Adverbials, Auxiliaries, and Sentence Types PDF

Adverbials, auxiliaries, Adverbials, auxiliaries, and sentence types and sentence types Topics 1. Adverbials 2. Functions of postverbal prepositional phrases 3. Auxiliary 4. Passive sentences 5. Yes/No questions and negative sentences 6. Imperatives 7. From D-structure to S-structure 1....

Adverbials, auxiliaries, Adverbials, auxiliaries, and sentence types and sentence types Topics 1. Adverbials 2. Functions of postverbal prepositional phrases 3. Auxiliary 4. Passive sentences 5. Yes/No questions and negative sentences 6. Imperatives 7. From D-structure to S-structure 1. Adverbials  Click icon to add picture -are optional modifiers -traditionally they are said to be modifying the verb  Click icon to add picture We will see 3 different types of that the adverbial functions adverbial function may 1. adjunct adverbial be filled by a 2. disjunct adverbial number of 3. conjunct adverbial different categories: AdvP, PP, NP,  Click icon to add picture 1.1 Adjunct adverbials  Click icon to add picture Adjunct adverbials (aA) generally answer one of the following questions: The four most common types of adjunct adverbials are manner, time, place, and reason. The examples given above show AdvPs, PPs, and Ss functioning as adverbials. NP’s can also occasionally function as adverbials; these fall into a number of different types: Adverbials can be better understood as modifying the verb together with its complements, which we can call V-bar (V –). structure grammar as optional sisters of the V – in the following way It is common for more than one type of adverbial to appear in a sentence, as in We came here today for a breather. (COCA:NEWS) We came here today for a breather. (COCA:NEWS) where there is an adverbial of place (here), time (today), reason (for a breather). If there is more than one adverbial present, there will have to be more that one V– node; thus we need to revise our rule for V– as follows: The sentence above would have the following tree diagram Corpus examples show us that adverbials are very free in their placement, appearing in different positions in the sentence, not just sentence final:  time adverbials are acceptable The sentence initially and sometimes various preverbally types of adverbial place adverbials are clumsy s behave sentence initially differentl manner adverbials frequently occur y preverbally but are less good sentence initially 1.2 Disjunct adverbials -disjunct adverbial (dA). -are known as sentence adverbs. -They denote the speaker’s attitude toward or judgment of the proposition, expressing, for example, the speaker’s degree of truthfulness or his manner of speaking. As in the case of adjunct adverbials, AdvPs or PPs (or Ss) may serve as disjunct adverbials: Disjunct adverbials modify the entire S, not just the VP, so they are generated by the phrase structure rules as the optional sister of S, as follows: Note that disjunct adverbials appear most naturally at the beginning of the sentence; they are moved to this position on the surface. Sometimes, the same lexical item can be both an adjunct and a disjunct: In the first sentence, seriously means ‘in a serious manner’, while in the second it means ‘I am being serious when I say’. 1.3 Conjunct adverbials -the conjunct adverbial (cA), known as conjunctive adverbs. -They express textual relations, serving to link clauses; they have no function in their own clause. -They may be AdvPs or PPs: AdvP: moreover, however, nonetheless, nevertheless, furthermore, next, finally, consequently, therefore, thus, instead, indeed, besides, hence PP: in addition, in conclusion, on the contrary, on one/the other hand, in other words, for example, as a result, in the second place Conjunct adverbials denote a logical connection between the clause that follows and the clause or clauses that precede: Example, the second clause may express result (hence), contrast (however), addition (moreover), apposition (namely), summation (overall), listing (next), inference (then), and several other connections. 2. Functions of postverbal prepositional phrases  Click icon to add picture PPs which follow the verb – postverbal PPs – can serve a number of different purposes. The functions of postverbal PPs includes: a. prepositional complement, b. adjunct adverbial, c. postmodifier of the noun, but these can often be difficult to distinguish. In sentence 1, in her rabid matchmaking mode is a subject complement referring back to his wife. In sentence 2, into a snarl is a prepositional complement of changed. In sentence 3, in America is an adjunct adverbial modifying has changed. The PP can be either an obligatory complement of the verb (as in sentences 1 and 2) or an optional modifier of the V –, an adjunct adverbial (as in the third case). If the PP has at least some of the following qualities, then it is likely to be an adjunct adverbial: – it is optional and hence can be omitted; the sentence is grammatical without it (The face of poverty has changed) – it can usually (but not always) be moved to the beginning of the sentence (In America, the face of poverty has changed) -it expresses time, place, manner, or reason, answering the questions “when?”, “where?”, “how?”, or “why?”, not “what?” or “whom?” (Where has the face of poverty changed?) – it can occur in a separate predication (It happened in America) – it can occur in a do so/too structure (The face of poverty changed in America and it did so in Europe as well) (here, do so substitutes for the VP); – it may be replaced by a lexical adverb (The face of poverty changed there) – it does not figure in the subcategorization of the verb. No PP will meet all of the tests for adjunct adverbials, but it will meet at least some of them. Look at the following three sentences:  The PP in the first They sentence is agreed on a the terms. complement of a prepositiona  The PP in the They agreed in second an instant. sentence is an adjunct  The third sentence is structurally They ambiguous agreed on since the PP the boat. can serve either of these functions. The two meanings are that ‘They decided while they were on the boat’ (the aA reading) or ‘They decided (to buy) the boat’ (the pC reading). The following (generalized) tree diagrams represent the two structures: A second difficulty arises with the sequence V NP PP. This may represent: 1. a complex transitive verb structure 2. a transitive verb structure followed by an adjunct adverbial 3. a transitive verb structure whose direct object is postmodified by a prepositional phrase 1. a complex transitive verb structure Here with his wife is a prepositional complement of the transitive structure (exchanged a smile) 2. a transitive verb structure followed by an adjunct adverbial with skill is an adjunct adverbial answering the question how? and expressing the manner in which the mother played the piano 3. a transitive verb structure whose direct object is postmodified by a prepositional phrase with a low-cut back is an optional modifier of the direct object a dress. These different possibilities may yield ambiguous sentences such as: I helped the man with a shovel ‘I helped the man using a shovel’ (the pC reading) ‘I helped the man who had a shovel (the shovel-man)’ (the modifier reading) A third difficulty arises with the sequence V PP PP, where the second PP may be: 1. the second prepositional complement in a diprepositional verb structure 2. an adjunct adverbial 3. modifier of the preceding noun Here, with him and about their responsibility are prepositional complements of argued. for hours is an optional adjunct adverbial modifying the prepositional verb and its complement (argued with them) of these commercials is a modifier of the success, with argued with the success being a prepositional verb and its complement. Again, structural ambiguities arise, as in the case of the sentence: I ran into the girls with the flowers. *a prepositional complement (‘I ran into the girls with (using) the flowers’) *a modifier of the noun “girls” (‘I ran into the girls who had the flowers’) Click icon to add picture The last difficulty arises with phrasal verbs, which must be distinguished from prepositional verbs. A. Transitive phrasal verbs consist of a verb, a direct object, and a particle, which is movable, occurring either before or after the object. B. With prepositional verbs, the preposition is not moveable. The phrasal verb is really a monotransitive verb, with the particle associated with the verb. The particle is generated next to the verb. When it moves, it becomes the sister of the NP. When the NP is a pronoun, this movement is obligatory. That is, one can say He looked it up, but not *He looked up it. There are a number of syntactic criteria you can use for distinguishing phrasal verbs from prepositional verbs:  Click icon to add picture 1. in transitive phrasal verbs, the particle is movable, but the preposition in a prepositional verb is not.  Click icon to add picture 2. the NP is the object of the verb in phrasal verbs rather than of the preposition. 3. in both transitive and intransitive phrasal verbs, the particle carries stress, as in She took it óff or The plane took óff, while prepositions are unstressed, as in We knocked on the door.  Click icon to add picture 4. adverbials cannot intervene between the verb and the particle whereas they can between the verb and the preposition. 3. Auxiliary  Click icon to add picture Auxiliary -specifiers of the verb - They cannot stand alone in a sentence; instead, there must be a lexical or main verb present which functions as head of the verb group. 1. the primary auxiliaries (have and be) 2. the dummy auxiliary do 3.the modal auxiliaries (will, can, shall, may, and must) 4. number of phrasal equivalents and borderline auxiliaries (e.g. dare, need) Table 8.1 presents the possible specifiers of the verb with the main verb bite (in the active voice only). We note that more than one auxiliary– can occur in a single sentence. But these must appear in a certain order and form; there is a complex internal structure to the verb group. And the main verb always comes last in the verb group; that is, unlike the noun, the verb allows no modifiers following it. The different elements in the verb group. 1. Tense (T) -Tense is expressed as a bound morph (an inflection) on the first element in the sequence, whether this is an auxiliary or the main verb. -Tense is always present; it is an obligatory element. In English the only tense distinctions are past and present T → {past, pres} Tense is attached to the first element in the verb group. The verb or auxiliary carrying tense is called finite, all other forms (nontensed) are called nonfinite (not restricted in terms of tense, person, and number). 2. modal auxiliary (M) -The modal auxiliary is the first independent element in the verb group, but it needn’t be present. -M is optional. -If a modal is present, it carries tense. The form of the auxiliary (have or be) or main verb which follows the modal is the basic stem form, also called the “bare infinitive” M → {shall, can, will, may, must} 3. Perfect (Perf) -Like M, Perf is optional. -It contains the auxiliary have; the form following have, whether it is another auxiliary or the main verb, is in the form of a past (or perfect) participle. Perf → have -en Here, -en is an abstract marker for past participle (realized as -en, -ed, and so on), which will later be attached to the form following have. If the perfect occurs without a modal, then have carries tense (e.g. had broken); if a modal precedes the perfect, then have is in the basic stem form (e.g. could have broken). 4. Progressive (Prog) -Prog is also optional. -It contains the auxiliary be; the form following be is in the form of a present participle. -In the active voice, the form following be is always the main verb. Prog → be -ing -ing will later be attached to the form following be. If progressive is the first element in the verb group, then be carries tense (e.g, is swimming), but if either the perfect or a modal (or both) precede, be will be nonfinite (e.g. has been swimming, will be swimming). All of the specifiers of the verb are grouped together under the category of auxiliary (Aux), which is expanded as follows:  Click icon to add picture To finish accounting for the form of Aux, we need to attach the affixes (past, pres, -en, and -ing) to the following elements. We do this by means of a rule called affix hopping. This rule stipulates that each affix attaches to the verbal element immediately following it and forms the relevant word. In the example above, affix hopping attaches past to can, -en to be, and -ing to the main verb (bite). The attachment of affixes is written as follows, where # indicates word boundaries: #can + past# have #be + -en# #bite -ing# Rules of word formation give could, been, and biting, and thus the “past modal perfect progressive (active)” phrase could have been biting. 4. Passive sentence s A passive sentence is typically seen as being directly related to its active counterpart – rather than as a completely different structure – since the choice of the passive affects the structure of the entire sentence. The passive sentence compares with the active sentence in the following way: 1. the passive verb group contains the be -en sequence just before the main verb; 2. the subject of the active sentence (the agent) is the object of the preposition by at end of the passive sentence; and 3. the direct object of the active sentence is the subject of the passive sentence. Note that the PP containing the agent phrase becomes the sister of the V– and hence functions adverbially. We call these agented passives However, the most frequent kind of passive sentence in English is the agentless passive in which the by phrase is not present. Its omission is related to the rhetorical functions of the  Click icon to add picture 4.1 Verb subcategorizatio n and the passive In order for a sentence to be passivized, the subject must be an agent (a doer or performer of an action) and the verb must have a direct or prepositional object which can move to the subject position. The subcategorization of the verb is therefore very important in the formation of the passive: 5. Yes/no questions and negative sentences  Click icon to add picture 5.1 Yes/no questions subject-aux(iliary) inversion, in which the order of the subject of the sentence and the first auxiliary element is reversed, or, more specifically, the first auxiliary moves to a position preceding the subject. The auxiliaries is, has, can, and was move in front of the subject in the examples above.  Click icon to add picture 5.2 Negative statements and questions In this case, the negative element (not) is placed after tense and the first auxiliary element. The contraction of not to -n’t is optional and follows insertion of not into the string.  Click icon to add picture 5.3 Do-support Placing tense before the subject or the negative after tense results in what is called “tense stranding” because by the rule of affix hopping there is nothing for tense to attach to: it must attach to the immediately following element and that element must be verbal, but in the interrogative the subject (NP) follows, and in the negative not follows. A verbal element must be supplied by inserting the dummy auxiliary do. This serves the function of an auxiliary when there is no other independent auxiliary present. This insertion transformation is called do- support. Dummy do * behaves like an auxiliary * it is used when an auxiliary is necessary – in questions, tag questions, negatives, contrastive stress – and none is present in the corresponding noninterrogative, positive, nonemphatic sentence. However, dummy do is purely structural, a mere tense carrier; since it is empty of lexical meaning, its addition does not change the meaning of the sentence. Do is initially inserted after T in Aux when it stands before V; then this portion of Aux is moved in front of the subject. This leaves a gap in the second portion of Aux. The verbal element following do occurs in its basic stem form. Lexical verb do behaves like a main verb; it can occur with dummy do in the same sentence in negatives and questions when there is no other auxiliary present (as in I don’t do lunch). Pro-verb do functions rather differently. It is like a pronoun, and just as a pronoun replaces the entire NP, the pro-verb replaces an entire VP. When be is functioning as a main verb and it is the only verbal element present, it behaves as an auxiliary in respect to subject-aux inversion and negative placement; it is not necessary to insert do. When have is functioning as a main verb, it behaves either as an auxiliary or a main verb, depending on dialect. In 3 and 5 above, have is treated as an auxiliary; in 4 and 6 above, have is treated as main verb and takes a dummy-do. in 4 and 6 above, have is treated as main verb and takes a dummy-do. 5.4 Tag questions  Click icon to add picture An additional type of question is the tag question: The “tag” follows the comma and consists of the following: 1. tense and the first auxiliary of the main clause (or do if there isn’t one); 2. a pronoun identical in person, number, and gender with the subject of the main clause; and 3. a marker of negative polarity; that is, if the main clause is positive, -n’t occurs (note that the negative element is obligatorily contracted), and if the main clause is negative, no negative element occurs. 6. Imperatives imperative sentences Our rule for S will not account for these because they have no subject. Traditionally, it is said that a you subject is “understood”, or elliptical. There are a number of tests for you in imperatives. First, consider reflexive pronouns. These are forms with -self or -selves attached to a personal pronoun which have the same referent as the subject of the clause; that is, they agree in person, number, and gender with the subject: In imperatives, only yourself, not any other refl exive pronoun, can occur: Shoot {yourself, *himself, *myself}! Dress {yourself, *themselves, *itself}!  Furthermore, the 2nd person pronoun must be the reflexive, not the nonreflexive form: *Shoot you! *Dress you!  Second, consider the idiom lose/find one’s way. Only a possessive pronoun coindexed with the subject can occur: Andrew {lost, found} (his, *her, ?their} way. When this idiom occurs in an imperative, only your can occur: Don’t lose {your, *my, *their} way home! Third, consider the behavior of tag questions with imperatives: Help me, won’t {you, *she, *he, *they}?  The last test also suggests that there is an underlying will in imperatives, the auxiliary of the main clause is copied in the auxiliary of the tag with reversed polarity: Help me, {won’t, *can’t, *isn’t} you? These are deleted in an imperative transformation to produce the appropriate S-structure. Imperatives cannot occur with a modal or auxiliary have/be in S- structure: *Have opened the door! *Be writing a letter! *Can pass the salt! Modals are restricted because the modal position (in D-structure) is already occupied by will (there may be semantic reasons for the restriction as well); have and be are restricted because a command must relate to a future action, not to a past (completed) or present (ongoing) action Generally, states cannot occur in the imperative because someone cannot be commanded to be in a state. A state is not a matter of will and hence cannot be brought about volitionally *Resemble your father! *Be six feet tall! *Have brown eyes! Only if the stative verb, including have and be, can be given an active reading does the verb appear in the imperative. Know your limits. (COCA:MAG) = ‘Learn your limits, come to know your limits’  Click icon to add picture 7. From D- structure to S- structure What phrase structure rules do They tell us the following: – the lexical categories of words; – the order of elements in D-structure; and – the hierarchical relationships of the categories (what is a constituent of what, what dominates what, and what modifies or is a complement of what). The terminal symbols of the phrase structure rules are abstract symbols that need to be filled by particular instances of the category: *from the lexicon, *phonological information, *semantic information (selectional restrictions), *inherent subcategorization (the lexical category), *strict subcategorization (the syntactic environments in which the word can occur). For example, the entry for the word bite might contain the following information (in addition to a feature analysis of the meaning of the word): [baIt] V; ______ NP (PP) [baIt] + {past} → /bIt/ takes [+animate] subject  The lexicon gives all irregular or idiosyncratic information. We also need a set of lexical insertion rules which tell us to insert the appropriate word under the relevant phrase marker. Because of the recursive nature of the phrase structure rules ,different applications of the finite set of phrase structure rules can produce an infinite number of surface strings. -The phrase structure rules and the lexicon together form the base. The base derives deep or underlying structures, which are unambiguous and contain all meaning. -These D-structure sentences are active as opposed to passive, declarative as opposed to interrogative or imperative, and positive as opposed to negative; they are also simple as opposed to complex. Such sentences are known as kernel sentences. Then to produce passive, interrogative or imperative, or negative sentences, what is needed is another kind of rule, a transformation, which converts a D-structure into a S-structure.  Click icon to add picture Thank you! Engaging the audience Make eye contact with your audience to create a sense of intimacy and involvement Weave relatable stories into your presentation using narratives that make your message memorable and impactful Encourage questions and provide thoughtful responses to enhance audience participation Use live polls or surveys to gather audience opinions, promoting engagement and making sure the audience feel involved Eff ective delivery techniques Voice modulation is a powerful tool in Eff ective body language enhances public speaking. It involves varying your message, making it more pitch, tone, and volume to convey impactful and memorable. emotion, emphasize points, and maintain interest. Meaningful eye contact Pitch variation Purposeful gestures Tone infl ection Maintain good posture Volume control Control your expressions Navigating Q&A sessions 1. Know your material Maintaining composure during the Q&A session is in advance essential for projecting confi dence and authority. Consider the following tips for staying composed: 2. Anticipate common questions Stay calm 3. Rehearse your Actively listen responses Pause and refl ect Maintain eye contact Speaking impact Your ability to communicate eff ectively will leave a lasting impact on your audience Eff ectively communicating involves not only delivering a message but also resonating with the experiences, values, and emotions of those listening Dynamic delivery Learn to infuse energy Metric Measurement Target Actual into your delivery to leave a lasting Audience # of attendees 150 120 impression attendance Engagement One of the goals of Minutes 60 75 duration eff ective communication is to Q&A interaction # of questions 10 15 motivate your Positive feedback Percentage (%) 90 95 audience Our competition Seek feedback Consistent rehearsal P r a c t i c e m a ke s p e r f e c t , s o s t r e n g t h e n y o u r Refl ect on performance familiarity with the presentation Explore new techniques Re fi n e d e l i v e r y s t y l e Pa c i n g , t o n e , a n d e m p h a s i s Set personal goals Ti m i n g a n d t r a n s i t i o n s Iterate and adapt Aim for seamless, professional delivery Practice audience Enlist colleagues to listen & provide feedback Speaking engagement metrics Impact factor Measurement Target Achieved Impact factor Audience Percentage (%) 85 88 Audience interaction interaction Knowledge Percentage (%) 75 80 Knowledge retention retention Post-presentation Post-presentation Average rating 4.2 4.5 surveys surveys Referral rate Percentage (%) 10 12 Referral rate Thank You Brita Tamm 502-555-0152 brita@fi rstupconsultants.com www.fi rstupconsultants.com