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Grammatical names and functions Noun or Nominal Clause Noun clause: a noun clause or nominal clause is a dependent /subordinate clause that does the work of a noun in a sentence. It generally functions as an appositive, the subj...

Grammatical names and functions Noun or Nominal Clause Noun clause: a noun clause or nominal clause is a dependent /subordinate clause that does the work of a noun in a sentence. It generally functions as an appositive, the subject or the object of a verb, subject or object complement of a transitive verb, and preposition. Forms of a noun clause 1. The TH-clause (or the ‘that clause’). Eg. He said that he was coming. 2. The WH-clause Eg. What he said propelled me How he did it surprised everyone 3. The to-infinitive clause Eg. To say the truth is very important Grammatical Functions of Noun or Nominal clause 1. A noun clause functions as the subject of the verb in a given sentence. Eg. What the students did is quite appalling How he passed his exam remains a mystery In example one (1) ‘what the students did’ is a noun clause functioning as the subject of the verb ‘is’ in the main clause. While the complete statement, ‘what the students did is quite appalling’ is the main/independent clause, while ‘what the students did’ is a dependent clause. Also in example (2) ‘how he passed his exam’ is a noun clause functioning as the subject of the verb ‘remains’. This noun clause is housed by the main clause ‘how he passed his exams remains a mystery’. 2. A noun clause functions as the object of the verb in a given clause or sentence. Eg. I don’t know ‘why I am here’. ‘Why I am here’ is a WH-noun clause functioning as the object of the verb phrase ‘don’t know’. The man said ‘that he was coming.’ ‘that he was coming’ is a noun clause functioning as the object of the verb ‘said’. 3. A noun clause functions as the subject complement Eg. The point is ‘what caused the fire’ The most important thing is ‘how I get home’. Thus, a subject complement follows a linking verb and modifies orvc refers to the subject. In the above example, ‘what caused the fire’ and ‘how I get home’ are noun clauses which functions as the complement of the subjects, ‘the point’ and ‘the most important thing’ respectively. It is obvious that each of these noun clauses follow the linking verb ‘is’ and refers to the subject which it complements. Providing the correct answers to the following questions will let us know that each of these noun clauses in the examples above refers to the subject which they complement. Q: what caused the fire? = The point Q: how I get home is what? = the most important thing 4. A noun clause functions as object complement. Eg. They made her husband ‘what she liked’. ‘what she liked’ is the noun clause functioning as the complement of the object of the sentence, ‘her husband’. 5. A noun clause functions as object complement of preposition. Eg. I am responsible for ‘what happed yesterday’. ‘what happened yesterday’ is a noun clause functioning as the object complement of the preposition, ‘for’. When a noun clause functions as the object complement of a preposition, it comes immediately after the preposition. Eg. It depends on, ‘where he wants to go’. ‘where he wants to go’ as a noun clause, functions as the object complement of the preposition, ‘on’. 6. A noun clause functions as appositive. When a noun clause functions as appositive, it further explains the noun or noun phrase which precedes it. Eg. My question, ‘what happened yesterday, has not been answered. ‘what happened yesterday’ is in apposition to the noun phrase, ‘my question’. Adverbial Clause An Adverbial clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adverb, that is, it modifies a verb or verb phrase, adjectives and predicate, although sometimes its subject is implied. There are different types of adverbial clause, they include;  Adverbial clause of time  Adverbial clause of place  Adverbial clause of manner  Adverbial clause of reason  Adverbial clause of condition  Adverbial clause of concession eg. It was raining ‘when I woke up’. ‘when I woke up’ is an adverbial clause of time. Grammatical function: it modifies the verb phrase ‘was raining’ He died ‘because he was stabbed’. ‘because he was stabbed’ is an adverbial clause of reason. Grammatical function: it modifies the verb ‘died’. The incident occurred ‘where three roads meet’. ‘where three roads meet’ is an adverbial clause of place. Grammatical function: it modifies the verb ‘occurred’ Tammy sang ‘as if he was hungry’. ‘as if he was hungry’ is an adverbial clause of manner Grammatical function: it modifies the verb ‘sang’ I will never leave you ‘unless you bless me’. ‘unless you bless me’ is an adverbial clause of condition. Grammatical function: it modifies the verb, ‘will leave’. Although he had the time and space, ‘he didn’t do his assignment’. ‘although he had the time and space’ is an adverbial clause of concession. This type of adverbial clause shows a contrast between the main clause and the subordinate clause. Adjectival/Relative Clause An adjectival or relative clause is a subordinate clause which gives more information about the noun or pronoun it refers to in the main clause. The markers of adjectival clause are relative pronouns such as; who, whose, whom, what, which, that, and compound words such as; whosoever, whatever and whichever. Grammatical functions of Adjectival/relative clause Adjectival clause chiefly functions as a modifier of noun or noun phrase. Adjectival clause is usually close to the noun it describes. Aside taking notes of the markers, these are the ways one can easily identify an adjectival/relative clause. Eg. I know the place ‘where they hid the book’. ‘where they hid the book’ is an adjectival clause. Grammatical function: it modifies the noun phrase, ‘the place’. This is the boy ‘whose result was stolen’. ‘whose result was stolen’ is an adjectival clause. Grammatical function: it modifies the noun phrase, ‘the boy’. I like eating oranges ‘that are sweet’. ‘that are sweet’ is an adjectival clause. Grammatical function: it modifies the noun, ‘oranges’. In summary, to correctly and easily identify the grammatical name and function of a given expression, one must always look at the position of the subordinate clause in the main clause As regards this topic, position plays a vital role. It is not just enough knowing the meanings and functions of these grammatical names. Phrase A phrase is a group of related words standing together as a unit within the syntax of a sentence or clause. phrases function as parts of speech in a sentence thus, a sentence is made up of phrases. Types of Phrases  The Noun phrase.  The Adjectival phrase.  The Verb phrase  The Adverbial phrase and  The prepositional phrase. The Noun Phrase A noun phrase is a phrase that has the noun or pronoun as its head word. It can be a single noun, a noun + a pronoun, a noun + determiner, a noun + a preposition, a noun + a post modifier. Eg. A single Noun = boy Noun + a determiner/article = the boy, a cap, an umbrella Noun + a pronoun = my brother, your umbrella, her car Noun + a post modifier = A noun phrase has the noun or pronoun as its head word and can be pre-modified by an article, a determiner or a pronoun. The pronoun can be possessive or demonstrative. Eg. Your umbrella That umbrella. The noun phrase can also be post modified by adjective, prepositional phrase, or adjectival/relative clause. In example (1) the noun phrase is pre-modified by the definite article ‘the’. In example (2) the noun phrase is pre-modified by the possessive pronoun ‘your’. In example (3) the noun phrase is pre-modified by the demonstrative pronoun ‘that’. Eg. Something terrible has happened. Here, ‘terrible’ is an adjective and a post modifier of the noun phrase ‘something’. Thus in this case, we have a pronoun ‘something’ as the head word of the noun phrase. Eg. The boy in the room is my nephew. Here, the noun phrase, ‘the boy’ is post modified by the prepositional phrase ‘in the room’. Eg. The boy who came in is my uncle’s son. Here, we have an adjective or a relative clause ‘who came in’ functioning as a post modifier of the noun phrase ‘the boy’. Grammatical Functions of the Noun Phrase 1. A noun phrase functions as the subject of the verb in a clause/sentence.  A subject is a word or phrase which performs the action or acts upon the verb in a sentence. The following are examples of noun phrase functioning as the subject of the verb in a sentence. -The armed robbers have invaded the city. -The boy in the room is my friend. 2. A noun phrase functions as object of the verb in a sentence. -I met the new English teacher = here, ‘the new English teacher’ is the noun phrase functioning as the object of the verb ‘met’. -His dad suspended the programme. -The man bought a T-shirt. 3. A noun phrase functions as object complement of preposition. When a noun phrase functions as oject complement of preposition, it comes immediately after the preposition. -The boy behind the door is a thief. Here, you have ‘the door’ functioning as the complement of the preposition ‘behind’. -The little girl gave her pen to her brother. Here, ‘her brother’ is the noun phrase complementing the preposition ’to’. 4. The noun phrase functions as object complement. An object complement is a word, phrase or clause that directly follows and describes the direct object of a sentence. -We made him our class representative. Here, ‘our class representative’ is the noun phrase functioning as the complement of the object ’him’ in the sentence. 5. A noun phrase also functions as subject complement. -The brilliant girl is my friend. Here, ‘my friend’ which is a noun phrase functions as the complement of the subject, the brilliant girl. -John is a student. Here, ‘a student’ is the complement of the entire sentence. 6. The noun phrase functions as an appositive. An appositive is a word, phrase or clause that modifies or gives more information about the subject in a sentence. -Mr. Tammy, our new English teacher is a good teacher. Here, ‘our new English teacher’ which is a noun phrase is in apposition to the noun phrase ‘Mr. Tammy’. -2baba, the musician is very rich. Here, ‘the musician’ is in apposition to the noun phrase ‘2baba’. Adjectival Phrase An adjectival phrase is a phrase that has the adjective as its head word. Grammatical Functions of the Adjectival Phrase 1. Adjectival phrase functions as the complement to a finite or non-finite clause. -To speak in class is very difficult for some students. Here, ‘very difficult’ is an adjectival phrase functioning as complement to the non-finite clause ‘to speak’.  -What he did is totally unacceptable. Here, ‘totally unacceptable’ is an adjectival phrase which complements the finite clause ‘what he did’. 2. Adjectival phrases pre-modify nouns, -Extremely loud sound. -Very intelligent young man. 3. Adjectival phrases functions as subject complement and object complement. -The singer is exceptionally good. Here, ‘exceptionally good’ is an adjectival phrase complementing ‘the singer’ which is the subject of the sentence. He made his children very useful. Here, ‘very useful’ is an adjectival phrase complementing ‘his children’ which is the object of the sentence. Adverbial Phrase Adverbial phrase is a phrase that has the adverb as its head word. An adverb phrase consists of one or more words. The adverb is the head of the phrase and can appear alone or it can be modified by a fellow adverb or even an entire sentence. Grammatical Functions of the Adverb phrase 1. It functions as a modifier in an adjectival phrase. In the instances below. - Your piercingly loud scream has broken the silence. Here, ‘piercingly’ is an adverbial phrase pre-modifying the adjectival phase, ‘loud’ in the sentence. - Employees who are regularly absent will be disciplined. 2. It functions as a head in adverbial phrase. Eg. Quite separately. Here, ‘separately’ which is also an adverb is functioning as the head in the adverbial phrase ‘quite separately’. Incredibly quickly Quickly enough 3. It functions as modifier in adverbial phrase. Eg. Quite separately (we kept the money quite separately) Really carefully (he drives really carefully) 4. It functions as a modifier of verb. Eg. He sings very well. Here, ‘very well’ is an adverbial phrase modifying the verb ‘sings’ I eat quite healthy. Here, ‘quite healthy’ is an adverbial phrase modifying the verb ‘eat’. 5. It functions as adverbial. Adverbial is a word, phrase or clause that modifies a verb, an adjective or an entire clause by providing information such as time, place, manner, reason, condition, frequency and concession. Eg. Husbands should speak for their wives adoringly (manner) Ade drove the car outside (place) They almost never invite people to their house these days.(degree)  Verb Phrase A verb phrase is headed by a verb. It functions primarily as predicate in the structure of a clause/sentence. The verb phrase like other phrases has a modifier and a head word. The modifier is an optional element while the head word is an obligatory element. Lexical verbs functions as head word in the structure of a verb phrase whereas auxiliary verbs functions as modifiers in the structure of a verb phrase. In the examples below, the heads are emboldened while the modifiers are not.  Choose (no modifier) Would have died  Come (no modifier) Was being beaten  Am writing Would have been done.  Were sleeping Decides to marry  Have eaten Wants to go  Am going to attend  Has been done Grammatical Functions of the Verb Phrase 1. The verb phrase functions as the verb phrase head Eg- Read, Returned, have borrowed, Will be painted, Ran quickly, Rather quietly snorted, Want to eat some strawberries, Would rather need to shower, Listen to the music, Shall have been worried about the weather 2. Verb phrase as predicate. Verb phrase performs the function of predicate in a clause. A clause is defined as a grammatical structure that consists of a subject and predicate. Eg-My puppy drinks milk I am studying Linguistics The vase was broken by the cat. We have eaten all the pie. The students will finish their home work. She will have earned her degree in May. Those children have been being bad. 3. The verb phrase functions as modifier of noun phrase. Noun phrase modifiers are words and phrase that describes a noun or noun phrase. Eg-The woman reading the book just yelled at me. My dog is the puppy chewing on the rawhide. I saw the man sleeping on the bus. Do you have a book to read in the car? The food to eat is on the table The most recent news reported by the anchor made me sad. 4. The verb phrase functions as noun phrase complement. Noun phrase complement are words, phrases or clauses that completes the meaning of a noun or noun phrase. Eg-She has problems finding her shoes His trouble finishing his degree began years ago. I get anxiety meeting new people We had troubles buying fresh chives. Her anxiety going out in public makes life difficult. We have a problem finishing assignments on time. 5. The verb phrase functions as Adjectival phrase complements. Adjectival phrase complements are phrases or clauses that complete the meaning of an adjective phrase. Eg-You should be excited to study grammar My children are sad to see their grandparents leave. Your professor is curious to know why you dropped her class. The students are eager to learn about current events. His coworker is frightened to ask for a promotion. I am irrationally afraid to fly. 6. The verb phrase functions as verb phrase complement. The verb phrase complement are phrases that complete the meaning of the verb phrase. Verb phrases in the form of infinitive and base forms can function as verb phrase complements. Eg-The students have to pass the test (infinitive). She intends to attend the ceremony (infinitive). My neighbors happen to own a hot air balloon. (infinitive) Grandpa can come start the fire for the barbecue. (base form) He helps manages the student workers (base form). Would you come wash the dishes? (base form) 7. The verb phrase functions as adjunct adverbial. Verb phrases in the form of infinitive and present participles perform the function of adjunct Adverbial. Adjunct adverbial are words, phrases or clause that modify an entire clause by providing additional information about time, place, manner, condition, purpose, result, reason and concession.  Eg-Dancing, Maggie broke her ankle. (present participle) Sam found a lost wallet walking to the store. (present participle) Running on the ice, the child slipped and fell. (present participle) To bake cookies, begin with butter, sugar and flour. (infinitive) She opened the window to let in some fresh air. (infinitive) Fill your tank with gas to keep your engine running better. (infinitive) 8. Verb phrase functions as disjunct adverbial. Disjunct adverbials are words and phrases that provide additional information to frame an entire clause which denotes the attitude of the speaker towards or judgement of the proposition such as truthfulness or manner of speaking. Verb phrases in form of infinitive can function as disjunct adverbial. Eg-To be fair, you cooking is terrible. To be frank, the woman was at fault. To be clear, determiners are not adjectives. To be candid, the mushroom soup was disgusting. To be perfectly honest, I wanted a different colored sliding on the house. 9. The verb phrases functions as conjunct adverbials. Conjunct adverbials are words and phrases that express textual relationships and serves to link clauses. Verb phrases in form of infinitive can function as conjunct adverbials. Eg-To begin, peel the potatoes. To start, read the instructions. To begin with, the painters moved the furniture out. To sum up, postposition and prepositions are both adpositions. To summarize, a vice president cannot override the election results. 10. The verb phrase functions as the verb phrase head Eg- Read, Returned, have borrowed, Will be painted, Ran quickly, Rather quietly snorted, Want to eat some strawberries, Would rather need to shower, Listen to the music, Shall have been worried about the weather 11. Verb phrase as predicate. Verb phrase performs the function of predicate in a clause. A clause is defined as a grammatical structure that consists of a subject and a predicate. Eg-My puppy drinks milk I am studying Linguistics The vase was broken by the cat. We have eaten all the pie. The students will finish their home work. She will have earned her degree in May. Those children have been being bad. 12. The verb phrase functions as modifier of noun phrase. Noun phrase modifiers are words and phrase that describes a noun or noun phrase. Eg-The woman reading the book just yelled at me. My dog is the puppy chewing on the rawhide. I saw the man sleeping on the bus. Do you have a book to read in the car? The food to eat is on the table The most recent news reported by the anchor made me sad. 13. The verb phrase functions as noun phrase complement. Noun phrase complement are words, phrases or clauses that completes the meaning of a noun or noun phrases. Eg-She has problems finding her shoes His trouble finishing his degree began years ago. I get anxiety meeting new people We had troubles buying fresh chives. Her anxiety going out in public makes life difficult. We have a problem finishing assignments on time. 14. The verb phrase functions as Adjectival phrase complements. Adjectival phrase complements are phrases and clauses that completes the meaning of an adjective phrase. Eg-You should be excited to study grammar My children are sad to see their grandparents leave. Your professor is curious to know why you dropped her class. The students are eager to learn about current events. His coworker is frightened to ask for a promotion. I am irrationally afraid to fly. 15. The verb phrase functions as verb phrase complement. The verb phrase complement are phrases that complete the meaning of the verb phrase. Verb phrases in the form of infinitive and base forms can function as verb phrase complements. Eg-The students have to pass the test (infinitive). She intends to attend the ceremony (infinitive). My neighbors happen to own a hot air balloon. (infinitive) Grandpa can come start the fire for the barbecue. (base form) He helps manages the student workers (base form).  Would you come wash the dishes? (base form) 16. The verb phrase functions as adjunct adverbial. Verb phrases in the form of infinitive and present participles perform the function of adjunct Adverbial. Adjunct adverbial are words, phrases and clause that modify an entire clause by providing additional information about time, place, manner, condition, purpose, result, reason and concession. Eg-Dancing, Maggie broke her ankle. (present participle) Sam found a lost wallet walking to the store. (present participle) Running on the ice, the child slipped and fell. (present participle) To bake cookies, begin with butter, sugar and flour. (infinitive) She opened the window to let in some fresh air. (infinitive) Fill your tank with gas to keep your engine running better. (infinitive) 17. Verb phrase functions as disjunct adverbial. Disjunct adverbials are words and phrases that provide additional information to frame an entire clause which denotes the attitude of the speaker towards or judgement of the proposition such as truthfulness or manner of speaking. Verb phrases in form of infinitive can function as disjunct adverbial. Eg-To be fair, you cooking is terrible. To be frank, the woman was at fault. To be clear, determiners are not adjectives. To be candid, the mushroom soup was disgusting. To be perfectly honest, I wanted a different colored sliding on the house. 18. The verb phrases functions as conjunct adverbials. Conjunct adverbials are words and phrases that express textual relationships and serves to link clauses. Verb phrases in form of infinitive can function as conjunct adverbials. Eg-To begin, peel the potatoes. To start, read the instructions. To begin with, the painters moved the furniture out. To sum up, postposition and prepositions are both adpositions. To summarize, a vice president cannot override the election results. 19. The verb phrase functions as the verb phrase head Eg- Read, Returned, have borrowed, Will be painted, Ran quickly, Rather quietly snorted, Want to eat some strawberries, Would rather need to shower,  Listen to the music, Shall have been worried about the weather 20. Verb phrase as predicate. Verb phrase performs the function of predicate in a clause. A clause is defined as a grammatical structure that consists of a subject and a predicate. Eg-My puppy drinks milk I am studying Linguistics The vase was broken by the cat. We have eaten all the pie. The students will finish their home work. She will have earned her degree in May. Those children have been being bad. 21. The verb phrase functions as modifier of noun phrase. Noun phrase modifiers are words and phrase that describes a noun or noun phrase. Eg-The woman reading the book just yelled at me. My dog is the puppy chewing on the rawhide. I saw the man sleeping on the bus. Do you have a book to read in the car? The food to eat is on the table The most recent news reported by the anchor made me sad. 22. The verb phrase functions as noun phrase complement. Noun phrase complement are words, phrases or clauses that completes the meaning of a noun or noun phrases. Eg-She has problems finding her shoes His trouble finishing his degree began years ago. I get anxiety meeting new people We had troubles buying fresh chives. Her anxiety going out in public makes life difficult. We have a problem finishing assignments on time. 23. The verb phrase functions as Adjectival phrase complements. Adjectival phrase complements are phrases and clauses that completes the meaning of an adjective phrase. Eg-You should be excited to study grammar My children are sad to see their grandparents leave. Your professor is curious to know why you dropped her class. The students are eager to learn about current events. His coworker is frightened to ask for a promotion. I am irrationally afraid to fly. 24. The verb phrase functions as verb phrase complement. The verb phrase complement are phrases that complete the meaning of the verb phrase. Verb phrases in the form of infinitive and base forms can function as verb phrase complements. Eg-The students have to pass the test (infinitive). She intends to attend the ceremony (infinitive). My neighbors happen to own a hot air balloon. (infinitive) Grandpa can come start the fire for the barbecue. (base form) He helps manages the student workers (base form). Would you come wash the dishes? (base form) 25. The verb phrase functions as adjunct adverbial. Verb phrases in the form of infinitive and present participles perform the function of adjunct Adverbial. Adjunct adverbial are words, phrases and clause that modify an entire clause by providing additional information about time, place, manner, condition, purpose, result, reason and concession. Eg-Dancing, Maggie broke her ankle. (present participle) Sam found a lost wallet walking to the store. (present participle) Running on the ice, the child slipped and fell. (present participle) To bake cookies, begin with butter, sugar and flour. (infinitive) She opened the window to let in some fresh air. (infinitive) Fill your tank with gas to keep your engine running better. (infinitive) 26. Verb phrase functions as disjunct adverbial. Disjunct adverbials are words and phrases that provide additional information to frame an entire clause which denotes the attitude of the speaker towards or judgement of the proposition such as truthfulness or manner of speaking. Verb phrases in form of infinitive can function as disjunct adverbial. Eg-To be fair, you cooking is terrible. To be frank, the woman was at fault. To be clear, determiners are not adjectives. To be candid, the mushroom soup was disgusting. To be perfectly honest, I wanted a different colored sliding on the house. 27. The verb phrases functions as conjunct adverbials. Conjunct adverbials are words and phrases that express textual relationships and serves to link clauses. Verb phrases in form of infinitive can function as conjunct adverbials. Eg-To begin, peel the potatoes. To start, read the instructions. To begin with, the painters moved the furniture out. To sum up, postposition and prepositions are both adpositions. To summarize, a vice president cannot override the election results.  Prepositional Phrase A prepositional phrase is a phrase that is has a preposition as its head word. It is often made up of a preposition, a noun, a pronoun and a noun phrase which is its object. Eg-In the room, at the door, behind the table, in front of the house, before the event, etc Grammatical functions of the Prepositional Phrase. 1. The prep phrase functions as post modifier of a noun/noun phrase. Eg-the book on the table is the one I want to read. Here, ‘on the table’ is the prepositional phrase post modifying the noun phrase, ‘the book’. Eg-The bag beside you is mine. Here, ‘beside you’ is the prepositional phrase post modifying the noun, ‘the bag’. 2. The prepositional phrase functions as a modifier of a verb phrase in a sentence. When a prepositional phrase modifies a verb in a sentence, it provides informations such as; when, where, how, etc. Eg- it annoys me when people sleep during prayers. Here, ‘during prayers’ is a prepositional phrase modifying the verb, ‘sleep’. Eg-I kept it under the bed. Here, ‘under the bed’ is a prepositional phrase modifying the verb, ‘kept’. Unstressed Vowel Sounds The eglish alphabet is divided ito two mai types of souds; the vowels souds ad the cosoat souds. Cosoats are differet from vowels I the way they are produced ie the togue touches the roof of the mouth I the production of cosoats while I the production of the vowels, the togoe does ot touch the roof of the mouth. The eglish vowel souds are; a, e, I, o, u, The vowel souds are further subdivided ito long ad short vowel souds ad it is the short vowel sounds that are considered as the weak vowels souds. They are referred to as, short or weak vowels ecause they are usually silent I the syllables or in the words that they are found ad as such are seen to e ustressed ad they are the most commmoly used vowels souds I eglish. Example, I the word lirary, we ofte pronouce it as ‘lai ree’ the ‘a’ soud I this word is silet hece, ‘a’ I ‘lirary is ustressed. Types of vowels 1. The log vowels souds (stressed vowels) eg a: i: o: u: 2. The short vowel souds (ustressed vowels) eg e, I, o, u, /\, x, schwa, The ustressed vowel souds are the ‘uh’ soud we make whe we pronounce certain eglish words. This soud is refered to in linguistics as the schwa soud which is a short eutral soud. This soud is represented by the symol /schwa/. example I the word, ‘about’, the ‘a’ soud is pronounced as /schwa/ ad it is a ustressed vowel soud as it souds weak, short ad’ silet I contrast to the rest vowels/syllable ‘out’ I the same word. The ustressed vowel souds are all regarded as the /schwa/ irrespective of the particular short vowel soud used I the word. Example The ‘a’ i asthma /asm(schwa)/ The ‘er’ I water /wo:t(schwa)/ The ‘ar’ I liar /lai.(schwa)/ The ‘or I pastor /pxst(schwa)/ Difference between stressed and unstressed vowel sounds 1. The stressed vowels sounds ted to e spoke with ad have more energy or power. This stressed energy usually comes from the diaphragm whereas unstressed vowel sounds are weaker ad less energetic. 2. Stressed vowels sounds are longer, louder, ad higher I pitch than the unstressed vowel sounds. 3. Stressed vowels sounds are stronger than the unstressed vowels. Other examples of unstressed vowel sounds are; Abandoned easily literature Abominable explanatory lottery Animal extra marvelous boundary factory memorable business familiar messenger carpet family miserable catholic formal original centre freedom poisonous company frightening predict compromise general prepare conference generally primary deafeig generous prosperous definite heave reference definitely hospital secretary description illiterate separate despirate interest smuggler dictionary interested stationary difference library voluntary  Consonant cluster Consonant clusters are group of consonants without vowel in between them. The longest possible consonant cluster in English is the three consonants at the beginning of certain words like; splash, strong, sprig, etc ad the four consonants at the end of words like; twelfth, etc Consonant cluster mainly occurs at the beginning of a word or at the end of a word. Examples of consonants clusters with two consonants at the beginning of a word K as in lack St as in start Cl as in close Tr as in transit Cr as in crush Ph as in photo G as in foreign Wr as in wrong Examples of consonant clusters with two consonants at the end Th as in cloth Sh as in wash, rush, Gh as in weigh, tough, cough, St as in trust Examples of consonant clusters with three consonants at the beginning of a word Str as in strong, stranded, string, Chr as in chronic Psy as in psychology Phy as in physics, physician Scr as in scrunch Examples of consonant clusters with three consonants at the end Mps as shrimps Pts as in scripts Str as in strengths Aks as in asks Xty as in sixty Examples of consonant clusters with four words at the beginning Examples of consonant clusters with four words at the end Mpts as in prompts Xths as in sixths Lpts as in sculpts Mpts as in attempts etc argumentative essay argument is the process of organizing and stating objectively and dispassionately the facts ad reasons surrounding a particular stand or point of view. I may cases, the argumentative essay attempts to influence and persuade the reader/listener to the author’s opinions o a particular issue ad eve to effect a change in the behavior of others. For an argument to be effective, it must be relatively objective, well organized ad logical. Similar principles apply I formal argument as in the different forms of daily arguments between classmates, brothers, sisters or market people. They each require that u list your reasons why or why not. Marshalling out your reasons ahead of time helps clarify your thinking, lends force and conviction to what you have to say as well as provide unity and coherence to your thought. Reasons for argument 1. One may have a need to justify one’s opinions ad ideas o a particular issue or topic 2. A individual may hope to effect certain changes I a situation that one feels very strongly about. Eg electing a particular candidate, exposing injustice I a system, changing certain rules in an institution etc. 3. Most of the positive changes we see around us are as a result of someone’s argument for such changes to e made. Strategies for effective argument 1. Effective argument must e grounded o facts, verifiable ad accurate statistics as arguments is weighed by reasons and not by verbosity. 2. Effective argument should e presented I a well organized form (introduction with a thesis, paragraphs that develops topic sentences of the thesis ad a conclusion that summarizes the argument ad restates the thesis). 3. An effective argument must e presented objectively without passion or vehemence. 4. An argument must e based on sound logic ie it must avoid any emotive language, personal attacks, over simplification and generalizations. Its conclusion must be valid and true. 5. A effective argument must anticipates the possible points of the opposition I order to conquer them y over whelming them with greater facts ad figures. How to Organize an Argumentative Essay 1. Arrange your reasons in either a chronological or a logical order(according to relative importance, usually with the strongest point at the end for climatic effect). 2. Your introductory paragraph should include background information on the topic, a definition of ay important term. It must also include a thesis statement, stating clearly what you intend to argue, followed by a summary of the major points you are going to advance in the order in which they will be treated. 3. In the body of the essay, each major point should e developed I one or a number of paragraph to the ext 4. The conclusion should contain a summary of your position as well as final rounding off argument. At this point, The thesis statement should be restated in new terms. Suggested topics for argumentative essay 1. Young me are the most reckless drivers 2. The Nigeria oil boom is not blessing 3. All men are equal 4. Teachers are more essential in a community than doctors 5. Students should take active part in politics. Other types of porous  Indefinite porous  Reflexive porous  Interrogative porous  Personal porous  Possessive pronouns 1. The indefinite pronouns are used to refer generally to a person or thing that doesn’t need to be specifically identified or has already been mentioned. Instances of indefinite pronouns are; anybody, anything, anyone, everyone, everybody, everything, nobody nothing, somebody, someone, something, etc. These porous when used, must take a singular ver. Example; everyone is going to the church Everything makes me laugh nobody sings at night here 2. Reflexive pronouns: just as the name implies, it is a pronouns that refers to another noun or pronoun within the same sentence. In English language, reflexive pronouns will always end in ‘self’ when it is referring to a singular noun or pronoun and ‘selves’ when it makes reference to a plural noun or pronoun. Examples of reflexive porous are; singular plural Himself themselves Herself their selves Itself ourselves Oneself Yourself Myself 3. Interrogative porous: these are porous used when asking questions Example; who, whom, what, which, whoever, whatever, whomever, whosoever, whichever, etc. 4. Personal pronoun: it is a pronoun that introduces a relative clause ad refers to a antecedent. Some words that are used in interrogation can as well be used in relative pronouns. Examples; who, whom, what, which etc. others are; whoever, whomever, whatever, that etc. personal pronoun: it is a pronoun that makes reference to gender, case, etc example of personal porous are; The first person pronoun eg I, we The second person pronoun eg you The third person pronoun eg he, she, they Possessive porous: these are porous used to indicate ownership. The English possessive porous are; mie, yours, ours, theirs, his, hers, etc. Modifiers Modifiers in English language are words, phrases or clause that gives additional information about the nouns, pronouns or verbs which they modify. it could either be pre or post modification. It is referred to as pre modification when the modifying word occurs before the noun, pronoun or clause it modifies, and it is known as post modification when the modifying word occurs after the noun, pronoun, phrase or clause it modifies. Types of modifiers There are two main types of modifiers 1. The adjectives ad 2. The adverbs Adjectives as modifiers: adjectives are words that modifies nouns or pronouns by giving more informations such as;  What the ou or pronoun looks like eg ‘the white hoarse’  How may there are eg ‘the three boys’  The particular thing being talked about eg ‘the last house’ Adverbs as modifiers: an adverb is a word that modifies verbs, adjectives or adverbs. Adverbs modifies by providing additional informations like; ‘how, when, where, why, degree etc. adverbs are often formed y adding the suffix ‘ly’ to a adjectives. Examples; Adjectives adverbs Quick quickly Soft softly Silent silently Strong strongly Angry angrily Bitter bitterly Types of adverbs i. adverb of manner: this modifies or changes a sentence to tell us how something happened such as whether it was done quickly, slowly etc Example; he walked home slowly she smiled sheepishly ii. adverb of degree: adverb of degree helps to express how much or to what extent something is or was doe. Example; I am extremely hungry They dressed elegantly to church You smell well She spoke softly during the meeting Summary Summary is a concise overview of a text’s main points in your own words. A summary is always much shorter than the original text. Steps in Writing Summary 1. reread the original text 2. make a list of key points 3. note supporting evidence 4. explain the key concept of the text 5. follow up with supporting evidence 6. write a thesis statement  Creative writing Creative writing ivolves writing a story to illustrate a ‘saying’. Its intent is to test students’ ability to freely utilize the vocabularies, idioms ad figures of speech that they have learnt. Factors to Consider in Creative Writing 1. content: the story must be an account of events that illustrate the saying that you have been given. Stories in creative writing may be real or imagery however, elements of credibility and believability must be present. 2. Organization: the story must have an interesting plot that is arranged in sequential order. A well organized story must have a beginning, climax and conclusion and the paragraphs should be fully developed and the ideas effectively liked. 3. Expression: the vocabularies should reflect the appropriate atmosphere of the situation that you are writing. Topics for Creative Writing 1. Cut your coat according to your size 2. Where there is will, there is a way 3. You reap what you sow 4. A patient dog eats the fatest bone 5. No condition is permanent 6. He who laughs last, laughs best 7. I wish I had known etc Comparison between the long and short vowel sounds in pairs There are five log vowel sounds I English language. They are the; a: 3: i: o: u:. these long vowels are in a way different from the short vowels treated previously. This difference arises from the duration of time spent in the production of the vowel sounds. The long vowel sounds take longer time both in length and quality in its production unlike the short vowel sounds. in this topic, we shall be comparing the long and the short vowel sounds in pairs beginning with the /e/ short vowel and the /3:/ long vowel. Comparison between the /e/ short vowel ad the /3:/ log vowel sounds 1. The /e/ short vowel sound: this is a front vowel. I its production, the lips are slightly spread. Examples; et /et/ Me /me/ Yes /jes/  2. The /3:/ log vowel sound: it is a central vowel sound. I its production, the lips position is neutral( ie not noticeably rounded or spread). Comparison between the /i/ short vowel and the /i:/ log vowel sounds 3. The /i/ short vowel sound: this vowel sound I its production, it is more open and nearer to the neutral position. Also, the lips are slightly spread. Examples; it /it/ Pi /pi/ Ti /ti/ Fish /fis/ 4. The /i:/ log vowel sound: this vowel I its production is more close ad front than the short vowel /i/. also, the lips are slightly rounded. Example; eat /i:t/ Mean /mi:/ Peace /pi:s/ Bead /i:d/ diphthong diphthong is a sound that begins with the sound of one vowel sound and end with the sound of another vowel sound I the same syllable. That is, it is a movement or glide from one vowel sound to another. There are about eight (8) diphthongs in English language. They are; 1. /I schwa/ as in peer /pischwa/, ear /ischwa/, fierce /fischwa/, eared /ischwa/ 2. /eschwa/ as in scarce /skeschwas/, airs /eschwa/, 3. /uschwa/ as in poor /puschwa/, tour /tuschwa/ 4. /ei/ as in paid /peid/, face /feis/, pai /pei/, 5. /ai/ as in eye /ai/, tide /taid/, ice /ais/,tme /taim/ 6. /oi/ as in void /void/, voice /vois/, soil /soil/ 7. /schwau/ as in laod /lschwau/, hme /hschwau/, vote /vschwau/, most /mshcwaust/ 8. /au/ as in gow /gau/, loud /laud/, house /haus/ Word Substitution Word substitution is a technique for condensing a long sentence into a single word thus making the writing clearer and shorter while also retaining the meaning. Example; Sentence word substitution 1. A person who is 100 yrs centenarian 2. A government of the people by the people and for the people democracy 3. A grass eating animal herbivorous 4. A handwriting that is difficult to read illegible 5. A person who knows everything omniscient 6. A person who knows nothing ignoramus 7. Anything that can be eaten edible How to substitute words I English 1. Understand the meanings of all the words or a complete sentence. 2. Try to find similar words that show the same meaning as the sentence. 3. Learn the words used instead of the sentence and remember the words for future use. 4. Enhance your vocabulary (synonyms ad antonyms) Conotative and denotative meanings 1. Connotation refers to a wide array of positive d negative associations that most words naturally carry with them. Examples of some words and their connotative meanings are; word connotative meaning a) blue depressed, sadness b) sake craftiness, deceitful, coy, trickster c) hot very attractive, beautiful d) cheap some who hates spending money, miser sentences connotative meaning a) she has a heart of gold kid, understanding b) you’re such a angel soft heart person, loving etc c) this place feels like home warm, receptive, 2. denotation is the precise literal, definition of a word that might e found I the dictionary. Examples of the following words cold denote or simply mean the following in the dictionary.  Word denotative meaning a) blue color as in, the sea b) sake a reptile c) hot having or giving off a high Temperature d) cheap a low price Prefixes A prefix is an affix which is placed before the stem, root or base word. Example in the word, ’interactive’ is made up of prefix, inter + active, which is the base word. Prefixes are also called pre formative because it alters the form of the word to which it is affixed. Prefixes can also change the meaning of the base word to which it is affixed. Example, in the word ‘happy’ when added the prefix ’un’, becomes ’unhappy’ which is the opposite of the meaning of the base word. Most of today’s words contain prefixes that are of Greek and Latin origin hence understanding the meanings of most commonly used prefixes can help to deduce the meanings of new words. The following are the most commonly used prefixes in English. A, un, in, im, re, de, ex, dis, non, pre, mis, inter, over, poly, etc. These are the meanings of the prefixes listed below Prefixes meaning example 1 a without, lack of amoral In ‘’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’ indiscipline, insecurity, inaccurate, indiscriminate Un ‘’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’ unlock, uneducated, unwise, unlucky, unavailable 2 Re repeat reenroll, redo, replace, reevaluate, restore 3 de reduce, remove deactivate, destabilize, degenerate, 4 ex former, previously exconvict, exterminate, 5 mis bad or wrongly misuse, misrule, misplace, 6 dis lack of dishonest, disability, disobedience, 7 non lacking nonsense, nonexistent 8 pre before prefix, premature, 9 inter between interdependence, interrelation, interaction 10 over to an excessive degree oversee, overtake, override, 11 poly plenty in number polygamy, polytechnic, polygon