagriti Kundu General Manager—Production: Rajender P Ghansela Manager—Production: Reji Kumar Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw Hill Education (India), from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw Hill Education (India) and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. Typeset at Text-o-Graphics, B-1/56, Aravali Apartment, Sector-34, Noida 201 301, and printed at Cover Printer: Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in  To my late father M MUSLIM RIZVI, who has always been a source of inspiration to me  Preface to the Second Edition Introduction Effective Technical Communication is designed to enhance the communication skills for students pursuing technical courses. This book aims to enable the reader to master all the four dimensions of communication—listening, speaking, reading and writing. Simple language, step-by-step approach and practice modules will help students in mastering the subject. Target Audience This textbook has been designed to cater to needs of students of various technical and management courses as well as for working professionals. The content offers a complete training programme, which can be used to build effective communication skills by engineering and management students in IITs, IIMs, NITs, RECs, deemed universities, state and private technical universities, and similar educational institutes in other Asian countries. Objective of the Revision The main objective of the revision was to align this extremely popular content with the latest advancements in the professional communication domain. The previous edition has been prescribed in most of the technical institutes and universities in India for undergraduate and postgraduate courses, and has been freely used by the instructors, academicians, researchers, and professionals in different fields. It is a comprehensive learning resource on technical communication and the revised edition has further strengthened the utility of this book. New to this Edition The text has been thoroughly revised to include: New chapter!! Chapter on Communication Today highlights new topics such as methods of communication, networks of communication, online communication, communication at the workplace, and corporate communication. Enriched content!! The content on oral communication skills and professional speaking has been improved and enriched by adding new inputs, including strategies of effective oral communication, problem sounds, conversation and telephone media, non-verbal communication elements such as kinesics, paralinguistics, proxemics, chronemics, oral practice, etc. viii Preface to the Second Edition Coverage of emerging issues and topics that are reshaping professional and technical communication, including digital content creation, passages to test the analytical skills and expression, blog and website, etc. With focus on developing linguistic ability of students of science and technology, some new topics have been included such as writing definitions of engineering terms. The content on reading skills and professional reading has been updated by adding topics such as reading and analysis, analytical reading skills, passages to test analytical skills and expression, reading comprehension, and summarizing. Learning objectives have been added and restructured in each chapter to make the content more streamlined and learner centric. Online Learning Centre Supplementary resources like Practice exercises and lecture slides related to the text can be accessed from the following web link: http://www.mhhe.com/rizvi/etc2e Organisation of the Book The revised version consists of nine sections. The first section deals with the fundamentals of communication. It contains four chapters. Chapter 1 discusses communication in the professional world today and focuses on basics and methods of communication, channels and networks of communication, online communication, barriers to communication, and communication at the workplace including challenges of workplace communication. Chapter 2 discusses the nature and dimensions of technical communication, including importance and forms of technical communication, aspects of technical competence, and technical communication skills. Chapter 3 deals with linguistic ability, style in technical communication, the ABC of technical communication, objectivity in speaking and writing, and use of formal language. Chapter 4 deals with structuring and organisation in technical communication and concentrates on several methods of organising information in speaking and writing. The second section concentrates on listening comprehension and includes two chapters. Chapter 5 discusses the listening process, types of listening, listening with a purpose, and barriers to listening while Chapter 6 concentrates on improving listening comprehension and focuses on effective listening strategies, listening in conversational interaction, listening to structured talks, team listening, and listening and note taking. Section three discusses speaking strategies and consists of three chapters. Chapter 7 deals with the speech process and focusses on conversation and oral skills, strategies for good conversation, improving fluency and self-expression, and body language. Chapter 8 covers key topics in phonetics and spoken English such as basics in phonetics, phonetic transcription, pronunciation guidelines, and problems sounds and differences in pronunciation. Chapter 9 deals with oral communication and speaking techniques and focuses on effective oral communication strategies, speaking including techniques of effective word accent, voice quality, rhythm in connected speech, and developing the correct tone. The fourth section is an extensive treatment of three important forms of professional speaking, i.e., job interviews, group discussions, and oral presentations. The fifth section concentrates on reading and language comprehension. Chapter 13 discusses the reading process, reading with a purpose, reading different kinds of texts, active and passive reading, and reading speed. Chapter 14 concentrates on reading skills, vocabulary skills, eye reading and visual perception, prediction  Preface to the Second Edition ix techniques, scanning skills, skimming skills, and intensive reading skills, such as distinguishing between facts and opinions, and drawing inferences and conclusions. Chapter 15 focuses on reading scientific and technical texts, reading methods, reading instructions and manuals, and reading and interpreting graphic information. The sixth section discusses important study skills such as note-writing, summarising, parapharsing, and referencing. The seventh section deals with writing strategies whereas the eighth section is an exhaustive treatment of professional writing and covers routine business letters, sales letters, resumes and job applications, business memos, e-mails, reports, proposals, and technical articles. The ninth section includes three appendices that contain a comprehensive review of functional grammar, problem areas and grammatical analysis, and vocabulary development. Features and Resources to Improve the Course Experience With its clear focus on learning outcomes, Effective Technical Communication, is ideal for comprehensive technical and professional communication courses in any curriculum and any set-up. The professor/instructor may also customize the use of the book keeping in view the linguistic level of their students and focus of their course. For courses with an emphasis on a particular skill-area of technical communication such as oral communication or professional speaking, the instructor may find comprehensive material in Chapters 5–12 useful while for courses with a focus on technical writing, Chapters 21–28 give comprehensive coverage of all aspects of technical writing. For a simple course on Technical English, Chapters 3, 4, 19, and 20 can add great value to the course. For instructors who are keen to improve the reading skills of their students, Chapters 13–17 offer balanced coverage of reading skills in all contexts. M Ashraf Rizvi Publisher’s Note McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments from you, all of which can be sent to [email protected] (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line). Piracy-related issues may also be reported.  Preface to the First Edition The IT revolution and globalisation of business have brought technical communication to the forefront of academia and industry. With the whole world becoming a global market and businesses becoming diverse and result-oriented, professionals and technocrats are facing newer challenges in communication every day. Success in this competitive environment depends not just on acquiring knowledge and hard skills, but also on developing effective technical communication skills. Effective Technical Communication is designed as a textbook on communication skills for students of technical and management courses as well as for working professionals. Consistent with its aim to help the reader master the entire gamut of skills required of a successful professional, this book provides a comprehensive coverage of all the four dimensions of communication skills, namely, listening, speaking, reading, and writing. I have tried to make the contents appropriate for a wide range of readers so that any student or professional, regardless of his or her field of specialisation, will find the desired ingredients in this book. The book offers a complete training programme, which can be used as a self-study resource, as a core text for classes, as a ‘refresher,’ or as a supplement by engineering and management students in IITs, IIMs, NITs, RECs, deemed universities, state technical universities and colleges, private engineering and management colleges and institutes, and similar educational institutes in other Asian countries. I have tried to make the coverage comprehensive and the presentation simple, and have supplemented the texual matter with examples, illustrations and exhibits. Structure The book consists of eight parts and three appendices. The first part deals with the fundamentals of technical communication. It contains three chapters. Chapter 1 discusses the nature of technical communication and focuses on the stages and channels of communication, nature and importance of technical communication, and barriers to effective communication. Chapter 2 deals with organisation in technical communication and concentrates on several methods of organising information in speaking and writing. Chapter 3 deals with technical style, the ABC of technical communication, objectivity in speaking and writing, and use of formal language. The second part concentrates on listening and language development. Chapter 4 discusses the listening process, types of listening, listening with a purpose, and barriers to listening. Chapter 5 concentrates on improving listening comprehension and focuses on effective listening strategies, listening in conversational interaction, listening to structured talks, team listening, and listening and note taking. Part three discusses speaking strategies. It contains three chapters. Chapter 6 deals with the speech process and concentrates on conversation and oral skills, strategies for good conversation, improving fluency and self-expression, and body language. Chapter 7 covers key topics in phonetics and spoken English such xii Preface to the First Edition as basics in phonetics, phonetic transcription, and pronunciation guidelines. Chapter 8 deals with speaking techniques and focuses on techniques of effective word accent, voice quality, rhythm in connected speech, and developing the correct tone. The fourth part is an extensive treatment of three important forms of professional speaking, that is, job interviews, group discussions, and oral presentations. The fifth part concentrates on reading and language comprehension. Chapter 12 discusses the reading process, reading with a purpose, reading different kinds of texts, active and passive reading, and reading speed. Chapter 13 concentrates on reading skills, vocabulary skills, eye reading and visual perception, prediction techniques, scanning skills, skimming skills, and intensive reading skills, such as distinguishing between facts and opinions, and drawing inferences and conclusions. Chapter 14 focuses on reading scientific and technical texts, reading methods, reading instructions and manuals, and reading and interpreting graphic information. The sixth part discusses important study skills such as note-writing, summarising, parapharsing, and referencing. The seventh part deals with writing strategies where as the eighth part is an exhaustive treatment of professional writing and covers routine business letters, sales letters, resumes and job applications, business memos, e-mails, reports, proposals, and technical articles. The appendices contain a comprehensive review of functional grammar, problem areas and grammatical analysis, and vocabulary development. Learning Aids Some of the learning aids, which I have included in this book, to make it completely learner-centric, are: 1. Learning Objectives These promote focused learning. 2. Review Tips These end-of-the-chapter tips provide a quick review and summary of the topic discussed. 3. Progress Checks These are short modules of question answer sessions given after every important topic, as a reinforcement aid before moving on to the next topic 4. Recap Boxes The important points within each chapter have been highlighted in a box in the corresponding sections. 5. Figures and Tables They provide easy comprehension. 6. Functional Grammar Review Given as an appendix (Appendix A) at the end of the book, this feature will help the students in refreshing essential grammar. 7. Common Errors in English Communication A short course designed to make the students aware of the very common mistakes that they make unknowingly and to help students master the art of communicating in correct English (Appendix B). 8. Vocabulary Development Another special feature of this book, this module will help students choose the apt word and add to their word power to help them communicate powerfully, and of course, effectively (Appendix C). While my endeavor has been to give a good book to the students, I will welcome any critical suggestion on this book. Please write to me at [email protected] or drop a letter at the publisher’s address. M Ashraf Rizvi  Foreword Communication is as fundamental to our social living as eating is to our biological existence. Naturally, even without any special training everyone develops proficiency in it. Why then do we need books on communication? For the same reason we need books that advise us on eating. If we ignore the expert advice and let our instincts prevail, we may develop faulty eating habits and ruin our health. The rich and the poor are equally at risk although in vastly different ways. Something similar may happen with our communication. We may be able to articulate words but not communicate well. We may hear or read and recognize words, but not comprehend well. If we do not master communication skills, we may ruin our social and professional relationships. There was a time, not long ago, when soft skills including communication were thought of as poor cousins of the hard skills. While investing considerable time and resources to acquire the hard skills, bright students ignored the soft skills. Once you mastered the hard skills, they thought, the lowly soft skills would follow without any special effort. Teachers and parents often endorsed this lop-sided view of social and technical skills. In the globalized world, ‘techies’ are discovering the harsh reality that technical skills without soft ones would make them knowledge workers, not managers or leaders. Hard skills are perishable and machine- replaceable. Those who cannot communicate well will lose out; they get much less credit for their contributions than they deserve. It is in this context that Dr. Ashraf Rizvi’s Effective Technical Communication has to be viewed. For this edition, he has revised the text thoroughly incorporating the rapid changes in the field of technical and professional communication during the last ten years. With the revision ETC, which has been popular with students and teachers of technical communication alike as a comprehensive guide, has now become even more reader-friendly. Dr. Rizvi takes the reader through the whole spectrum of communication. He takes into account the needs of students and practicing professionals. He meshes sound theory with pragmatic advice. He treats discrete skills such as sentence construction with as much felicity and clarity as integrated communication skills such as writing technical articles and proposals. As a large part of technical and professional communication the world over is through the medium of the English language, Dr. Rizvi also pays attention to it. He has three very useful appendices on functional grammar, common errors, and vocabulary building. Effective Technical Communication is undoubtedly a student-friendly book. In order to help the learner cope with the wide range of concepts and skills that he covers, Dr. Rizvi has thoughtfully inserted learning aids such as Review Tips, Checklists, and Progress Checks. I congratulate Dr. Rizvi on bringing out a thoroughly revised, updated edition of Effective Technical Communication and warmly recommend it to students and professionals of all shades everywhere. M M Monippally Former Professor, Communications Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad  Acknowledgements The revised edition of Effective Technical Communication echoes the professional experience of a large team of contributors, mentors, and advisors who immensely contributed to add value to the book in several ways. I express my thanks to many academicians, professionals, faculty colleagues, mentors, advisors, and my students from IIT, Dhanbad, IIM Indore, and Sultan Qaboos University, whose valuable advices, observations, helpful suggestions, and comments helped the book to become so successful. First of all, I thank Sri Sharad Jaipuria, Chairman, Jaipuria Institute of Management, and Sri Shreevats Jaipuria, Vice-Chairman, Jaipuria Institute of Management for promoting a research culture in the institute by encouraging intellectual output from faculty by providing a conducive environment to pursue research interests, resulting in high quality publications in form of books, articles, and cases. All this has encouraged me to revise the existing edition to suit the changing needs of our audience. I also thank my colleagues at IIM Indore and Jaipuria Institute of Management Lucknow whose input enriched the revised content of the book. I would also like to thank my former colleagues at IIT Dhanbad (Earlier ISM Dhanabd), who made the publication of the book possible. Firstly, I thank Sri P.K. Lahiri, I.A.S. (Retd.), Chairman, Indian School of Mines for inspiring the faculty of our university to achieve academic excellence and providing us a positive academic work environment, which made it possible for me to write a book. I also thank Professor S N Mukherjee, Director, Indian School of Mines for encouraging and supporting my academic efforts. My thanks are also due to Professor R K Singh, Head of the Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian School of Mines for providing constructive suggestions to improve the quality of the work. I also thank my colleagues Col. S. M. Mehta, Dr. Partha De, Dr. Vishnu Priye, Dr. Atul Kumar Verma, Dr. V. Kumar, Professor S. B. Srivastava, Dr. V. M. S. R. Murthy, Professor T. Kumar, Professor Gurdeep Singh, and Dr. Ashish Sarkar, for providing sample material for examples and illustrations throughout the book. My thanks are also due to my colleagues at Sultan Qaboos University, including Professor David Kirk Vaughan, Dr. Ronald Peterson, Dr Felix Paul, Mr. Ian Robertson, Ms Asma Bhatti and Ms Naveen Saa for their enlightening views on several topics covered in the book. I am also grateful to Professor M. M. Monipally, Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, Professor Maya Khemlani David of University of Malaya, Malaysia, Professor K M Tiwary of Taiz University, Yemen, Professor P N Pandit of Arab Open University, Kuwait; and Professor Sherwin Peng of Shantou University, China for valuable comments. My sincere thanks to the team at McGraw-Hill Education whose professional commitments and devotion made value addition to the book. Above all, I thank my wife Tamanna and my children Asfar and Anum for bearing with my busy schedule during the project. While my endeavor has been to give a good book to the students, I will welcome any critical suggestion on this book. Please write to me at [email protected] or drop a letter at the publisher’s address. M Ashraf Rizvi  Contents Preface to the Second Edition vii Preface to the First Edition xi Foreword xiii Acknowledgements xv SECTION 1: FUNDAMENTALS 1. Communication Today 3 1.1 Basics of Communication 4 1.2 Process of Communication 5 1.2.1 Ideation 6 1.2.2 Encoding 6 1.2.3 Transmission 7 1.2.4 Decoding 7 1.2.5 Response 7 1.3 Methods of Communication 8 1.3.1 Verbal Communication, Written and Non-Verbal Communication 8 1.3.2 Formal and Informal Communication 10 1.3.3 Internal and External Communication 10 1.4 Channels of Communication 10 1.4.1 Downward Communication 11 1.4.2 Upward Communication 11 1.4.3 Horizontal Communication 12 1.4.4 Diagonal Communication 12 1.5 Networks of Communication 13 1.5.1 Centralised Communication 13 1.5.2 Decentralised Communication 13 1.6 Online Communication 14 1.7 Barriers to Effective Communication 15 1.7.1 Improper Encoding 15 1.7.2 Bypassing 15 1.7.3 Frame of Reference 16 1.7.4 Physical Distractions 16 1.7.5 Psychological and Emotional Interference 16 1.7.6 Intercultural Differences 16 1.8 Communication at the Workplace 18 1.8.1 Corporate Communication 18 xviii Contents 1.8.2 Communication Challenges at the Workplace 18 Exercise 19 2. Nature and Dimensions of Technical Communication 21 2.1 Aspects of Technical Competence 22 2.1.1 Subject Competence 22 2.1.2 Linguistic Competence 22 2.1.3 Organisational Competence 22 2.2 Forms of Technical Communication 23 2.2.1 Oral and Written Communication 23 2.2.2 External and Internal Communication 23 2.2.3 General and Technical Communication 23 2.3 Importance of Technical Communication 24 2.4 Technical Communication Skills 26 2.4.1 Listening 26 2.4.2 Speaking 27 2.4.3 Reading 29 2.4.4 Writing 30 Exercise 31 3. Linguistic Ability and Style in Technical Communication 32 3.1 Technical Style 33 3.2 ABC of Technical Communication 34 3.2.1 Accuracy 34 3.2.2 Using Exact Words and Phrases 37 3.2.3 Brevity 38 3.2.4 Clarity 40 3.3 Objectivity in Technical Communication 42 3.3.1 Objectivity in Technical Writing 43 3.3.2 Linguistic Techniques 43 3.3.3 Objectivity in Professional Speaking 46 3.4 Formal Language 49 Exercise 51 4. Organisation in Technical Communication 56 4.1 Introduction 57 4.2 Basic Patterns of Organisation in Technical Communication 59 4.2.1 Spatial Organisation 59 4.2.2 Chronological Organisation 59 4.2.3 General to Specific Organisation 60 4.2.4 Specific to General Organisation 61 4.2.5 Order of Increasing Importance 62 4.2.6 Order of Decreasing Importance 63 4.2.7 Emphatic Organisation 64 Exercise 66  Contents xix SECTION 2: LISTENING COMPREHENSION 5. The Listening Process 71 5.1 The Listening Process 72 5.2 Hearing versus Listening 73 5.3 Types of Listening 74 5.3.1 Superficial Listening 74 5.3.2 Appreciative Listening 74 5.3.3 Focused Listening 74 5.3.4 Evaluative Listening 75 5.3.5 Attentive Listening 75 5.3.6 Empathetic Listening 75 5.4 Listening With a Purpose 76 5.5 Barriers to Listening 78 5.5.1 Physical Barriers 78 5.5.2 Psychological Barriers 79 5.5.3 Linguistic Barriers 79 5.5.4 Cultural Barriers 80 Exercise 81 6. Improving Listening Comprehension 83 6.1 Listening Comprehension 84 6.1.1 Speech Decoding 84 6.1.2 Comprehending 85 6.1.3 Oral Discourse Analysis 85 6.2 Effective Listening Strategies 86 6.2.1 Ten Thumb Rules for Good Listening 87 6.2.2 Active Listening Practices 88 6.2.3 Listening in Conversational Interaction 90 6.2.4 Listening to Structured Talks 92 6.2.5 Team Listening 96 6.2.6 Listening and Note Taking 98 Exercise 100 SECTION 3: SPEAKING STRATEGIES 7. The Speech Process 105 7.1 The Speech Process 106 7.1.1 The Message 106 7.1.2 The Audience 107 7.1.3 The Speech Style 107 7.1.4 Encoding 107 7.1.5 Feedback 108 xx Contents 7.2 Conversation and Oral Skills 108 7.2.1 Types of Conversation: Formal and Informal 109 7.2.2 Strategies for Good Conversation 109 7.2.3 Improving Fluency and Self-Expression 112 7.2.4 Body Language 114 Exercise 118 8. Phonetics and Spoken English 119 8.1 English Pronunciation 120 8.2 Basics in Phonetics 120 8.3 Phonetic Transcription 121 8.3.1 Consonant Sounds 121 8.3.2 Vowel Sounds 122 8.4 Pronunciation Guidelines 124 8.4.1 Pronunciation Guidelines Related to Consonants 124 8.4.2 Pronunciation Guidelines Related to Vowels 126 8.5 Problem Sounds and Differences in Pronunciation 129 8.5.1 Sound and Spelling Mismatch 129 8.5.2 Mother Tongue Influence 129 8.5.3 How to Pronounce Correctly 129 Exercise 130 9. Oral Communication and Speaking Techniques 132 9.1 Oral Communication 133 9.1.1 Strategies for Effective Oral Communication 133 Exercise 150 SECTION 4: PROFESSIONAL SPEAKING 10. Job Interviews 157 10.1 Introduction 158 10.2 Characteristics of a Job Interview 160 10.2.1 Planning 160 10.2.2 Purpose 160 10.2.3 Conversation 160 10.2.4 Two-Way Interaction 160 10.2.5 Informality 161 10.3 Interview Preparation Techniques 161 10.3.1 Analyse Yourself 162 10.3.2 Analyse Your Skills 164 10.3.3 Research the Organisation 165 10.3.4 Analyse the Job Applied 166 10.3.5 Revise Your Subject Knowledge 166 10.3.6 Develop the Interview File 167  Contents xxi 10.4 Interview Questions 168 10.4.1 Types of Interview Questions 168 10.4.2 Answering Strategies 171 10.4.3 Interview Practice 177 10.5 Important Aspects for a Job Interview 178 10.5.1 Projecting a Positive Image 178 10.5.2 Good Manners and Positive Behaviour 180 10.6 Alternative Interview Formats 182 10.6.1 Telephone Interviews 182 10.6.2 Interview Through Videoconferencing 183 Exercise 183 11. Group Discussions 187 11.1 What is a Group Discussion? 188 11.1.1 Group Discussion versus Debate 189 11.2 Importance of Group Discussion 189 11.3 Characteristics of a Successful Group Discussion 191 11.3.1 Agreement on Group Goals 191 11.3.2 Goal Oriented Interaction 191 11.3.3 Agreement on Procedures 191 11.3.4 Cooperative and Friendly Atmosphere 191 11.3.5 Use of Effective Communication Techniques 192 11.3.6 Equitable Distribution of Participation 192 11.3.7 Shared Leadership 192 11.4 Group Discussion as a Tool for Selection 193 11.4.1 Subject Knowledge 193 11.4.2 Oral Communication Skills 194 11.4.3 Leadership Skills 196 11.4.4 Team Management 198 11.5 Group Discussion Strategies 200 11.5.1 Getting the GD Started 200 11.5.2 Contributing Systematically 201 11.5.3 Creating a Friendly Cooperative Atmosphere 202 11.5.4 Moving the Discussion Along 202 11.5.5 Promoting Optimal Participation 203 11.5.6 Handling Conflict 203 11.5.7 Effecting Closure 204 11.5.8 Techniques for Individual Contribution 205 11.5.9 Group Interaction Strategies 208 Exercise 216 12. Presentation Skills 221 12.1 Oral Presentation 222 12.2 Importance of Presentation Skills 222 xxii Contents 12.3 Stages of a Presentation 223 12.3.1 Planning the Presentation 223 12.3.2 Preparing the Presentation 227 12.3.3 Organising the Presentation 231 12.3.4 Rehearsing the Presentation 235 12.3.5 Improving the Delivery 236 12.3.6 Checklist for Making a Presentation 241 Exercise 242 SECTION 5: READING AND LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION 13. The Reading Process 247 13.1 Introduction 248 13.1.1 Reading—A Communicative Process 248 13.1.2 Reading with a Purpose 249 13.2 Reading Different Kinds of Texts 250 13.2.1 Reading Entertaining Messages/Texts 251 13.2.2 Reading General Messages/Texts 251 13.2.3 Reading Reference Materials 251 13.2.4 Reading Business Documents 251 13.2.5 Reading Scientific and Technical Texts 251 13.3 Types of Reading 252 13.3.1 Active and Passive Reading 252 13.4 Developing a Good Reading Speed 253 13.4.1 Check Your Reading Speed 254 13.4.2 Clue to Check Your Reading Speed 254 13.4.3 Score: 60 or Less 255 Exercise 255 14. Reading Strategies 257 14.1 Reading Skills 258 14.1.1 Vocabulary Skills 258 14.1.2 Eye Reading and Visual Perception 261 14.1.3 Rapid Reading Skills 262 14.1.4 Intensive Reading Skills 274 Exercise 276 15. Comprehension of Technical Materials 282 15.1 Comprehension 283 15.1.1 Reading Scientific and Technical Texts 283 15.1.2 Reading Instructions and Technical Manuals 286 15.1.3 Reading and Interpreting Graphic Information 288 15.1.4 Reading Practice 290 15.1.5 User Manual Startups Lite 298  Contents xxiii 15.2 Summarization Techniques 300 15.3 Developing Effective Analytical Skills 301 Exercise 301 SECTION 6: STUDY SKILLS 16. Note Making 307 16.1 Introduction 308 16.2 Strategies for Effective Note Making 308 16.2.1 Reading Strategy 308 16.2.2 Note Writing Techniques 309 16.2.3 Reduction Devices 312 16.2.4 Organisation Techniques 315 16.2.5 Methods of Sequencing 316 16.3 Note Making Practice 318 Exercise 321 17. Summarising and Paraphrasing 325 17.1 Introduction to Summarising 326 17.1.1 Reading Strategy 326 17.1.2 Summarising Techniques 327 17.1.3 Outlining and Paraphrasing 333 Exercise 337 18. Referencing 343 18.1 Introduction 344 18.2 Methods of Referencing 344 18.2.1 Books 345 18.2.2 User Guides 346 18.2.3 Reports 346 18.2.4 Journals 347 18.2.5 Magazines and Newspapers 347 18.2.6 Independent Publications 348 18.2.7 Unpublished Sources 348 18.2.8 Internet 349 18.2.9 Footnotes 349 18.2.10 Bibliography 355 Exercise 356 SECTION 7: WRITING STRATEGIES 19. Writing Effective Sentences 361 19.1 Introduction 362 19.1.1 What is a Sentence? 362 xxiv Contents 19.2 Writing Effective Sentences 363 19.2.1 Sentence Structures 363 19.2.2 Sentence Coherence 366 19.2.3 Length of Sentence 369 19.2.4 Sentence Emphasis 371 Exercise 373 20. Paragraph Writing 376 20.1 Introduction 377 20.2 Paragraph Structure 377 20.3 Principles of Paragraph Writing 378 20.3.1 Paragraph Length 378 20.3.2 Unity 380 20.3.3 Coherence 382 20.3.4 Developing a Paragraph 385 Exercise 386 SECTION 8: PROFESSIONAL WRITING 21. Letter Writing 391 21.1 Importance of Letter Writing 392 21.2 Types of Letters 392 21.3 Writing Effective Business Letters 392 21.3.1 Process of Letter Writing 392 21.3.2 Form and Structure 393 21.3.3 Style and Tone 402 21.3.4 Types of Business Letters and Samples 409 Exercise 421 22. Writing Sales Letters 426 22.1 Introduction 427 22.2 Structure of a Sales Letter 427 22.2.1 Opening 428 22.2.2 Body 430 22.2.3 Closing 431 22.3 Sample Sales Letter 433 Exercise 434 23. Résumés and Job Applications 437 23.1 Employment Communication and its Importance 438 23.2 Writing Résumés 438 23.2.1 Résumé Design 439 23.2.2 Résumé Styles 443 23.2.3 Additional Tips 447  Contents xxv 23.3 Writing Effective Job Application Letters or Cover Letters 450 23.3.1 Job Application Letter Design 451 23.3.2 Additional Tips 458 Exercise 463 24. Writing Business Memos 472 24.1 Introduction and Importance of Business Memos 473 24.1.1 Letters Versus Memos 474 24.2 Writing Effective Business Memos 474 24.2.1 Characteristics of Effective Memos 474 24.2.2 Form and Structure 476 24.2.3 Writing Strategies 481 24.2.4 Sample Memos 487 Exercise 489 25. Email Writing 491 25.1 Introduction 492 25.1.1 Advantages of E-mail 492 25.2 Writing Effective E-Mails 493 25.2.1 Characteristics of Effective E-Mail 493 25.2.2 E-Mail Structure 494 25.2.3 Standard E-Mail Practices 499 25.2.4 E-Mail Writing Strategies 500 Exercise 502 26. Report Writing 503 26.1 Introduction 504 26.1.1 Importance of Reports 504 26.1.2 Types of Reports 505 26.2 Writing Effective Reports 507 26.2.1 Report Formats 507 26.2.2 Structure of Formal Reports 512 26.2.3 Writing Strategies 516 Exercise 518 27. Proposal Writing 520 27.1 Introduction 521 27.2 Types of Proposals 521 27.2.1 Non-Formal and Formal Proposals 521 27.2.2 Internal and External Proposals 522 27.3 Writing Effective Proposals 523 27.3.1 Structure of Formal Proposals 523 27.3.2 Writing Strategies 526 27.3.3 Sample Proposal 527 Exercise 531 xxvi Contents 28. Technical Article Writing 533 28.1 Introduction 534 28.1.1 Technical Articles versus General Articles 534 28.2 Types of Technical Articles 534 28.2.1 Journal Articles and Conference Papers 535 28.2.2 Review and Research Articles 535 28.3 Writing Effective Technical Articles 536 28.3.1 Structure of Technical Articles 536 28.3.2 Writing Strategies 539 Exercise 541 SECTION 9: APPENDICES Appendix A Functional Grammar Review (FGR) 545 Appendix B Common Errors 565 Appendix C Vocabulary Development 580 Index 607  SECTION 1 Fundamentals CHAPTERS Chapter 1: Communication Today Chapter 2: Nature and Dimensions of Technical Communication Chapter 3: Linguistic Ability and Style in Technical Communication Chapter 4: Organisation in Technical Communication 1 CHAPTER Communication Today Communication is the transfer of information and understanding from one person to another person. It is a way of reaching others with facts, ideas, thoughts and values. —Keith Davis LEARNING OBJECTIVES ∑ Understanding the concept of communication ∑ Grasping stages of the communication process ∑ Understanding the methods of communication ∑ Identifying channels and networks of communication ∑ Understanding online communication ∑ Identifying the barriers that disrupt the communication process as well as appropriate steps to overcome these barriers ∑ Learning about communication at the workplace and its challenges 4 Effective Technical Communication 1.1 BASICS OF COMMUNICATION Look around and you will find people involved in several activities, which involve informal conversations, discussions, meetings, presentations, phone calls, Communication is a teleconferencing, videoconferencing, gossiping, net surfing, chatting, and so on. In process of sharing short, we need to communicate in order to interact. Communication is one of the information. essential conditions of social interaction. Without communication, social interaction may not be possible because human interaction is essentially communicative interaction. It pervades the entire range of social and professional relationships, and plays a key role in our life. It is the reciprocal stimulation and response between individuals, and makes social as well as professional interaction possible. Now, let us try to understand what the term ‘communication’ means. The term has been defined at various levels. As it comes from the Latin word communicare, meaning ‘to share, to impart, or to commune’, its literal meaning is ‘giving or sharing information’. It is this sharing of information that makes the process of communication so important to us. Communication is any behavior that results in an exchange of meaning. American Management Associa on Communication is an exchange of meaning and understanding. Meaning is central to communication, and transmission of meaning is the central objective of communication. Communication begins with the sender sending out message cues, which are perceived by the receiver who assigns meaning to them and responds to them accordingly. Communication is not complete unless the message is decoded and understood by the receiver. Moreover, communication can be considered effective only when the receiver’s response is congruent with the meaning the sender wants to convey. Communication is the process involving the transmission and reception of symbols eliciting meaning in the minds of the participants by making common their life experiences. Baird Jr. E John Communication is symbolic because it involves not only words but also symbols and gestures that accompany the spoken words. Infact, our ability to symbolise makes communication possible. Effective communication is purposive symbolic interchange resulting in workable understanding and agreement between the sender and the receiver. George T Vardaman  Communication Today 5 Communication is an interactive process. The two communication agents involved in the communication process are the sender (S) and the receiver (R). Both the communication agents exert a reciprocal influence on each other through interstimulation and response. To conclude, we can define communication as a multidimensional interactive process of sharing common sets of signs, symbols, and language from one person to another person so that a suitable response results. Progress Check 1 1. Study the following statements about the process of communication and tick True or False against each of them. (a) Communication directs the flow of information to help people interact with each other. (b) Communication is always a one-way process of passing information and ideas to someone else. (c) You may use a specific set of words, gestures, and images to convey what you want to say. (d) Symbolic action is limited to verbal communication. (e) Communication involves only words. (f) Human interaction is not communicative interaction. (g) Meaning is crucial to communication. (h) Communication achieves shared understanding. (i) Communication is designed to achieve a goal. (j) In order to achieve desired objectives, the sender and the receiver must share common understanding. 1.2 PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION Whether it is an informal social situation or a formal academic or professional situation, we need to share information, ideas, and knowledge with others. However, this process of sharing information is a symbolic interchange, which is both dynamic and interactive, and results in an exchange of meaning and understanding. Let us look more closely at the whole process of communication. Firstly, communication is a dynamic interactive process that involves the effective transmission of facts, ideas, thoughts, feelings, and values. It is not passive and does not just happen; we actively and consciously engage in communication in order to develop the information and understanding required for effective group functioning. It is dynamic because it involves a variety of forces and activities interacting over a period of time. The word ‘process’ suggests that communication exists as a flow through a sequence or series of steps. The term ‘process’ also indicates a condition of flux and change. The relationships of people engaged in communication continuously grow and develop. As noted earlier, communication is a dynamic interactive process. It consists of five steps, namely, ideation, encoding, transmission, decoding, and response. Study Fig. 1.1, to understand the different stages of communication. 6 Effective Technical Communication Fig. 1.1 The Communication Process 1.2.1 Ideation The process of communication begins with ideation, which refers to the formation of the idea or selection of a message to be communicated. It consists of the ‘What’ of communication and is concerned with the content of the specific message to be presented. The scope of ‘ideation’ is generally determined by the sender’s knowledge, experiences, and abilities, as well as the purpose of communication and the context of the communicative situation. However, the form of ideation depends on several other factors. Messages generally have two kinds of content, logical and emotional. Logical messages consist of factual information, while emotional messages consist of feelings and emotions. In a formal communicative situation, ‘ideation’ may consist of finding and selecting a subject or general topic, looking for ideas and thoughts, and deciding the type, scope, and sources of information. 1.2.2 Encoding Encoding is the next step in communication. It is the process of changing the information into some form of logical and coded message. The encoding process is based on the purpose of communication and the relation between the sender and the receiver. In a formal situation, encoding involves: (a) Selecting a language (b) Selecting a medium of communication (c) Selecting an appropriate communication form Selecting the right language is essential for effective encoding. Verbal messages need a common language code, which can be easily decoded by the receiver. If the receiver is not able to decode or understand the message, communication will fail. For example, a person who does not understand Tamil cannot decode a message encoded in Tamil. We generally use our first language (L 1) in informal situations while we prefer official language in formal business, academic, or professional situations. As selecting the right medium of communication involves making the right choice out of many available options, it determines the effectiveness of encoding. This is vital as there are so many options available to a communicator for transmitting interpersonal messages that he or she may get confused. Making the right choice is the beginning of effective communication. There are three basic options for sending interpersonal messages, that is speaking, writing, and non-verbal signs and symbols. The spoken word involves vocalisation while non-verbal message cues are generally visual (auditory and tactile). Non-verbal cues play a significant role in oral communication. These cues include body movements, facial expressions, touching patterns, speech mannerisms.  Communication Today 7 The selection of the appropriate form (Table 1.1) largely depends on the sender-receiver relationship and the overall goal of the communicative situation. Oral communication may be face-to-face interpersonal communication, group communication, speaker-audience communication, or telephonic communication. The choice depends on the need and purpose of the communication. Writing involves the selection of the correct written form, that is, letter, memo, notice, report, proposal, and so forth. TABLE 1.1 Communica on Forms Forms Examples Interpersonal face-to-face Casual conversations, formal interactions, student-student communication negotiations, job interviews Group communication Meetings, conferences, group discussions, panel discussions Speaker-audience communication Speeches, debates, seminars, workshops, oral presentations Telephonic communication Personal interactions, business deals, telephone interviews Written communication Reports, proposals, memos, letters, emails 1.2.3 Transmission Transmission refers to the flow of message over the chosen channel. Transmission confirms the medium selected during the process of encoding and keeps the communication channel free from interference or noise so that the message reaches the receiver without any disturbance. It is one of the most basic aspects of communication because it also involves choosing the proper time (when to communicate), proper place (where to communicate), and a proper way (how to communicate). For example, when you want to tell your teacher that you will not be able to attend his or her next class, you decide whether you should tell him/her before the class or after the class; in the class room itself or in his/her chamber. For communication to be effective, it is essential that the right time, the right place, and the right method is chosen. 1.2.4 Decoding Decoding is the process of converting a message into thoughts by translating the received stimuli into an interpreted meaning in order to understand the message communicated. It is important to note that it is the message that is transferred, as meaning cannot be transferred from one person to another. The receiver has to assign meaning to a message in order to understand it. The process of decoding involves interpretation and analysis of a message. Decoding in written communication refers to reading and understanding a written message. On the other hand, in oral communication, decoding includes listening and understanding. Effective decoding is very important for successful communication as any misinterpretation of a message leads to communication breakdown and creates confusion and misunderstanding. 1.2.5 Response Response is the last stage in the communication process. It is the action or reaction of the receiver to the message. It helps the sender know that the message was received and understood. The feedback that goes to the sender makes it clear whether the receiver has accepted the information and filed it in his/her 8 Effective Technical Communication memory or rejected it. He or she may ask for more information or clarification. Response is, thus, the key to communication as the effectiveness of communication depends on how congruent a receiver’s response is with the meaning intended by the sender. Progress Check 2 1. Which of the following statements about the steps of communication are not True? (a) The process of communication begins when the sender converts the idea into words or gestures. (b) Ideation is shaped by assumptions based on the sender’s experiences. (c) The scope of ‘ideation’ is not determined by the situation. (d) Transmission confirms the medium selected during the process of encoding. (e) Noise is anything that interrupts the transmission of a message. (f) Decoding relates to the sender of a message. (g) The sender is the person initiating the communication. (h) The sender often expects a response from the receiver. (i) The responses of the receiver create feedback. (j) It is the duty of the receiver to keep the communication channel free from interference. 1.3 METHODS OF COMMUNICATION There are various methods used for communication. Communication between two people or groups of people can take place verbally or non-verbally in a formal or an informal setting. This can be done within an internal setting or with the world outside. Let us understand these methods in detail. 1.3.1 Verbal Communication, Written and Non-Verbal Communication Verbal Communication Verbal communication is communication done orally between people. If done properly, it helps both the parties involved understand each other better. The biggest advantage of verbal communication is that it provides immediate feedback to the sender of the message. It also gives a personal touch to the communication. Certain aspects like gestures, facial expressions, voice modulation, tone, making the other person at ease, etc., can all be done using verbal communication. In fact, the sender can even modify his/her message based on the feedback he/she gets during the conversation. This method of communication is given less preference over written communication in business scenarios because any mistake made during a conversation, is difficult to correct. Written Communication Written communication is a widely used form of communication. The biggest advantage of written communication is that it leaves a permanent record. It, therefore, facilitates organised messages to be communicated. However, unlike oral communication, the sender does not get instant feedback for his/her message. Also, he/she cannot add a personal touch to the message.  Communication Today 9 This form of communication is preferred in business scenarios because it leaves a proof of the communication and ensures formality and correctness in formal correspondence. Non-Verbal Communication The third category of communication that is used widely but seldom recognised, is non-verbal communication. This refers to communication done through gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, touch, tone of voice, dress, space between the people communicating, and ambience, to name a few. Even while sitting quietly, two people can communicate using one of the aforementioned forms of communication. Let us now study various forms of non-verbal communication in detail. Kinesics Kinesics refers to communication through the body language of the parties communicating. Let us understand the concept through some examples. Sometimes people use signs for communicating their message. For example, when a boss gestures a thumbs up to his/her colleague, it could mean that he/she liked the idea or is giving him/her a go-ahead. Sometimes during a conversation, a person may pound the table to express anger or disagreement over something. Though this is a negative form of expression, it is still not uncommon. Think of the stare that your father may have given you when you may have said something inappropriate. This is another example of non-verbal communication through affective displays. Many times, during face-to-face interaction, people may nod to show their agreement or even disagreement over what is being discussed. This nodding too delivers the message without the use of any words. During interviews or situations where a person is uncomfortable, some people are seen shaking their legs, constantly. Such a body language clearly shows nervousness or a lack of confidence in the person shaking his/her legs. Therefore, even without the person realising that he/she is communicating something, the message is sent to others around him/her. Paralinguistics Paralinguistics refers to spoken communication through changes in the rate of speech, accent, volume, voice modulation, pitch, and fluency. It is not only what is being said is important but also how it is said plays a role in communication. For example, a simple sentence like “Come here!” can be said authoritatively or endearingly, depending on the tone of voice of the sender. Proxemics Ever wondered how some people stand very close to another person while talking. Some people may be okay with it, while others may take offence. This aspect of communication is called proxemics. This aspect of communication goes as far as to study the impact of objects around the room where people are communicating. For example, if during a meeting, a fountain is kept in the room, people may get distracted. Not only the objects in a room, the room itself can have an impact on a conversation. Imagine an interview taking place in an office cafeteria. How comfortable would the interviewee be? Compare this situation to giving an interview in a closed room only in the presence of the interviewer. The answer is a no-brainer. 10 Effective Technical Communication Chronemics Chronemics refers to communication using time as a factor. Let us understand this with the help of an example. A boss who comes to office on time every day, subtly communicates it to his/her employees that they too are expected to be on time every day. To conclude, we can say that non-verbal messages are as important or sometimes even more important than their verbal or written counterparts. Therefore, while communicating, especially in professional settings, non-verbal gestures should also be taken care of. 1.3.2 Formal and Informal Communication Formal communication refers to communication taking place through pre-planned channels in an organised setting. On the other hand, informal communication refers to casual conversations in personal setting or even in formal settings. For example, communication between team members during a meeting is formal communication. Later on, when these team members form sub-groups and discuss about the meeting casually, it is informal communication. Formal communication may be more time consuming than informal communication, but it has the advantage of having a proof later on unlike its informal counterpart. Even though one may be tempted to undermine the importance of informal channels of communication, they are equally important. Many a times, relationships are built over such casual conversations; some crucial ideas come up; sometimes a colleague may even extract some information from another only to be used later on. Therefore, one must always be careful while communicating when in a formal setting, irrespective of the method. 1.3.3 Internal and External Communication Communication can also be categorised on the basis of location or the relationship with a person or an organisation. Any communication done within an organised set up like an organisation or a department or even a team, is internal communication. On the other hand, communication done with people outside an organised setup, i.e., an organisation, is external communication. External communication is always formal because in these types of communications, a person deals with external parties that may quote the person later on. On the other hand, internal communication can be both, formal and informal. 1.4 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION Communication is essential for the internal functioning of any organisation. By integrating the managerial functions and serving to influence the behaviour and attitudes of people through persuasion, it encourages them to perform in order to achieve organisational objectives. The interaction between the different individuals working in a company or organisation takes place through different channels. These channels could be both informal and formal. Informal channels transmit official news through unofficial and informal communicative interactions known as the ‘grapevine’. This informal communication network includes tea time gossip, casual gatherings, lunch time meetings and so on. These channels may not be very reliable as they may be company rumours or  Communication Today 11 just gossip. Such channels are more active in organisations that are not transparent. As employees want to know what is going on in their organisation, they seek out unofficial sources of information. The grapevine is not always negative for an organisation and can, infact, Informal channels be helpful as it helps in positive group building by acting as a safety valve for pent-up transmit official news through unofficial and emotions. It may help in building up organisational solidarity and harmony. informal communica- A formal communication channel, on the other hand, refers to the formal methods tive interactions known of communication that are followed in management. As illustrated in Fig. 1.2, four as the ‘grapevine’. different channels of communication are used within an organization which are listed as follows: ∑ Downward communication ∑ Upward communication ∑ Horizontal communication ∑ Diagonal communication Fig. 1.2 Channels of Communication 1.4.1 Downward Communication As the main function of downward communication is providing direction and control, There are four formal it refers to communication from the higher level in managerial hierarchy to the channels of commu- lower ones. A communication from the general manager of a company to the branch nication: downward managers is an example of downward communication. Other examples of downward channel, upward communication include annual confidential reports, performance appraisals, notices, channel, horizontal project feedback, announcements of company policies, official instructions, and so on. channel, and diagonal Forms of downward communication may include notes, notices, memos, telephone channel. conversations, voice mails, emails, or face-to-face conversations. Downward communication is essential for the functioning of any organisation as it involves the transfer of information, instruction, advice, request, feedback, and ideas to subordinate staff. It increases staff awareness and facilitates implementation of new policies, guidelines, decisions, and evaluation and appraisal of the performance of employees. However, too much downward communication can lead to reaction from subordinates and can hamper better employee-employer relationship. 1.4.2 Upward Communication As the main purpose of upward communication is to provide feedback on several areas of organisational functioning, it refers to communication from subordinates to superiors. A business report from the branch 12 Effective Technical Communication manager of a company to the managing director of the company is an example of upward communication. Other examples of upward channel include business proposals, suggestion box, exit interviews, grievance committees, and so forth. Since upward communication involves the transfer of information, request, and feedback from the subordinates to their seniors, it promotes better working relationships within an organisation by giving the subordinate staff opportunities to share their views and ideas with their supervisors. It facilitates employee involvement in the decision-making process. Nevertheless, in any organization there has to be a balance between downward and upward communication channels. 1.4.3 Horizontal Communication The main objective of horizontal communication is to develop teamwork, and promote group coordination within an organisation. It takes place between professional peer groups or people working on the same level of hierarchy. Horizontal communication is less formal and structured than both downward communication and upward communication, and may be carried out through informal discussions, management gossip, telephone calls, teleconferencing, videoconferencing, memos, routine meetings, and so on. 1.4.4 Diagonal Communication Diagonal communication is the product of modern changes in information technology and management and is a result of the growing realisation of fraternity and equality in the corporate sector. It is basically a response to the market needs that demand speed and efficiency. As the diagonal channel occurs between people who do not have to follow rigid norms of communication protocol, it flows in all directions. Progress Check 3 1. Which of the following statements about channels of communication are TRUE? (a) The main function of upward communication is providing direction and control. (b) Communication from the chief executive officer of a company to the personnel manager of the company is an example of upward communication. (c) Formal communication channels are based on social relationships in which employees talk about work during informal social gatherings. (d) The main objectives of horizontal communication are developing teamwork and promoting group coordination within an organisation. (e) Informal communication channels transmit official news through unofficial means. (f) A formal communication channel is the process of communication that is followed in organizational management. (g) A business proposal from the branch manager of a company to the managing director of the company is an example of horizontal communication. (h) Horizontal communication takes place between professional peer groups or people working at the same level of hierarchy.  Communication Today 13 (i) The main purpose of upward communication is to provide feedback on several areas of organisational functioning. ( j) Diagonal channels flow in all directions. 1.5 NETWORKS OF COMMUNICATION The concept of networks of communication is related to the channels of communication discussed in the previous section. Based on these channels, the networks of communication can be divided into two major types—centralised communication and decentralised communication. 1.5.1 Centralised Communication As the name suggests, in such a network, communication is centralised with a leader. It is the leader who directs the flow of communication. An example of centralised communication is a chain network (Fig. 1.3) A B C D E Fig. 1.3 Chain Network As must be clear, ‘A’ is the leader from whom the communication flows down the hierarchy. In such a network, communication channel can be both, upward and downward. This means, ‘E’ can give some information to ‘C’ through ‘D’. However, it is only the leader, ‘A’, that decides what messages should be passed and how. In most organisations, it is usually the Chief Executive Officer or the Managing Director who decides this. 1.5.2 Decentralised Communication Unlike the centralised communication, communication is not centralised with a leader in a decentralised network of communication. Here, everybody is a leader and can communicate freely with other members of the group. An example of decentralised communication is the circle network (Fig. 1.4). 14 Effective Technical Communication A E B D C Fig. 1.4 Circle Network In a circle network, nobody is the leader. ‘A’ can communicate with ‘E’ or any other member like they can communicate with him/her or any other member. Here, nobody is the leader who gets to decide the flow of communication. 1.6 ONLINE COMMUNICATION Information Technology has changed the way people communicate and how businesses run. IT has opened a new world called the online or web or digital world. New dimensions have been added to the way organisations and people communicate. Digital content comprises of websites, e-commerce sites, blogs, online feedback forms, interactive chats, discussion boards, and social media like Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Instagram, and Pinterest, to name a few. Basic rules for communication and content creation remain the same as those in offline communication. However, newer dimensions get added to each type of content. This is best understood with the help of some examples. Any business communication through a platform like Twitter has to be short, crisp, and responsive. The user needs to be conversant with functions like hashtags, twitter handles, and re-tweets. Website is the first face of an organisation that everybody sees. These days, it is not an option to not have one. A badly designed website or a website with poor content, can drive customers away. While creating content for a website, there are many aspects that need to be taken care of. The following are some pointers though the list is not exhaustive: ∑ Content should facilitate search engine optimisation ∑ Content should be crisp ∑ Information about the organisation should be up-to-date ∑ Content should be customised keeping the target audience in mind ∑ The website and its content should be compatible across platforms ∑ The content and the design should be mobile-friendly There are different rules and guidelines for different media like blogs, or LinkedIn, or Facebook, or e-commerce sites. Each of them requires an in-depth discussion, which is beyond the scope of this book.  Communication Today 15 However, the above-mentioned guidelines must have given some idea about the process of digital content creation. To succeed in any sphere, a working knowledge of digital content is a must. 1.7 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION As communication is a complex process, it is desirable to take care of communication interference and the barriers in communication that may hamper the smooth flow of effective communication. These barriers may emanate from either the sender/receiver or the circumstances of communication. However, we need to avoid them to become effective communicators. In real communicative situations, any interference or noise, as it is commonly referred to, may complicate the communication process and interfere with our message. Communication barriers arise during the communication process and may confuse the listener or reader, create misunderstanding and confusion, and may sometimes lead to communication breakdown. A careful analysis of communication barriers reveal that they are generally created by: ∑ Improper encoding ∑ Bypassing ∑ Frame of reference ∑ Physical distractions ∑ Psychological and emotional interference ∑ Cultural differences Let us discuss some of these barriers to communication in greater detail. 1.7.1 Improper Encoding Improper encoding is a recurrent barrier in the process of communication. Since there is a lack of understanding on the part of the receiver, it leads to confusion and misunderstanding. Messages should be presented in a linguistic code familiar to one’s audience. The sender must consider the cognitive knowledge the receiver has of the communicative code that is being used. If the audience is not able to follow the language/dialect, a communication breakdown will definitely occur. In addition, selection of an inappropriate medium or linguistic form also leads to communication breakdown due to misunderstanding or confusion. 1.7.2 Bypassing The term ‘bypassing’ refers to misunderstanding resulting from missed meanings because of the use of abstract words and phrases on which both senders and receivers ‘Bypassing’ refers to do not agree. Bypassing is probably the most common communication barrier that you misunderstanding resulting from missed have to deal with. Words mean different things to different people. Age, education, meanings because and cultural background are three of the more obvious variables that influence the of the use of abstract language a person uses. In order to avoid bypassing, you should use familiar words words and phrases on with concrete meanings so that there is no scope for confusion. Moreover, it is also which both senders necessary to know the background of your audience. and receivers do not For instance, an Indian asked his Arab colleague why he was a bachelor at the age agree. of forty. The Arab replied innocently, “because of dowry…”. The Indian responded, 16 Effective Technical Communication ‘You should not have been so greedy.” The Arab was upset and confused because he could not understand why his Indian friend considered him greedy. There was a communication breakdown. ‘Dowry’ for an Indian is the money that the groom takes from the family of the bride while ‘dowry’ for an Arab is the amount of ‘mehar’ that the groom has to pay to the father of the bride. 1.7.3 Frame of Reference Your weakness in viewing others within your frame of reference may also lead to The moment you confusion and misunderstanding. The moment you interpret others’ point of view interpret others’ point from your angle, you allow your preconceived notions and prejudices to start of view from your angle, you allow your working for you. Your frame of reference is individual to you as it is based on your preconceived notions experiences, exposure, education, personality, and several other elements peculiar to and prejudices to start you. In order to avoid communication failure, you have to be sensitive to this fact and working for you. try to put yourself in the other person’s position. 1.7.4 Physical Distractions Physical distractions can easily disrupt communication. For example, you are trying to give an oral presentation in the classroom but the room temperature is very high and there is no air-conditioner or fan in the room. Your discomfort may cause communication failure because a person who is physically uncomfortable can be neither a good speaker nor a good listener. You should avoid any physical discomfort during communication. 1.7.5 Psychological and Emotional Interference Any psychological or emotional turbulence or disturbance can prove to be a barrier to effective communication because it leads to lack of interest and concentration. Feelings Over arousal of emo- of sadness, fear, anger, anxiety, or jubilation influence our reception and receptivity to tions may adversely others’ ideas. Communication is a purposeful activity based on rationality and reason affect both encoding and one must assure that one is not emotionally charged (for example, very excited/ and decoding. angry/nervous) before one takes part in a communicative interaction. One may find it difficult to concentrate on the content of the message if one is emotionally charged. Over arousal of emotions may adversely affect both encoding and decoding. Whether you are a sender or a receiver, it is necessary that you try to focus on the content of the message. 1.7.6 Intercultural Differences As noted earlier, it is the receiver who assigns meaning to message cues and meanings are assigned in terms of a receiver’s frame of reference. This interpretation of meaning can create misunderstandings during intercultural communication because the sender and the receiver belong to different cultures and share different values. In fact, our values are our personal guides to thought and behaviour, and exert a strong influence on us. We should be sensitive to cultural differences and take into account the values of our listeners/readers while communicating with them.  Communication Today 17 Checklist for Communication Barriers ∑ Know your audience before you communicate with them. Try to know their needs, perceptions, and expectations from you. ∑ Try to experience the world from the receiver’s perspective. ∑ Use an appropriate and effective personal style and avoid using a negative or angry tone. ∑ Use an appropriate form and style of communication. ∑ Encode your message well. ∑ Avoid physical and psychological barriers. ∑ Listen and read carefully. ∑ Be precise and to the point. Avoid information overload. ∑ Be open, frank, and positive. ∑ Appreciate and understand cultural differences. Progress Check 4 1. Study the following communicative situations to identify communication barriers in them. If the situation involves a communication barrier, tick Yes but if it does not involve a barrier, tick No. (a) One of your colleagues has misbehaved with you. You are very upset and you want to complain to the director of your company. Yes/No (b) Suppose you are working in a company and you have thought of a brilliant idea to solve the techni- cal problems of your company but you are not sure whether your colleagues will agree with you or not. You are very nervous as you do not know the response of your colleagues. However, you want to share your ideas with all your colleagues. Yes/No (c) A friend wants to know why you are doing B.Tech in Computer Science and Engineering. You are not very clear about the reasons for joining the course but want to respond to his query. Yes/No (d) You have some problems with one of your assistants. He has insulted you. You are very angry and upset, and immediately want to express your feelings to your immediate boss. Yes/No (e) You have to attend a meeting where you have to present a proposal but you are very disturbed because your sister is very sick. Yes/No (f) You are not happy with the internet facilities in your department and want to propose major changes. You want to share your innovative ideas with the head of the department. Yes/No (g) You want to propose major changes in the computer facilities provided by your institution. You want to share your innovative ideas with all the students of your class. Yes/No 18 Effective Technical Communication (h) Your communication teacher is very angry with you because you did not submit an important assignment as per the deadline set by him. You want to explain the reasons for the delay. You go and meet him personally. Yes/No 1.8 COMMUNICATION AT THE WORKPLACE Ultimately, the whole purpose of reading this book is to be able to apply the learning in a working environment. Communication cannot be ignored even if one is in a technical job. Good or bad communication can make or break careers. In fact, organisations take communication very seriously not only for their employees, but also for their own good. Many organisations, therefore, have a specialised function or department for this is called corporate communication. 1.8.1 Corporate Communication Most organisations have a specialised department that deals with the internal and external communication of an organisation. This department is called the Corporate Communications Department. It handles information dissemination to the outside world in a manner that is in congruence with the corporate policy. In some organisations, it is referred to as Public Relations or Public Affairs department. This department is ultimately responsible for maintaining a good image of the organisation. In times of crisis or any allegation against the organisation, it is the Corporate Communications Department that comes to the rescue. 1.8.2 Communication Challenges at the Workplace No matter how prepared or adept one is at communication, there will always be challenges while communicating in a workplace. The reasons are galore. Given below are some common challenges faced by people in the workplace. The list is not and cannot be exhaustive, given the dynamic nature of communication and people interaction. 1. Different backgrounds of employees: Given the multicultural and global nature of organisations these days, employees come from varied backgrounds in terms of nationality, location, ethnicity, religion, economic status, etc. Therefore, communication styles need to be altered when dealing with different people. 2. Different accents: An offshoot of different backgrounds is different languages, accents and fluency. When dealing with people with different accents and fluency or language competence, one should make an effort to go slow or modify the communication style to ensure the message is being understood by the other party. 3. Different organisation culture: Some organisations have an open door policy where the seniors can be approached any time, while some have a policy of following the hierarchy before reaching the top. Therefore, any new employee needs to adapt himself/herself to the culture prevalent in the organisation and modify his/her communication style. 4. Closed groups: When an organisation has a lot of old employees, sometimes new hires are seen as a threat and are not accepted within the closed groups that may have been formed over a period of time. This hinders communication and can be very daunting for the new employee.  Communication Today 19 5. Direct versus indirect feedback: Some organisations appreciate direct feedback however negative it may be. On the other hand, some organisations may not take in the right spirit. Therefore, an employee needs to be aware of the culture and tweak his/her communication accordingly. 6. Personality traits: No matter how much homogeneity a group of employees have in an organisation, there will still be some communication challenges because each individual is different. Personality of one person can never be the same as that of the other. Therefore, one needs to tweak one’s communication style keeping the receiver in mind. 7. Differences in experience: Many a times, technical jargon or terms or organisation-specific abbreviations may be alien to freshers or a person who may be new to an organisation. Therefore, while communicating, one should do an audience analysis in terms of their background and experience. Exercise 1. Please list below the names of persons with whom you have communicated in English during the last three days–even if only for a moment. Answering the following questions will provide you with the guidelines and basics of your communication: (a) List of names (b) With how many people did you actually communicate? (c) What were the reasons for communicating with each person? (d) What did they communicate about? (e) What were the forms of communication that you used? (f) How important is it to be able to communicate? (g) What would it be like if we could not communicate with others? 2. Write short notes on the following: (a) Informal channels of communication (b) Downward communication (c) Communication barrier (d) Workplace communication (e) Online communication 3. Answer the following questions as briefly as possible: (a) What is communication? (b) What are the steps in communication? (c) Which communication channel is the most important? Give reasons to support your answer. (d) Which are the different methods of communication? (e) When communicating with people from different cultures/regions, what can you do to reduce mis- understandings? (f) Have you experienced any communication barrier in understanding this chapter? How can we elimi- nate communication barriers, so that we can work and understand better? 20 Effective Technical Communication Key to Progress Check Progress Check 1 1. (a) True (b) False (c) True (d) False (e) False (f) False (g) True (h) True (i) True (j) True Progress Check 2 1. (a), (c), (g) Progress Check 3 1. (d), (e), (f), (h), (i), (j) Progress Check 4 1. (a) Yes (b) Yes (c) Yes (d) Yes (e) Yes (f) No (g) No (h) Yes 2 CHAPTER Nature and Dimensions of Technical Communication Communication is a key strategy, both human communication and technical communication. —Helene Nelson LEARNING OBJECTIVES ∑ Understanding the nature of technical communication ∑ Learning various forms of technical communication ∑ Understanding the need for technical communication ∑ Learning effective technical communication skills 22 Effective Technical Communication 2.1 ASPECTS OF TECHNICAL COMPETENCE Technical communication is a central factor in the emerging knowledge society, where technocrats and professionals in different areas face new communication challenges. Technical communica- In order to be an effective technical communicator, one needs to understand the tion is a transmission of technical and pro- process of technical communication. We may define technical communication as a fessional information transmission of scientific and technical information from one individual or group to from one individual or another. This exchange of professional information may include simple definitions of group to another. tools, complex descriptions of machines and processes, or sophisticated explanation and interpretation of scientific principles. Effective technical communication is a dynamic interchange that may involve a systematic understanding of scientific and technical subjects. The three important requirements of effective technical communication are: ∑ Subject competence ∑ Linguistic competence ∑ Organisational competence 2.1.1 Subject Competence Ideation in the technical communication process, which depends on the sender’s subject competence, i.e., his or her professional knowledge, experiences, and Subject competence abilities. Subject competence is the first requirement of technical communication. is the first requirement It is the possession of appropriate knowledge of a particular technical subject-matter of technical communi- as well as the possession of highly sophisticated technical or professional skills. An cation. inadequate background in the subject or lack of information might lead to incomplete and ineffective communication. 2.1.2 Linguistic Competence Linguistic competence, on the other hand, is the possession of appropriate language Linguistic competence skills and the ability to present scientific facts or information clearly and objectively. is the ability to pres- As technical communication involves technical presentation of data in reports, ent scientific facts or proposals, research papers, technical bulletins, manuals, and handbooks, linguistic information clearly competence includes several functional skills. Lack of these skills may lead to and objectively. ineffective or incomplete communication. These skills include the ability to: ∑ Analyse facts or information for clear presentation ∑ Use appropriate rhetorical devices to present scientific data ∑ Use graphs, charts, and diagrams systematically 2.1.3 Organisational Competence Organisational competence is the Since technical communication is a systematic and structured presentation of ability to organise information, it involves a process of logical and thematic organisation. Organisational technical information competence is the ability to organise technical information in a logical and structured in a logical and way. It includes several skills such as the ability to sequence thoughts in a sentence, structured way.  Nature and Dimensions of Technical Communication 23 organise a paragraph according to the needs of the reader and the topic, use appropriate logical ordering, and provide thematic coherence to expression. 2.2 FORMS OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION The fast growth of technical knowledge coupled with the development of sophisticated information technology has changed the way we communicate in professional situations. We prefer fast, interactive, and result-oriented forms of communication such as voice-mail, email, video transmission, teleconferencing, videoconferencing, intranet transmission, and so on to the traditional and slow forms of communication such as letters, memos, newsletters, and so forth. Today, one may find a range of interactive technologies for communication. However, technical communication still depends on the two basic forms of communication: oral and written. 2.2.1 Oral and Written Communication Each form of communication has its merits and demerits. While oral communication Oral communication provides immediate feedback and promotes better understanding, written provides immediate communication provides a permanent record and facilitates the creation of organised feedback, written com- munication provides a messages. Oral communication gives a personal touch to the communication process permanent record. whereas written communication is impersonal as the two communicators cannot see each other. The choice of an appropriate form of communication may depend on the need and purpose of the communicative situation. 2.2.2 External and Internal Communication There are two widely recognised categories of technical communication: external communication and internal communication. External communication consists primarily of describing the areas of expertise technical people or professionals provide. This may include any communication that an organisation does with people belonging to other organisations. Internal communication includes memos describing problems or reque