ADUHENE SOWK 112 COMBINED SLIDES PDF

1 ▪ Final grades ▪ Students without grades (IA and final grades) ▪ Moving forward 2 ▪ Course Outline ▪ Expectations ▪ Assessments and Examinations ▪ Any other concerns 3 Week 1 Understanding Social Development Lesson Objectives Today’s session seeks to aid learning about: Social Development as an approach to promoting social welfare Some historical developments surrounding social development Defining ‘Social Development’. 5 Expected Learning Outcomes By the end of the class, students should be able to: Explain the concept of ‘Social Development’ Discuss some historical developments regarding social development Examine various considerations that go into ‘social development’ as an approach to promoting social welfare. 6 The Social Development Approach The Social Development approach Fundamentally, social development as an approach to promoting social welfare, transcends the residualist- institutionalist debate by linking social welfare directly to economic development policies and programmes. The Social Development approach A key assumption underpinning the social development approach is that economic development does not automatically translate into social improvements; and that the benefits of growth do not reach all people equally. For this reason social investments in human development are needed to address these inequalities and distortions in development outcomes. Achieving human well-being is thus the goal of social development. 9 The Social Development approach Proponents of social development argue that: Investments in social programmes that enhance people’s welfare through their participation in the productive economy are the most effective ways of enhancing people’s welfare and achieving economic development. 10 Brief Historical Development Historical Development The emergence of social development as an approach for promoting social welfare, and its direct linkage with economic development, may be traced to the efforts of British colonial administrators in Africa in the 1940s and 1950s to identify forms of social welfare which would be compatible with the emphasis being placed on economic development at the time. (Midgley, 1995) 12 Historical Development According to Patel (2005), the social development approach was first introduced by the United Nations to address human development needs in the world’s poorest nations following independence from colonial rule in the 1960s. In the late 20th century, the social development approach re- emerged as a response to unequal and distorted development and was endorsed by the United Nations World Summit for Social Development in 1995 (United Nations, 1996). 13 Historical Development The term ‘social development’ gained popularity in social work circles in the early 1980s, largely through the efforts of a small group of social workers in the United States who had been involved with the international agencies, or who had worked in developing countries. 14 Defining Social Development Defining Social Development Explain the two words: ‘Social’ and ‘Development’ 16 Defining Social Development The term ‘social development’ has been in regular use for more than half a century, but in recent times, it is used to connote different things. Across different academic fields, the term is used to imply different phenomena. Defining Social Development cont’d For example, sociologists have used the term to describe a process of ‘guided’ change that improves society (e.g. primitive to modern). Psychologists employ the term to refer to aspects of child development. In social policy, it may be used to refer to social improvements brought about by government initiatives. Some social workers link the term to community-based projects. (Midgley, 2014) Defining Social Development cont’d According to Davis (2004, p. iv) the term social development has two meanings. It can refer to: improvement in the welfare and quality of life of individuals; or changes in societies—in their norms and institutions—that make development more equitable and inclusive for all members of a society. In essence, these two meanings together provide a vital conceptualization of social development. 19 Defining Social Development cont’d Midgley (1995) A process of planned social change designed to promote the well-being of the population as a whole in conjunction with a dynamic process of economic development (p. 25). 20 Defining Social Development cont’d For the purposes of this course, Midgley’s (2014) definition will be adopted. A process of planned social change designed to promote the well-being of the population as a whole within the context of a dynamic multifaceted development process (p. 13). Defining Social Development: Key aspects of Midgley’s (2014) definition 1. Social development invokes the notion of process. Social development may be contrasted with static approaches which involve the immediate transfer of resources without requesting a longer-term commitment to changing pre-existing conditions. For example, government welfare services often provide services to passive recipients without addressing the underlying problems. The immediate provision of aid to those in need reflects the charity approach (philanthropy), without evoking a longer-term sense of process that produces progressive social change. Defining Social Development: Key aspects of Midgley’s (2014) definition cont’d 2. The process of social change in social development is progressive The progressive nature can be viewed conceptually as follows: a. the pre-existing social condition which social development seeks to change; b. The process of change itself; c. The end state in which goals are realized. In practical terms, social development is concerned about the projects, programmes, policies and plans that promote progressive change; and is more ‘gradualist’. Defining Social Development: Key aspects of Midgley’s (2014) definition cont’d 3. The social development process forms a part of a larger multifaceted process comprised of economic, social, political, environmental, gender, and other dimensions which are integrated and harmonised. This aspects connotes the inter-linkages between the various dimensions of development that seek to promote social well- being. This is particularly pertinent to social development practice where economic, social and other interventions are linked and social investments are utilized to promote social-wellbeing. Defining Social Development: Key aspects of Midgley’s (2014) definition cont’d 4. The process of social development is interventionist. The proponents of social development believe that deliberate efforts are needed to enhance people’s wellbeing, and that humans are able to influence their own future in the context of wider social, economic and political changes. Agents who promote change through social development practice is emphasized, such as: individuals, households, grassroots associations, NGOs, faith-based organisations, communities, commercial providers, and government ministries. Social development interventions are also implemented on different levels, including the household, community, regional and national levels. Defining Social Development: Key aspects of Midgley’s (2014) definition cont’d 5. The social development process is productivist. Because they are based on social investments, they generate rates of return to the individuals, households and communities that benefit from these investments as well as to the wider society. Defining Social Development: Key aspects of Midgley’s (2014) definition cont’d 6. Social development is universalistic in scope. It is concerned with the population as a whole rather than with impoverished, vulnerable and needy groups of people; and it also seeks to promote people’s participation in development. It is noteworthy that historically, social development has directed resources towards groups that derive little benefit from economic growth, such as the rural poor, ethnic minorities, people with disabilities, landless labourers, and indigenous people. It has also been concerned with women and gender issues. Nevertheless, social development’s concern for these groups finds expression within the wider context of comprehensive policies that benefit the population as a whole and ensures their participation in development. This approach, which is known as ‘positive discrimination’ or ‘targeting within universalism’ (Skocpol, 1995), directs resources and services to needy groups within the framework of universal policies and programmes. Defining Social Development: Key aspects of Midgley’s (2014) definition cont’d 7. Social development is committed to the goal of promoting people’s social well-being. The notion of social well-being requires that social needs be met, problems be managed, and opportunities maximized for families, communities, and societies. 1. A process 2. Progressive Summary of 3. Multifaceted Key aspects of Midgley’s 4. Interventionist (2014) definition 5. Productivist 6. Universalistic in scope 7. Committed to the goal of promoting people’s social well-being QUESTIONS & COMMENTS Why Social Development? Distorted Development The phenomenon of persistent poverty in the midst of affluence is one of the most problematic issues in development today. In many parts of the world, economic development has not been accompanied by an attendant degree of social progress and this phenomenon is often referred to as distorted development (Midgley, 1995). Fundamentally, social development proponents assert that the pressing social problems arising from distorted development require concerted action on the part of government, communities, and individuals, and that global social needs can only be addressed in a meaningful way through pragmatic policies and programmes that directly address welfare issues. 32 Distorted Development Distorted development exists in societies where economic development has not been accompanied by appreciable level of social improvements. The problem is that there is a failure to harmonize economic and social development objectives. There is ample evidence to suggest that while there is ongoing economic development in various countries across the world, there is also grinding poverty characterizing the lives of millions of people in those same countries. 33 Distorted Development Taking the United States of America and Britain as examples, even though both enjoy high standards of living, significant sections of the population in these countries have failed to benefit from economic growth. There are decayed inner cities, and deprived rural communities characterized not just by poor physical elements, but also devastation in social terms reflected in poverty, unemployment, crime, family disintegration, violence, drug use, etc. 34 Distorted Development Distorted development is manifested not only in poverty, deprivation, low health status and inadequate housing, but also in: The exclusion of sections of the population from full participation in development. Oppression of women and the perpetuation of conditions of deprivation of many women around the world Children working in exploitative and hazardous conditions Environmental degradation Profligate military expenditures (in spite of heavy indebtedness). 35 Recap of the Lesson Historically, social development as an approach for promoting social welfare, may be traced to the efforts of British colonial administrators in Africa in the 1940s and 1950s. The term was however popularized by the United Nations. Social development links social welfare directly to economic development policies and programmes. It can be defined as a process of planned social change designed to promote the well-being of the population as a whole within the context of a dynamic multifaceted development process (p. 13). Social development seeks to address the problem of distorted development. QUESTIONS & COMMENTS The Social Work Profession and Social Development Social Work and Social development Personnel who work in social development require multidisciplinary training in order to have a greater understanding and appreciation of: the varied and interrelated spheres of social life and the functional issues and problems associated with those spheres of life. (Association for Social Work Education in Africa, ASWEA,1986) Social Work and Social development Social development personnel must therefore understand social science concepts and have the capability of translating them into development indicators. Among other areas, these include: social science research methods knowledge of the society and the economy extension and community organization methods social theory, policy and planning management and administration How does the social work profession fit into all this? Social Work and Social development The significance of the social work profession in social development lies in the fact that the practice of social work is concerned with social functioning – “the social interaction between the person and the environment” (Specht & Vickery, 1977, p. 18). The social worker focuses on the capacity of individuals and groups for effective interaction, and initiates steps (i) to increase the effectiveness of individuals’ interaction with each other, individually, and in groups; and (ii) to mobilize appropriate social resources by coordinating, changing and creating them anew. Social Work and Social development Among the reasons why social work occupies a central position in social development is the fact that the profession is built on a practical application and the utilization of social science knowledge. With respect to social development, social workers are trained to understand the social structure as the basis for any developing process- a first and necessary step towards mobilizing individuals and groups. Social Work and Social development It must be emphasized that social work is associated with the expanding institution of social welfare which undertakes a host of functions for societies. Social work practice in Africa has changed and continues to change, with the focus now on the whole environment and its interrelated functional parts-individual, family, community, public and private agencies. This puts it right in the heart of social development. Social Work and Social development Social workers deal with people directly with respect to their social functioning and with institutional and structural change in society. Pincus and Minahan (in Specht and Vickery,1977) describe the functions and purpose of social work as that of enhancing the problem-solving and coping skills and capacities of people; linking people with resources, services and opportunities and contributing to the development and the improvement of social policy. This is a direct concern with the interaction between people and their social environment which affects their ability to function effectively. Social Work and Social development A social worker, therefore, is equipped with knowledge about particular social problems (e.g. poverty); organized social systems (e.g. Hospitals), theoretical orientations (e.g. social action), client groups (e.g. delinquents), and organizing tasks and processes (administration and management), evaluation and research. Social Work and Social development There is thus a clear focus by social workers on social development including: Rural and community development Social administration and management; Social policy, planning and analysis; Social and evaluative research; and Helping specific groups and individuals with problems that affect their effective functioning. Reference Osei-Hwedie, K. (1995). A search for legitimate social development education and practice models for Africa. New York: The Edwin Mellen Press. Week 4 Indices of Social development 22nd June, 2021 RECAP OF PREVIOUS WEEK’S LESSON Lesson Objectives Today’s lesson seeks to aid learning about the indices for social development developed by the International Institute for Social Studies (ISS) in the Hague. Expected Learning Outcomes By the end of the class, students should be able to: – explain the six indices of social development, including the various variables that form the respective indices. Social development is about putting people at the Introduction: centre of development, and since the 1990s there Indices of has been growing recognition that this is critical for broader development outcomes. Social The Indices of Social Development (ISD) is a Development project hosted by the International Institute of Social Studies (ISS) in the Hague. The indices have been derived from synthesizing about 200 indicators into a usable set of measures to track how different societies perform along six dimensions of social development. Indices of Social Development The six indices are: 1. Civic activism 2. Clubs and associations 3. Intergroup Cohesion 4. Interpersonal Safety and Trust 5. Gender Equality 6. Inclusion of Minorities 1. Civic activism Indices of Social Development: Civic activism Civic activism refers to the social norms, organisations, and practices which facilitate greater citizen involvement in public policies and decisions. These include access to civic associations, participation in the media, and the means to participate in civic activities such as non-violent demonstration or petition. Civic activism is essential in ensuring that public institutions function in an accountable and transparent manner, with participation and representation for all. Civic activism cont’d The strength of civic activism is measured by using data on the extent of engagement in civic activities such as: – signing petitions or joining peaceful demonstrations; – studies of the organisation and effectiveness of civil society; – access to sources of media information,; – levels of civic awareness and information of political matters and concerns; – the extent to which civil society organisations are connected to broader, international networks of civic activity. ISD Data on Ghana on Civic Activism 1990 0.5046013 1995 0.4606446 2000 0.4386801 2005 0.5023045 2010 0.5144737 2015 0.5124202 2. Clubs and Associations Clubs and Associations This index is defined as membership in local voluntary associations. It focuses on the strength of ties between individuals and their communities, and recognizes that community ties are the first safety net of the poor. – Where these ties are strong, individuals are better able to weather the impact of sudden hardship, by relying on the support of their friends, neighbours, and locality. – Where these ties are weak, individuals are at greater risk of adversity in the event of poverty or natural disaster, and have fewer support networks to facilitate economic and social advancement. Clubs and associations cont’d Bonding social ties, such as those found within families and local communities, help individuals ‘get by’. They play a critical role in preventing poverty and social exclusion; – by ensuring that individuals who fall on hard times do not also ‘fall through the cracks’ - as well as securing individuals’ wellbeing through a system of social relations and a community of identity. Clubs and associations cont’d The strength of ties to neighbourhood and associational life is measured by taking data on: – levels of engagement in local community groups – time spent socialising in voluntary associations – attendance of community meetings – participation in development associations ISD data on Ghana Clubs and Associations 1990 Nil 1995 Nil 2000 0.7515792 2005 0.6155592 2010 0.5591654 2015 0.5094144 3. Intergroup Cohesion Intergroup Cohesion Intergroup cohesion refers to relations of cooperation and respect between identity groups in a society. Where this cooperation breaks down, there is the potential for: – conflicts such as ethnically or religiously motivated killing, targeted assassination and kidnapping, – acts of terror such as public bombings or shootings, or – riots involving grievous bodily harm to citizens Intergroup Cohesion cont’d Social cohesion and conflict operate below the level of formal state institutions and can involve a diverse range of actors such as: – organised criminal groups, international terrorist networks, and – ethnic or religious supremacist movements There can be a diverse range of targets as well, including judges, public intellectuals, and ordinary citizens. Intergroup Cohesion cont’d The intergroup cohesion index is formed using data on: – inter-group disparities; – perceptions of being discriminated against; and – feelings of distrust against members of other groups. In addition, data on the number of reported incidents of riots, terrorist acts, assassinations, and kidnappings; agency ratings on the likelihood of civil disorder, terrorism and social instability; and reported levels of engagement in violent riots, strikes, and confrontations are used. ISD Data on Ghana on Inter-Group Cohesion 1990 0.6540667 1995 0.6547443 2000 0.5647404 2005 0.6130466 2010 0.720553 2015 0.4220852 4. Interpersonal Safety and Trust Interpersonal Safety and Trust This index measures the level of trust and confidence between individuals who do not know each other personally; – specifically with regard to the likelihood of criminal violence and other forms of trust violation, and combines this with measures of rates of violence. Interpersonal Safety and Trust Cont’d Interpersonal norms of trust and security exist to the extent that individuals in a society feel they can rely on those whom they have not met before. – Where this is the case, the costs of social organization and collective action are reduced. – Where these norms do not exist or have been eroded over time, it becomes more difficult for individuals to form group associations, undertake an enterprise, and live safely and securely. Interpersonal Safety and Trust Cont’d Personal security and trust is measured by using data on – general social trust from a wide variety of surveys; – indicators of trustworthiness such as reported levels of crime victimization; – survey responses on feelings of safety and security in one’s neighbourhood; – data on the incidence of homicide; and – risk reports on the likelihood of physical attack, extortion, or robbery. ISD data on Ghana on IST 1990 Nil 1995 Nil 2000 Nil 2005 0.4095716 5. Gender Equality Gender Equality Gender equality refers to the extent to which women and men face the same opportunities and constraints within families, the workplace, and society at large. Where gender discrimination has been reduced, people are better able to fulfill their potential in life and make the most of their skills and capabilities. Gender Equality Cont’d Gender equality is multifaceted, and is sustained by both – social attitudes – for example, norms of fairness among employers, educators, and spouses – and – social outcomes – such as the presence of women in managerial positions, education, and legislation. Gender Equality Cont’d The level of gender equality is measured using a wide range of complementary indicators, which span outcome measures such as: – access to jobs, – educational placement, – a fair wage, and – input measures which track the existence of discriminatory norms within society (regarding a woman’s right to equal treatment in the workplace, in access to education, and in the family). Gender Equality Cont’d Because gender discrimination is multifaceted, attitudinal data also can form a useful proxy for the persistence of broader forms of discrimination, such as domestic violence. ISD Data on Ghana Gender Inclusion 1990 0.7228154 1995 0.7036593 2000 0.6650529 2005 0.6977308 2010 0.6843467 2015 0.4413155 6. Inclusion of Minorities Inclusion of Minorities This index measures levels of discrimination against vulnerable groups such as indigenous peoples, migrants, refugees, lower caste groups, or persons with disabilities. This measure focuses upon whether there is systemic bias among managers, administrators, and members of the community in the allocation of jobs, benefits, and other social and economic resources regarding particular social groups. Inclusion of Minorities Cont’d The level of inclusion of minorities is measured using indicators which are based on direct measurement of – social institutions and their outcomes, and – perception-based indicators, based on assessments by public opinion surveys, private agencies and non-governmental organizations, and proxy measures to measure the access to jobs and educational attainment. ISD data on Ghana on Social Inclusion 1990 Nil 1995 Nil 2000 Nil 2005 0.4897805 QUESTIONS & COMMENTS Recap of Lesson Indices of Social Development: 1. Civic activism 2. Clubs and associations 3. Intergroup Cohesion 4. Interpersonal Safety and Trust 5. Gender Equality 6. Inclusion of Minorities Reference Foa, R., de Haan, A., van Staveren, I., Webbink, E., & Hardenbol, H. (2015). Indices of Social Development Handbook. The Hague: International Institute of Social Studies. Available at http://www.indsocdev.org/ SOWK 112: STRATEGIES FOR SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT The Role of Human Capital in Social Development (Source: Midgley, J. (2014). Social Development: Theory and practice. London: Sage Publications) Lesson Objectives Today’s lesson seeks to aid students’ learning about human capital and the role it plays in social development. Expected Learning Outcomes At the end of the lesson, students should be able to: Explain human capital Discuss various types of human capital interventions Analyse the role of human capital in social development What is Human Capital? Introduction Human capital has long been recognized as a critical component in social development, thereby leading to a host of interventions to promote its acquisition. Human capital is usually associated with the acquisition of skills and knowledge through education (particularly formal education); but it also includes other human capabilities, such as nutritional and health status, creativity and leadership. Human capital is regarded as a productive resource that raises incomes and standards of living and, in the long run, contributes to economic growth. Introduction Since the end of the World War II, a lot of resources have been invested into formal education, day care and literacy programmes due to most governments’ recognition of the economic impact of human capital. A lot of international collaborations have contributed to improving human capital. For instance: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948; universal primary education and healthcare as a human right endorsed by development organizations; international meetings and gatherings such as the International Conference on Primary Health Care held in Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan, 1978; the World Conference on Education for All held in Thailand in 1990. Introduction Other important developments on the promotion of human capital have been: United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), which prioritized the importance of education, health and nutrition; the MDGs and currently the SDGs. Types of Human Capital Intervention Types of Human Capital Intervention Although human capital can be promoted in many different ways, the following focuses on 3 types of human capital intervention given priority in social development practice. Childcare and early childhood interventions Formal education: schools and universities Popular education, health and nutrition Types of Human Capital Intervention 1. Childcare and early childhood interventions Childcare and early childhood interventions Historically, mothers and other family members have been responsible for nurturing children. However, in recent times, this task has been augmented by the provision of childcare by a variety of organizations and individuals that operate childcare centers. Childcare or Daycare centers may be established and operated by NGOs, faith-based organizations, parent cooperatives, for-profit providers and statutory/government bodies. Childcare and early childhood interventions… Childcare centers play an essential role for most families since it provides decent substitute care whiles parents work. Most governments have introduced policies to regulate childcare which require that adequate health, safety, and other standards are met both by private providers, NGOs and statutory agencies. In Ghana for example, the Children’s Act (Act 560, 1998) mandates the Department of Social Welfare to register early childhood development centres and to regulate their operations. Childcare and early childhood interventions Childcare centers provide greater emphasis to inculcating social skills through organized play and basic instruction. Nutritious meals and health checks are also provided. Other early childhood interventions include: family leave policies cash benefits (in some cases) designed to encourage mothers (and sometimes fathers) to stay home and care for infants are paid. All these are designed to supplement family care and to promote human capital among young children. Any Questions or Comments? Types of Human Capital Intervention 2: Formal Education - Schools and Universities Formal Education: Schools and Universities It is widely accepted that the acquisition of knowledge through formal education remains a primary means of promoting human capital. The link between the acquisition of formal educational credentials and subsequent employment and career success is also widely appreciated. Formal education is basically organized at three levels: Primary schools; Secondary schools; & Colleges and universities. (Vocational education and childcare sometimes included). Formal Education: Schools and Universities Governments generally accept that formal education promotes social and economic development, and it is also highly valued by many families who exert pressure on governments to expand and increase its quality. In nearly all countries, schools and universities operate under government auspices, but non-profit and particularly faith-based providers are also active, and they often own the most prestigious schools and universities. Formal Education: Schools and Universities While formal education contributes greatly to human capital development, there are serious debates about the role of schools and universities in social development. One important issue is access to formal education. Although most governments regard education as a human right and are committed to achieving universal primary enrolment, there are significant variations in number of children enrolled at school in different countries, especially in developing countries. Formal Education: Schools and Universities For example, in the Global South, access to formal education is closely correlated with both income and gender. There are some cross-cultural norms that impede attendance, enrollment and completion of girls, children from poor families, street children etc. They are especially vulnerable to being taken out of school and required to work when family income is interrupted through adversities such as the illness or disability of adult family members. The disparities in access are also related to the quality of education. Thus, poorer children generally enroll at lower quality schools often with poorly paid, unqualified teachers, while children from wealthier families are usually educated at excellent schools. Formal Education: Schools and Universities Formal education, which has relied extensively on Western academic model, has been criticized on the ground that it is not suited to local needs and realities in non-Western societies. Schools are sometimes accused of promoting Western values and beliefs and undermining the traditional culture. Formal education also costs money, and to meet the goal of achieving universal schooling, a lot of resources are required, particularly in low-income developing countries. Fortunately, school fees which were widely introduced as a part of structural adjustment programmes in many indebted developing countries have now been rescinded or significantly reduced so that enrolment have again increased (UNDP, 2010). Formal Education: Schools and Universities Despite the challenges encountered in the provision of formal education, there are successes such as the following: schools, colleges and universities contribute greatly to enhancing opportunities for children and young people to realize their potential. formal education has a major impact on social status, health, nutrition and fertility, providing women with greater choice over decision concerning childbearing. It has also empowered women, resulting in increase in political participation. Any Questions or Comments? Types of Human Capital Intervention 3. Popular Education, Health and Nutrition Popular Education, Health and Nutrition Apart from formal education, human capital is also developed through non-formal or ‘popular’ education. ‘Popular’ in this context meaning ‘of the people”, particularly the ordinary citizen (working class, peasants, etc.). Non-formal education implies neither formal nor informal education. However, knowledge is acquired through books, social media or digital media. It may take the form of on-the-job training programmes, apprenticeship, and internet learning. All these play a significant role in promoting appropriate knowledge and skills. Popular Education, Health and Nutrition Research supports the fact that human capital is mobilized through health and nutritional programmes, and it is generally accepted that they have a positive impact on economic and social development. At the individual level, improved health and nutrition is associated with the acquisition of technical skills and knowledge, creativity, coping abilities and increased productivity and incomes. At the aggregate level, programmes designed to improve people’s health and nutrition contribute significantly to a country’s stock of human capital, enhancing economic development and prosperity. Popular Education, Health and Nutrition Governments, NGOs and faith-based hospitals continue to be the primary source of medical care in many low-income countries, although, of course, traditional healers are also widely consulted. Following the adoption of the WHO’s Alma Ata Declaration of 1978, there has been a greater focus on cost-effective programmes, such as: increasing the number of local clinics staffed by paraprofessionals under the guidance of nurses and physicians and promoting preventive interventions that combat communicable diseases. Any Questions? Summary Human capital is associated with the acquisition of skills and knowledge through education, and includes other human capabilities, such as nutritional and health status, creativity and leadership. Programmes that promote health, nutrition and non-traditional learning all have a positive impact on human capital but interventions that address the barriers to human capital are equally important.. Human capital programmes must therefore be integrated with comprehensive social development policies designed to raise standards of living for all. Questions, Comments& Discussions Reference Midgley, J. (2014). Social Development: Theory and practice. London: Sage Publications SOCIAL CAPITAL, COMMUNITIES AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT (Midgley, 2014, Chapter 6) Lesson Objective(s) This lesson seeks to enable learning about social capital, community development and social development. Expected Learning Outcomes At the end of this lesson, students should be able to: Explain social capital and the three types of social capital; Explain the relationship between social capital and community development; Discuss the three types of community development as posited by Midgley (2014). SOCIAL CAPITAL & COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT SOCIAL CAPITAL Social capital refers to resources that result from social networks and social support systems amongst family, friends or community members, whether direct or indirect (Coleman, 1988, 1990). Social capital can also be viewed as networks, shared norms, values and considerations that facilitate co-operation within or among groups or communities of people (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD, 2001). Social capital emphasises the importance of social relationships in community life. SOCIAL CAPITAL Some notable scholars in the field of social capital are Bourdieu (1988), Grannoveter (1973), Coleman (1988) and Putnam and his co-workers (1993, 2000), among others. Generally, these scholars believe that the strengths of communities do not reside in the capabilities of individual community members, but in the intensity and durability of the social network established between these members. TYPES OF SOCIAL CAPITAL 1. Bonding social capital refers to relationships amongst members of a network who are similar in some form (Putnam, 2000). Connections between similar groups of people that share the same characteristics like age, hobbies, family relationships, recreational clubs. 2. Bridging social capital refers to relationships amongst people who are connected through others. The connection is ‘bridged’ in the fact that one person is introduced to another through an intermediary. That intermediary is in essence, ‘the bridge’ that brings the two parties together. TYPES OF SOCIAL CAPITAL 3. Linking social capital is the extent to which individuals build relationships with institutions and individuals who have relative power over them. E.g. to provide access to services, jobs or resources (Woolcock, 2001; Szreter & Woolcock, 2004). Linking social capital is an extension of bridging. While bridging occurs horizontally, i.e. between people of a similar socioeconomic power or hierarchy, linking occurs vertically – i.e. between socioeconomic groups. For instance, a footballer may be introduced to an underprivileged boy. The two may develop a relationship and hence be able to leverage a far larger level of resources than previously possible. SOCIAL CAPITAL & COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT Social capital theory offers a framework for discussing community development as it reflects the notion that communities with high levels of social participation and strong social bonds will prosper and provide a positive environment in which individuals and families can thrive. By fostering civic engagement, communities build social capital and are able to respond to challenges. In addition, the theory of social capital has made novel contribution by suggesting that communities with strong social bonds also have higher level of economic development. Midgely (2014) TYPES OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT TYPES OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT Community development is an integral part of social development. A lot of social development practice takes place in community settings and many of the field’s concepts are derived from community development. According to Midgley (2014), the major types of community development are: Community building Community action and Community economic development. Although these different approaches are viewed as distinct, they all contribute to efforts to enhance the well-being of local people. TYPES OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT: 1. COMMUNITY BUILDING COMMUNITY BUILDING Community building seeks to strengthen social capital by mobilising participation in community activities and local associations. Community building relies on trained community workers, often assisted by paraprofessionals and volunteers, to initiate and implement a variety of community development activities. They usually begin by identifying and collaborating with local leaders who can promote civic participation. These may be established leaders, such as elected community representatives, local clergy or traditional chiefs, or younger and charismatic people or representatives of the minority groups. COMMUNITY BUILDING Community building is usually based on tangible projects or programmes that encourage people’s involvement. In the Global South, this usually involves the construction of community-owned assets such as daycare centres, a local community center, clinics, schools and water supplies. In the Western countries, community building is also associated with local community centres, but these are not always purpose-built and may be a church hall or a municipally owned sports facility or meeting place. COMMUNITY BUILDING Community workers encourage local people to form or join local associations and to volunteer to help organize their activities, including: sports clubs, youth associations, women’s societies, hobby clubs, reading circles and many others. Grassroots mutual aid associations, such as rotating savings and credit associations (ROSCAs), and groups affiliated with mosques, temples or churches also contribute to community building. COMMUNITY BUILDING The concept of self-help and self-determination have been central to community building theory for many years and prescribe that local people themselves should be in control of their own development, deciding which project and activities should be undertaken. This is a way of promoting local democracy and enhancing community capacity (Smock, 2004). Local people should also be actively involved in implementation, which builds their capacity, and fosters ‘people-centred’ development (Eade, 1997). TYPES OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT: 2. ACTIVISM AND COMMUNITY ACTION COMMUNITY ACTION Community action programmes seek to mobilize local people to improve their communities by addressing the differentials in wealth, privilege and power which are believed to be the root causes of poverty and deprivation. Community action has been widely influenced by the ideas of American community worker Saul Alinsky (1946, 1971), and Brazilian writer Paulo Freire (1972) whose theory of conscientization offers proposals for raising the political awareness of poor people and for organizing them to take control of their own affairs. COMMUNITY ACTION Like other forms of community development, community action makes use of workers who help poor and oppressed groups to analyze the causes of their condition and mobilize them to take action. Often times, community workers engaged in community action are employed by non-governmental and faith-based organizations (although in some countries, government agencies have also sponsored community action initiatives). Their activities are often supported by international organizations that emphasize the augmenting traditional community-based development by raising consciousness in poor communities and organizing them to challenge entrenched interests. Several large international organizations such as Oxfam, have adopted this approach. COMMUNITY ACTION In addition to using professional workers, local volunteers play a significant role especially in grassroots organizations comprising poor women and marginalized minority groups. People with disabilities and other special needs have also adopted activism as an integral part of their campaigns for rights and improved services. A good deal of community action has focused on gender issues and, as Dominelli (2006) points out, women’s groups are often at the forefront of anti-oppressive activities. Otherwise all members of the local community who are poor and oppressed may be mobilized and, in some cases, the whole community may be included. COMMUNITY ACTION A useful way of promoting empowerment is to educate members about their civil, political and social rights (Molyneux & Lazar, 2003). Members are taught that they have fair demands based on internationally recognized rights, often enshrined in national constitutions. They are not therefore engaged in a personal struggle against those with power and privilege, but are requiring that commitments guaranteed in national and international rights to be met. COMMUNITY ACTION Another step in community action involves training community members to organize local campaigns or participate in elections. Armed with these skills, oppressed groups are better able to take action and bring about social change. This may involve organized protests, civil obedience, embarrassing local bureaucrats and political leaders, launching strikes and engaging in other forms of activism. In addition, new local groups and associations such as cooperatives and small businesses may be formed to give practical expression to empowerment and strength ideas. However, perhaps the most effective means of empowering people is to help them participate in the electoral process, both to influence outcomes favorable to their cause and also to secure political office. TYPES OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT: 3. COMMUNITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT This approach to community development seeks to promote economic development at the local level. Although it may also involve community building and even, as shown earlier, be linked to the empowerment activities of community action programs, it focuses on improving local infrastructure and promoting local economic development projects. COMMUNITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT The idea that social engagement and cooperation among local people contribute positively to economic development (social capital) has influenced efforts by the World Bank to promote social capital formation in developing countries in the hope that it will foster economic development. However, social capital does not automatically generate increased economic activities. Deliberate interventions are required to build social capital and promote economic development. COMMUNITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT One example of how this can be achieved is to use well established community building techniques to enhance local infrastructure. This is a primary focus of rural community development in the Global South, where community workers and local leaders mobilize village people to construct roads irrigation systems, water supplies, community centers, clinics, schools, and other facilities. While local people supply labor, community development programmes provide technical assistance, materials and funding. Organizing community members to work together to enhance existing infrastructure or to create new physical facilities not only builds social capital, but has a direct impact on economic development. In rural Africa, for example, the construction of what are called feeder roads by village people permits motorized access to local markets where local produce can be sold more speedily than through the traditional practice of carrying heavy laden baskets of produce long distances on foot. COMMUNITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT The promotion of local income-generating projects such as craft manufacture, weaving, small-scale vegetable farming and poultry-raising also fosters social capital formation and has a positive effect on local economy, particularly if undertaken collectively. Cooperatives which rely on strong local bonds among members are well suited to this task and are often integrated with government community development programmes. They avoid exploitative suppliers and middle-men are able to secure favorable terms for their members. They also obtain agricultural equipment, seeds and fertilizers at discounted prices through cooperative purchasing and provide members with credit crop insurance and social services. Today, hundreds of millions of small farmers in the developing world benefit from cooperative membership (Merrett & Walzer, 2004). This is also the case in the Western countries where cooperatives have a long and distinguished history. QUESTIONS, COMMENTS, & DISCUSSIONS SOWK 112: Strategies for Social Development Promoting Decent Work and Employment Midgley (2014, Chapter 7) Lesson Objectives Today’s lesson seeks to aid students’ learning about decent work and employment in relation to social development. Expected Learning Outcomes At the end of the lesson, students should be able to: 1. Explain the historical background to employment and decent work; 2. Define and explain key terms relating to employment and decent work; 3. Discuss measures undertaken by ILO to promote decent work and employment; 4. Analyse some employment projects and programmes. Historical Background to Employment and Employment Policy For most of human history, many people were self-employed as farmers, artisans, or otherwise laboured as slaves or serfs. Wage employment first emerged in the early civilizations where a small class of scribes, administrators, and military officers received salary. In addition, a small number were employed by merchants and wealthy aristocrats. History of Employment The Code of Hammurabi, enacted in about 1700 BC, is one of the codes that provided a legal basis for employment contracts with & Employment agricultural workers, physicians and merchants. The Code also regulated working conditions for slaves, apprentices and Policy indentured labourers. Many years passed before employment became the primary means by which people in the Western countries derived their income. This was influenced by a growing demand for labour in the manufacturing industry and by the expansion of employment opportunities in services. History of Employment & Employment Policy ❖Although employment has been a major focus of economic policy in many countries, it had not been given the needed attention, particularly in social development circles, until about three decades ago. ❖As societies became industrialised, urban migration created massive social problems, and the exploitation of workers, low wages and cyclical unemployment posed challenges which governments were eventually compelled to address. ❖The founding of the International Labour Organization (ILO) in 1919 contributed significantly to protect workers, promote trade unions’ rights and introduce social security around the world. ❖More importantly, the ILO had a strong interest in policies that fostered wage employment. History of Employment & Employment Policy ❖The Great Depression of the 1930s also had a major impact on employment policy as several governments introduced minimum wages, expanded social protection, recognized the rights of workers and unions and increased state direction over the economy. ❖Full employment became a 'basic priority' following the United Nations World Summit for Social Development in 1995 which eventually laid the foundation for the adoption of the Millennium Development Goals, and subsequently, the Sustainable Development Goals. ❖The ILO has supported these goals and actively promoted the concept of Decent Work. History of Employment & Employment Policy ❖Decent Work implies that work or employment everywhere should be adequately remunerated, fair and gratifying, and that exploitation and discrimination should be ended. ❖Regular employment is an effective means of generating income and improving living standards. ❖In many countries, regular employment is the primary source of household income together with government subsidies and other programmes. Definition of Key Terms Definition of Key Terms Labour is defined as an activity that contributes to production, and together with land, capital, knowledge and technology, it is one of the factors of production. Labour force represents the proportion of the population engaged in the labour market. It includes adults of working age who are employed and self- employed as well as workers in the family enterprises who are not paid. Those who are unemployed but are actively seeking work are included. Employment refers to the state of being in the labour force working for a wage or salary on a regular basis. Definition of Key Terms Self-employment refers to the situation in which people own and operate their own enterprises. Unemployment refers to the state of being neither employed nor self-employed but seeking paid work. Underemployment describes different phenomena: ◦ Those who are engaged in agricultural or informal sector work but whose potential is underutilized. ◦ It also refers to those who are engaged in casual work on an intermittent basis, usually for low wages. Vulnerable employment refers to the situation where workers lack basic elements of decent work (such as not being covered by social security) and very low incomes. Employment Policy and Decent Work Employment Policy and Decent Work ❖When the ILO was founded in 1919, trade unions were exerting growing influence, and many aligned successfully with governments to secure reforms in working conditions. ❖The adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 and various international Treaties affirmed the rights of workers to decent working conditions and wages, the right to unionize and to have access to comprehensive social protection. ❖In 1999, the ILO adopted the concept of Decent Work in support of the United Nations World Summit's commitment to promote productive wage employment. Emphasis has been placed on the employment for women, persons with disabilities and others who have been disadvantaged in the labour market. Employment Policy and Decent Work ❖The ILO's concept of Decent Work seeks to promote what it describes as 'fair globalization' and to extend social protection to all. ❖It also recognizes that decent work should be closely aligned with wider poverty reduction intervention with an egalitarian social development strategy that promotes social justice and social well-being for all. ❖Central to the concept of decent work is the notion of worker's rights, which requires all workers to have a right to receive adequate remuneration, work in safe congenial conditions, be represented by Unions and be treated fairly and with respect. Employment Policy and Decent Work ❖The ILO emphasizes that human beings are not commodities or a burdensome cost on production and profits. ❖In this regard, work should be satisfying , rewarding and a dignified way of securing a livelihood, and workers should be an integral part of the productive process. ❖Productivity is enhanced when workers actively participate and constructively contribute their skills and knowledge. ❖Working hours should be limited and additional compensation paid to those who accept to work overtime. ❖Adequate rest time and family leave should be provided, and workers should have healthcare and opportunities for additional skills and training. ❖These should be accompanied by the expansion of childcare provisions that facilitate productive employment among families with children. Employment Projects and Programmes Employment Projects and Programmes Some examples of employment projects and programmes are: 1. Adoption of job placement and training programmes 2. Promotion of employment in the informal sector by abolishing the difficult regulations that impede the informal sector entrepreneurship. Introduction of policies that support the formalization of these activities include: Small-business registration The provision of credit and banking facilities. The police to work with, rather than against, street vendors and other informal sector workers and to decriminalize their activities. Municipal or District Authorities allocating space for stalls, and issuing provisional licenses which regularize their status. Employment Projects and Programmes 3. Promotion of employment cooperatives among poor people in rural areas and the urban informal sector. ◦ They play a major role in social development and community development and a mechanism for generating wage employment. ◦ They facilitate asset accumulation among poor families and communities. 4. Employment contracts and Social Insurance system for domestic and casual workers. 5. The prohibition of exploitative child labour. 6. Provision of Part-time Schooling and Supports by expanding educational opportunities and programmes that target working children including street children. These are programmes that can be managed by NGOs and faith-based organizations. 7. Social Protection to poor families in order to prevent their children from being taken out of school to work during times of adversity. QUESTIONS, COMMENTS, & DISCUSSIONS SOWK 112: Strategies for Social Development Microenterprise, Microfinance and Social Development Midgley 2014 (Chapter 8) Lesson Objectives Today’s lesson seeks to aid students’ learning about microenterprise, microfinance and social development. Expected Learning Outcomes At the end of the lesson, students should be able to: 1. Explain the differences between microenterprise, microcredit and microfinance 2. Trace the evolution of microenterprise and microfinance 3. Identify the features of microenterprise and microfinance 4. State the types of microenterprise 5. Examine the Grameen Bank and the Commercialization of microfinance 6. Discuss microenterprise and social development Key Terms: Microenterprises, Microcredit and Microfinance Key terms: Microenterprises In modern times, the term ‘Microenterprise’ is defined differently by different countries However, it was originally used to describe small businesses operated by poor people. The concept emanated from the efforts of Muhammad Yunus (founder of Grameen Bank) to support poor families during the Bangladesh famine in 1974. Microenterprises are sponsored by organizations such as faith-based organizations, cooperatives and government agencies which provide technical advice and loans for start-ups at preferential interest rates. By providing start-up funds and technical support, microenterprise becomes a form of social investment which provides an opportunity for poor people to participate. It combines what is usually considered an economic activity with social intervention, that is poverty alleviation. Key terms: Microenterprises in Ghana The National Board for Small Scale Industries (NBSSI) in Ghana describes Micro and Small Enterprises as those enterprises employing 29 or fewer workers. Microenterprises, according to the NBSSI are those that employ between 1-5 people with fixed assets not exceeding USD 10,000 excluding land and building. The NBSSI further classifies SMEs as follows: Micro enterprise: less than 5 employees; Small enterprise: (6 – 29) employees; Medium enterprise: (30 – 99) employees; and Large enterprise: (100 and more) employees. Key terms: microenterprises, microcredit and microfinance Microcredit / Microfinance / Micro lending are loans provided for microenterprise investments. Microcredit is sometimes associated with small business start-ups, while Microfinance is used to refer to lending to poor people for many different purposes such as home improvements, purchasing farm equipment or paying school fees. Microcredit lends at preferential rates while microfinance lending usually charges high interest rates. Evolution of Microenterprises Evolution of Microenterprises Historically, poor people obtained credit from local (money) lenders, commercial bank loans, family members, friends and government sponsored loans. These sources of income often came with high interest, and many became indebted. In many countries around the world, microenterprise has been accepted and adopted as an effective strategy to deal with poverty. It has been seen as a way of promoting entrepreneurial activity among people through the provision of credit and technical support. Microenterprise has thus become a very popular social development practice strategy today. Evolution of Microenterprises Hitherto, government-owned agricultural banks and credit cooperatives provided loans to small farmers to help them purchase equipment, high yielding seed, fertilizer and livestock and other capital investment. However, these programmes seldom served landless workers and other very poor people and they often discriminated against ethnic and religious minorities. Women were almost always excluded. It is against this background that governments introduced programmes to extend credit to promote productive enterprises among the poorest groups in society. The spread of the microenterprise was also fostered by the United States government and international development Organizations such as the World Bank. Evolution of Microenterprises – The Grameen Bank The Grameen bank was started in 1983 by Muhammad Yunus, but his initial microcredit activities dates back to 1976 when he gave the first loans to poor people in the village of Jobra, Bangladesh, near the University of Chittagong where he was a professor of economics. The Grameen Bank focused exclusively on microenterprise developments and made a significant contribution in popularizing microenterprise. It introduced the concept of peer or solidarity lending. This comprised exclusively poor village women groups assuming loans and sharing responsibility for repayment. This approach inspired many microenterprise programmes in the Global South. Grameen Bank and Commercialization of Microfinance As the bank operated, there was growing evidence that the women were not borrowing to establish microenterprises but to meet immediate consumption needs and sometimes pressured by their husbands to do so. Defaulting was widespread and many peer groups ceased to function. Due to this development, Yunus and his staff revamped the bank’s approach. Instead of providing credit to peer lending groups to establish microenterprises, it now emulated developments in microfinance by lending to poor women for many different purposes. The bank started to function as a microfinance bank rather than a promoter of small business development. Types of Microenterprises Types of Microenterprises Single Proprietor Approach – lending to individuals who together with their children and close relatives establish small family enterprises or individual entrepreneurs of which the majority are women. The Philipine government adopted this approach and introduced the Self- Employment Assistance Program (SEAP). Similarly, Ghana established the Microfinance and Small Loans Centre (MASLOC), which served as the microfinance apex body responsible for implementing the Government of Ghana's (GoG) microfinance programmes targeted at reducing poverty. Peer Lending Concept – this was originally adopted by the Grameen bank. Instead of lending to individuals, the bank created a small group of lenders known as 'solidarity' groups which consisted of not less than 5 women. The loan is collectively assumed by the group, and each member is jointly responsible for repayment. In India, they are called Self Help Groups. Types of Microenterprises Cooperatives - Small producers have been assisted by community development staff to form cooperatives to pool their resources together and work together to market their products. Credit is usually accessed through government agricultural banks or through credit cooperatives rather than non-governmental organizations. Most microenterprise organizations are exclusively concerned with small business development among poor people, others integrate their microenterprise programmes with wider community development activities. General information on Microenterprises 1. Most of the microenterprise organizations are mainly based in Asia, followed by Latin America, and Africa. Western countries have smaller numbers of microenterprises. 2. The concentration of microenterprise is in rural areas and the developing world but expanding in towns and cities. 3. External sponsors, such as non-profit organizations, serve as major sponsors for micro-enterprises. They play a key role in providing credit for start-up business as well as technical assistance. Microenterprise, Poverty and Social Development Microenterprise, poverty and Social Development The idea that microfinance and microenterprises are an effective way of helping millions of poor people lift themselves out of poverty continues to be tested. Microenterprises designed specifically to support small businesses are not necessarily exploitative, particularly if provided through responsible organizations that are committed to providing start-ups, technical assistance and other supports. If microenterprises are to make a positive contribution to social development, its benefits as well as its limitations should be more critically assessed. More systematic research into its role and potential is required. Research suggest that most microenterprises were methodologically unsound or based on inadequate data. Microenterprise, poverty and Social Development Midgley (2008) argues that there is evidence from research suggesting that microenterprises do not contribute to poverty alleviation necessarily by raising incomes of some people who establish small businesses. Instead, the evidence suggest that those who are better educated and highly motivated and provided with credit, technical assistance and other supports are more likely to succeed in establishing single proprietor, family businesses. However, those who are less educated but who can work with friends and neighbours whom they trust, are most likely to be successful if they join peer groups. Resources should, therefore, be more carefully targeted at those most likely to benefit. Problems of Microfinance and Microenterprises Problems of Microfinance and Enterprises The commercialisation of microfinance is as a result of the widespread belief that poverty can be addressed by simply providing credit. Poorly designed microenterprise programmes can harm people who are disadvantaged by a lack of education and experience. Many encounter severe daily pressures that limit the prospect of success, and faced with the struggle to make ends meet, few are are able to ponder complete business plans, meet regularly with counsellors and participate in regular peer group meetings. Problems of Microfinance and Enterprises Microenterprise organizations seldom provide information about businesses that do not succeed. Few achieve a success rate of more than 50% over two to three years, resulting in financial loss as well as demoralization. The property of defaulters are sometimes seized, and they are often subjected to ridicule and loss of respect in their communities. Risks are high particularly for very poor families who are less able to pay their loans. Dealing with the difficulties Dealing with the difficulties Adopt a more selective approach that seeks to identify those who are most likely to benefit from microenterprises. Technical assistance, training and other supports should be made available. Appropriately trained staff who can assist microentrepreneurs are indispensable to their success. Even though many small business owners are highly motivated they also require confidence-building supports. Give priority to continuous training and education Dealing with microenterprise difficulties Cooperatives have an excellent track record and have been used to establish successful small businesses among marginalized groups like people with disabilities and other special needs. Microenterprises are more likely to be effective if they form an integral part of a wider social development strategy that combines small business promotion among poor people with a range of other interventions that raise standards of living. Instead of viewing microenterprise as a stand-alone, 'quick-fix' intervention, it should be seen as one of the many practice strategies among a comprehensive repertoire of social development interventions. Microenterprise and microfinance organizations have to be formed as an integral part of wider community development initiatives. Dealing with microenterprise difficulties Microenterprise and microfinance organizations should adopt a more holistic approach that links lending and small business development with community-based education, health and asset development programmes. There is the need to put development back into microfinance so that the overriding objective is to support social development rather than indiscriminate lending. Governments also need to use their authority to regulate microfinance and prevent the exploitation of poor people by commercial providers. QUESTIONS, COMMENTS, & DISCUSSIONS Social Protection as a Social Development Strategy (Part 2) Current State of Flagship Social Protection Programmes in Ghana Current State of Flagship Social Protection Programmes in Ghana Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) The LEAP programme provided cash transfers to almost 100,000 poor households as at the end of 2015, Medium-term priorities include expanding the eligibility criteria to all the poor (beyond using the categories of older persons, persons with disabilities, orphans and vulnerable children, and pregnant women and infants) and linking LEAP benefits to other social protection services and programmes such as income generating activities and support better livelihoods. Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015 Current State of Flagship Social Protection Programmes in Ghana Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) cont’d The next steps for LEAP include: establishment of the case management system for complaints and feedback to enhance people’s participation and social accountability scaling up of electronic payment across all beneficiary households, linking the recertification of LEAP beneficiaries to data collection for the GNHR, and improving LEAP institutional arrangements to enhance efficiency. Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015 Current State of Flagship Social Protection Programmes in Ghana Labour Intensive Public Works (LIPW) The objective of the Labour Intensive Public Works (LIPW) programme, implemented through the Ministry of Local Government’s Ghana Social Opportunities Programme, is to create employment opportunities for the rural poor, and climate change mitigation, through the rehabilitation of community assets, including feeder roads, small earth dams and dugouts. In over three (3) years of implementation, the programme has provided 5,400,000 person days of employment to 100,000 poor individuals in 49 districts in the poorest regions of the country. Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015 Current State of Flagship Social Protection Programmes in Ghana Labour Intensive Public Works (LIPW) cont’d Other significant areas of innovation in its delivery include payments through a biometrically verified electronic payment platform and a Web-Based Management Information System (MIS) which is designed to report on all the indicators on the Results Framework. The programme’s impact evaluation demonstrated evidence of the programme’s socio- economic impacts on households and communities. The next steps for delivering programme include: Closer coordination with other SP Programmes with stronger linkages and more holistic effects at the household level, Ensuring that the LIPW is included in the national budget process, and Providing analyses on the economic value of the community assets, as well as the impacts of LIPW on seasonal migration and social cohesion as part of the next round of impact evaluation. Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015 Current State of Flagship Social Protection Programmes in Ghana National Health Insurance Exemptions The introduction of the National Health Insurance Scheme under Act 650 in 2003 (amended in 2012 as Act 852) is intended to promote universal access to basic healthcare through public, mutual and private health insurance schemes. Its provisions are intended to ensure equity in healthcare coverage; enhance access by the poor to services; and protect the poor and vulnerable against financial risk; manage the NHI Fund and provide a decentralized system to receive and resolve complaints by members of the NHIS and healthcare providers. Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015 Current State of Flagship Social Protection Programmes in Ghana National Health Insurance Exemptions Under Act 852, the following categories of persons are exempted from payment of contributions: children; persons in need of ante-natal, delivery and post-natal services; persons with mental disorders; persons classified by the Ministry of Social Welfare as indigent; categories of differently-ably persons; SSNIT pensioners and contributors; persons over seventy (70) years of age; and other categories as shall be prescribed by the Minister of Health Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015 Current State of Flagship Social Protection Programmes in Ghana The Ghana School Feeding Programme The Ghana School Feeding Programme aims to provide social assistance, promote school enrolment and attendance, enhance nutrition and promote local production. The present targeting for the selection of beneficiary schools started in 2010, based on a range of wellbeing indicators and food security assessments. Problems that have persisted in the programme include a lack of monitoring of its implementation and impact, inability to link school feeding sufficiently to domestic food production and achieving credible and transparent caterer engagement and development. Priorities for strengthening school feeding include more reliable and predictable financing, robust institutional arrangements, strengthening programme management and service delivery and promoting accountability and learning. The National School Feeding Policy sets out measures to address these concerns and promote local ownership and community involvement. Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015 Current State of Flagship Social Protection Programmes in Ghana The Education Capitation Grant The Capitation Grant for Basic Schools was initiated in 2005 to provide funding for non-salary expenditure in public schools on the basis of enrolment. It was intended to remove tuition and fee requirements. A 2015 review indicated that though the intervention had been useful, it had various challenges. While the grant was to make basic education free, it only covered about 10% of the average costs that parents pay. There are also concerns that the deductions from the capitation grant occur at the sub-national level so that less than 100% allocation is received at the school level. There were also concerns with delays in the transfer of capitation grants. Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015 Current State of Flagship Social Protection Programmes in Ghana Social Protection Interventions by MDAs Other programmes and plans of action being overseen by the partner MDAs are relevant to social protection delivery in Ghana and contribute to promoting sustainable livelihoods and human dignity. Particular social protection-related interventions implemented by the Ministries of Health (MoH), Education (MoE) and Food and Agriculture (MoFA) are relevant for integration in the short and medium term implementation of the policy. Food and Agriculture Sector Initiatives, Integration of agricultural development with social protection policies is a new area of consideration. Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015 Current State of Flagship Social Protection Programmes in Ghana Social Protection Interventions by MDAs cont’d The Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) targets vulnerable and at risk people through various interventions that can strengthen social protection including: Provision of fertilizer and seed subsidies; Improving land rights and tenure security; Promoting agricultural extension services with improved technologies Improving access to agricultural inputs linked to the LEAP programme Developing and disseminating gender-sensitive appropriate technologies along the agricultural value chain. Distribution of free planting materials to farmers, mainly roots and tubers, under the West African Agricultural Productivity Program (WAAPP) Provision of credit under the rice sector support program and Northern Rural Growth Program Implementation of the rural and agricultural finance program under the Ghana Agricultural Sector Investment Program (GASIP) Provision of matching grants to agricultural enterprises Credit-in-kind programme for small ruminants Implementation of the youth in agriculture program and Free extension service delivery These interventions however need to be prioritised and scaled-up to meet the needs of the extreme poor beneficiaries. Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015 Current State of Flagship Social Protection Programmes in Ghana Health Sector Initiatives in Nutrition and other Social Protection- Related Interventions A range of health programmes support social protection objectives through the promotion of financial access to healthcare. In addition to waivers for services covered under the NHIS and SSNIT, other relevant initiatives include: Free healthcare for pregnant women; De-worming in collaboration with the Community-Based Neglected Tropical Disease Control Programme Tuberculosis and malaria awareness, prevention and support Care and support for cured lepers Mental health related initiatives (under the Mental Health Legislation). Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015 Social Protection as a Social Development Strategy - Midgley 2014, Chapter 10 - Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015 Lesson objectives This lesson seeks to aid learning about social protection as a social development strategy. Learning Outcomes By the end of the lesson, students should be able to: Explain some key terms such as social protection; social insurance; and social security State the features of social protection Mention the varieties of social protection Discuss poverty alleviation innovations Examine social protection and development, particularly the challenges and opportunities. Key concepts Definition of Key Terms Social protection: “A range of actions carried out by the state and other parties in response to vulnerability and poverty, which seek to guarantee relief for those sections of the population who for any reason are not able to provide for themselves” (Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015, p. 2). The terms social protection and social security have been used interchangeably over the years. Social protection is an umbrella term used to describe a cluster of interventions, all of which are concerned with the alleviation and prevention of poverty and involve various income transfers. Social security is primarily used in the field of social policy while social protection is favoured in development circles. Social security is associated with government social insurance and social assistance schemes. Definition of Key Terms Social insurance is based on regular contributions paid by insured workers into a government or parastatal fund which pays benefits when specified contingencies occur. The contingencies of sicknesses, work injury, disability and retirement are covered in most countries. Unemployment is included in most Western, as well as some middle-income countries. History of Social Protection in Ghana History of Social Protection in Ghana Ghana has a history of social protection which prior to 2007, was dominated by traditional family and community arrangements, interventions by faith- and welfare-based organizations and emergency relief from government agencies. The early 1990s brought responses to the structural adjustment of the economy, undertaken in the late 1980s, in the form of the Programme of Actions to Mitigate the Social Costs of Adjustment (PAMSCAD). Subsequently, the poverty reduction strategies, the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS) I and II, provided some interventions with social protection inclinations. Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015 History of Social Protection in Ghana In 2007, a National Social Protection Strategy (NSPS) was developed and initiated the establishment of a national cash transfer programme, the Livelihoods Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) in 2008. The NSPS was revised in 2012, but needed to be located within a policy framework. In 2013, the Government of Ghana initiated steps to strengthen coordination through the creation of the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection. In 2014, the Cabinet gave approval to MoGCSP’s leadership on social protection policy and strategy development and collaboration with relevant agencies to ensure sufficient and sustainable resources for social protection. Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015 History of Social Protection in Ghana On-going innovations include the establishment of a Ghana National Household Register (GNHR) to strengthen targeting of social protection programmes and increase spending efficiency. Other procedures to optimise social protection include the development of a legal framework, a sustainable financing mechanism and a monitoring and evaluation framework. The efforts to modernise social protection have been supported by development partners including the British Department for International Development (DFID), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), and the World Bank (WB) among others. Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015 Features of Social Protection Features of Social Protection Social protection is an umbrella term used to describe a cluster of governmental and non-governmental interventions, all of which are concerned with the alleviation and prevention of poverty. Although largely run by governments, social protection includes a variety of programmes operated by non-governmental organizations, grassroots associations and commercial firms. Social protection redistributes resources, fosters social equality and contributes to creating more equal and just societies. In most countries in the Global South, social protection programmes take the form of income transfers. Features of Social Protection Social protection has made a significant contribution to poverty reduction, especially in the Global South, and has contributed positively to economic growth. Social protection programmes have historically been associated with alleviation and prevention of poverty by providing subsidies and supplements to low-income families. The MDGs and SDGs are examples of global actions that incorporate social protection programmes and contribute to poverty reduction. Features of the Ghana Social Protection Policy Ghana’s social protection floor seeks to cater for the entire life-cycle, fill social protection gaps and strategically balance social assistance, social security and productive inclusion. The Ghanaian social protection floor shall consist of: Access to basic essential health care for all, Minimum income security to access the basic needs of life for children Minimum income security for people in working age Minimum income security for older persons Issues of disability and gender will be mainstreamed throughout. At the sub-national level, social services particularly water, sanitation, food, housing, life and asset-savings information shall complement income security interventions. Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015 Features of the Ghana Social Protection Policy The policy identifies three main vulnerability categories as follows: The Chronically Poor: such as the severely disabled; terminally ill; rural unemployed; urban unemployed; and subsistence smallholders; The Economically at Risk: including food crop farmers, persons on the street, refugees and internally displaced persons, orphans, informal sector workers, widows, older persons and migrants; The Socially Vulnerable: comprising people living with HIV/AIDSs, tuberculosis sufferers, victims of domestic violence, homeless persons, people living on the street, internally displaced persons and female headed households, amongst others. Ghana National Social Protection Policy, 2015 What are the varieties in Social Protection? Varieties of Social Protection Non-formal social protection institutions based on family and community support networks are in fact most widely used. These non-formal institutions play a particularly important role in rural communities of the Global South but they also operate in the Western world. ‘Occupationalist’ Approach to Social Protection – this is social insurance only serves workers in regular wage employment and in formal self-employment. E.g. SSNIT. Employer Mandates – this requires employers under penalty of laws to pay benefits to their workers when specified contingencies occur. These are also occupationalist in nature and are primarily designed to protect workers in the event of work injury, sickness and maternity. In addition, to paying cash benefits, this approach is also used to mandate employers to grant family leave when children or relatives are ill or disabled. Varieties of Social Protection Social allowances are funded from general taxation and usually pay benefits to families with children, people with disabilities and elders. No contribution record is required, and no means test is imposed. Means-tested social programmes refer to programmes whose benefit eligibility depends on an individual's financial situation. In England, social allowances were established on the recommendation of the Beveridge Report to subsidize the cost of childrearing and to supplement family incomes. In addition social allowances are used in some European countries to pay disability benefits to those who have not contributed to social insurance schemes. They have also been established in a few developing countries to pay retirement pensions. Hong Kong was the first to pay a pension allowance of this kind but similar schemes have been adopted in Botswana, Lesotho and Namibia. Varieties of Social Protection Mandatory Savings accounts also known as provident funds, are based on individual retirement accounts into which employed workers make regular payroll contributions. The accumulated sum is withdrawn when the worker retires or becomes disabled or is made redundant. Social assistance is a very important form of social protection and, in addition to being operated by governments, it has also been adopted by non-governmental, faith-based and community organizations. It is also one of the oldest forms of social protection, having characterized the poor relief activities of religious organizations, charities and governments. Its most distinctive feature is the use of means test to determine eligibility and target resources on those in need. Other conditionalities, such as infirmity, age, residence, citizenship and religious affiliation, have also been imposed. Social assistance is usually denied to able bodied men and to vagrants. Generally, the means test has been used to determine eligibility on an individual or family basis, but in some cases groups of needy people. Varieties of Social Protection Wage subsidies are paid through the tax system in some Western countries also target benefits on low wage workers. For example - Cost of Living Allowances paid in 2014 during ‘DUMSOR’ (COLA ). Poverty Alleviation Innovations Poverty Alleviation Innovations Many developing countries have introduced innovative poverty alleviation programmes often based on social assistance. Some of these programmes include: Food-for-work programmes, micro-insurance and credit arrangements provided by governments banks. Conditional cash transfers: payment of benefits to poor families on conditions such as: that children attend school regularly, are immunized and have health check-ups. Conditional cash transfers play an investment function in that they promote human capital among poor families. An example in Ghana is the Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP). Ghana introduced the National Youth Employment Programme (NYEP), Ghana Youth Employment and Entrepreneurial Development Agency (GYEEDA), Nation Builders Corps, etc. In South Africa, the Mandela Government expanded the country’s means tested retirement pension (the State Old Age Pension (SOAP) and child benefit schemes. Establishment of state-owned pawnshops that play a social function of serving low-income clients who borrow in times of illness, unemployment, disability, etc. E.g. The Indonesian government set up the Perum Pagadaian chain of pawnshops. Social Protection and Development: Challenges and Opportunities Challenges A major challenge has been the importation of social protection programmes from Western countries without considering the relevance of local demographic, social, cultural and economic needs. To a large extent, social insurance has served the needs of workers in regular employment but ignored those eking out a living in the informal and subsistence agricultural sectors. Low coverage of conventional social protection schemes in the Global South. Although social protection has generally achieved universal coverage in Western Countries, it serves a relatively small proportion of the population of the Global South (Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty – LEAP, in the case of Ghana ). Unequitability of social protection in the ways it caters to all sections of the population. Conventional social insurance and social assistance schemes have not met the needs of vulnerable groups such as indigenous and tribal people who live in remote areas, immigrants and members of minorities and lower caste groups. Challenges Some social protection programmes were (are) based on a ‘breadwinner model’ that discriminates against women. Inadequate funding and administrative challenges also impede social protection’s effectiveness. Fragmentation of social protection schemes in many countries. Different types of social protection projects and programmes have been introduced by NGOs, Commercial Providers and grassroots community groups, problems of duplication, poor coordination, managerial ineffectiveness and limited coverage have become more noticeable. Administrative challenges facing statutory social security schemes particularly in developing countries include: poorly trained staff, long processing time, frequent errors and corruption. Opportunities and Solutions Formulation of comprehensive social protection plans that respond to the problem of fragmentation and coordinate the different types of programmes operated by NGOs, commercial and statutory agencies. Formulation of comprehensive social protection plans that set national targets based on long term funding projections. Establish carefully formulated and achievable goals aimed at addressing poverty alleviation. Prioritization of social protection programmes that positively contribute to development through social investments. Social protection innovations have also enhanced the participation of poor people particularly poor women and their families in development. The judicious incorporation of social protection into national plans will not only enhance well-being but play a major role in social development. Questions, Comments and Contributions Where determination exist failure can not dismantle the flag of success. ADUHENE EMMANUEL(ATENTEBENHENE)

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