Adaptation and Natural Selection PDF

Evolution: A Very Short Introduction | Oxford Academic 0123456 ÿ% HÿJKLMNLNOPQÿLQKÿQLNRSLTÿUVTVWNOPQÿX Dÿ08?988ÿ08?98 899   ...

Evolution: A Very Short Introduction | Oxford Academic 0123456 ÿ% HÿJKLMNLNOPQÿLQKÿQLNRSLTÿUVTVWNOPQÿX Dÿ08?988ÿ08?98 899   99!9 "###$!%! & '()*+,-./0ÿ1ÿ2" 3),45674 YZ[ÿ]^_`_a^bc`ÿ[de`cfcg^_fÿ_hÿgZ[ÿ_i^a^fÿ_hÿcjcegcg^_fÿi[e`cb[k gZ[ÿ^j[cÿ_hÿcÿl[k^af[imÿcfjÿ^kÿb[fgic`ÿg_ÿe_kgnlcio^f^cf [p_`qg^_fcirÿ]^_`_arsÿtujcegcg^_fÿcfjÿfcgqic`ÿk[`[bg^_fv j[kbi^][kÿgZ[ÿw_j[ifÿgZ[_irÿ_hÿcjcegcg^_fÿcfjÿ^gkÿ]^_`_a^bc` bcqk[kÿcfjÿ]ck^ksÿYZ^kÿ^kÿ]ck[jÿ_fÿgZ[ÿgZ[_irÿ_hÿfcgqic`ÿk[`[bg^_fs ujcegcg^_fkÿci[ÿi[b_af^xc]`[ÿ^fÿwcfrÿj[gc^`kÿ_hÿgZ[ÿ̀^p[kÿ_h cf^wc`kmÿe`cfgkmÿcfjÿw^bi_][kmÿcgÿ[p[irÿ̀[p[`mÿj_ofÿg_ÿgZ[ b[``q`ciÿwcbZ^f[irÿcfjÿ^gkÿb_fgi_`ksÿYZ[ÿg_e^bkÿ_hÿcig^yb^c` k[`[bg^_fmÿZ[i^gc]`[ÿpci^cg^_fÿcfjÿ^gkÿpcir^faÿz^fjkmÿfcgqic` k[`[bg^_fÿcfjÿygf[kkmÿcjcegcg^_fkÿcfjÿ[p_`qg^_fcirÿZ^kg_irm j[g[bg^faÿfcgqic`ÿk[`[bg^_fmÿcfjÿk[dqc`ÿk[`[bg^_fÿci[ÿb_fk^j[i[j ^fÿgqifs 8.9:;5/,0ÿ99?@ABCA>DÿFGDGC@AHIÿ17ÿ86606ÿ76654 71ÿ9498ÿ945ÿ9408ÿ 0 ÿ56879 6ÿ 979 0678ÿJ67ÿ8074 9468ÿ94ÿ6ÿ7153 65ÿ167ÿ9ÿ06#796ÿ0 90ÿ8ÿ8 170ÿ14ÿ0 6ÿ896 1ÿ0 6ÿ188ÿ76175ÿ1ÿ613014ÿK17ÿ696ÿ6ÿ96ÿ566165 94ÿ567640ÿ807948ÿ1ÿ9 968ÿ4 354ÿ807946ÿ1468ÿ6ÿ0 6 93L167ÿ945ÿ71 1ÿ ÿ976ÿ309408ÿ0 90ÿ9386ÿ14807138 L1678ÿ17 4ÿ9ÿ976ÿ695ÿ945ÿ1468ÿ6ÿ0 6ÿ738868ÿ87130ÿ4  ÿ69ÿ5661640ÿ8ÿ9 4179ÿMK376ÿNO!PÿQ 97ÿ94 76658ÿ1ÿ518ÿ96ÿ664ÿ765ÿÿ3948ÿMK376ÿNO Pÿ 0 56764 68ÿ67ÿ6ÿ0 186ÿ1 86765ÿ60664ÿ567640ÿ86 68ÿ4 490376ÿ98ÿ"97 4ÿ14065ÿ130ÿR1667ÿ90 13 ÿ9ÿS>IAFÿ86 68 M4 354ÿ11068ÿ945ÿT9 98Pÿ976ÿ186ÿ769068ÿ945ÿ94ÿ4067 7665 51ÿ76658ÿ976ÿ410ÿ51680 90148ÿ1ÿ567640ÿ 5ÿ51ÿ86 68ÿ30 96ÿ664ÿ7153 65ÿ167ÿ0 6ÿ980ÿ6ÿ0 138945ÿ6978ÿM86679 345765ÿ51ÿ646790148Pÿÿ970< 9ÿ866014ÿ71ÿ9ÿ846 114ÿ94 68079ÿ86 68ÿ0 6ÿ76ÿ1ÿ 6ÿ"U!ÿ86364 68ÿ1ÿ51 The PDFs of these chapters from "Evolution: a very short introduction" are for your personal use only. Page 4 of 29 They cannot be shared outside of class or published in any way as it will infringe on the copyright.  Evolution: A Very Short Introduction | Oxford Academic 01213ÿ561ÿ1331278599ÿ5ÿ3 317ÿÿ 9ÿ31 1213ÿ 7ÿ 713ÿ 31 521376ÿ83ÿ19811ÿ6 ÿ33893ÿ7ÿ51ÿ3156571ÿ6 ÿ 913 5213763ÿ5ÿ89982ÿ1563ÿ50 ÿ561ÿ5 7ÿ7611ÿ7813ÿ53ÿ816127ÿ6  18716ÿ 03ÿ6ÿ 913ÿ53ÿ71ÿ 37ÿ816127ÿ 0 9ÿ 5683 2ÿ1 8161213ÿ5 20ÿ 03ÿ82ÿ7186ÿ31 1213ÿÿ71ÿ351ÿ0121 8161213ÿ8ÿ613 5 9ÿ1191ÿ5716ÿ 03ÿ3156571ÿ6  $%ÿ'(  913ÿ52ÿ1ÿ31ÿ7ÿ7199ÿ  ÿ920ÿ50 ÿ757ÿ31565782ÿ5121 311ÿ5716ÿÿ1ÿ 66127ÿ1378571ÿ83ÿ757ÿ 03ÿ3156571ÿ6   913ÿ17112ÿ!!"""ÿ52ÿ!#"""ÿ1563ÿ50 ÿ161ÿ71  13785782ÿÿ716ÿ528593 The PDFs of these chapters from "Evolution: a very short introduction" are for your personal use only. Page 5 of 29 They cannot be shared outside of class or published in any way as it will infringe on the copyright.  Evolution: A Very Short Introduction | Oxford Academic 012 34ÿ6789ÿ7ÿ 9ÿ9ÿ7ÿ9ÿ99ÿ7ÿ94ÿ4ÿ999ÿÿ 9 9ÿ ÿ9ÿ7ÿ7ÿ99ÿ7ÿ74 !"ÿ$%&&"$$ÿ'(ÿ)*+,-&,).ÿ$"."&+,'/ÿ,$ÿ0'$$,1."ÿ1"&)%$"ÿ!"*,+)1." 2)*,)+,'/ÿ"3,$+$ÿ4,+!,/ÿ0'0%.)+,'/$ÿ)/5ÿ$0"&,"$ÿ6+!"ÿ$.,7!+ÿ5,8"*"/&"$ 1"+4""/ÿ/'*9).ÿ,/5,2,5%).$ÿ4!,&!ÿ4"ÿ5"$&*,1"5ÿ,/ÿ:!)0+"*ÿ;2"/ 4ÿBB 4,+!'%+ÿ)/?ÿ%/5"*$+)/5,/7ÿ'(ÿ,/!"*,+)/&"@ÿ 0"'0."ÿ!)2"ÿ1*"5ÿ(*'9 )/,9).$ÿ)/5ÿ0.)/+$ÿ+!)+ÿ!)5ÿ&!)*)&+"*,$+,&$ÿ+!"?ÿ.,A"5ÿ'*ÿ('%/5ÿ%$"(%.@ )/5ÿ'2"*ÿ"/'%7!ÿ7"/"*)+,'/$ÿ+!,$ÿ0*'&"$$ÿ!)$ÿ7"/"*)+"5ÿ$+*),/$ÿ'( )/,9).ÿ)/5ÿ0.)/+ÿ$0"&,"$ÿ+!)+ÿ5,8"*ÿ7*")+.?ÿ(*'9ÿ'/"ÿ)/'+!"*@ÿ)/5 (*'9ÿ+!"ÿ)/&"$+*).ÿ('*9$ÿ+!)+ÿ4"*"ÿ'*,7,/)..?ÿ5'9"$+,&)+"5=ÿ!,$ $!'4$ÿ&.")*.?ÿ+!)+ÿ,/5,2,5%).$ÿ4,+!,/ÿ5'9"$+,&)+"5ÿ$0"&,"$ÿ9%$+ÿ!)2" The PDFs of these chapters from "Evolution: a very short introduction" are for your personal use only. Page 6 of 29 They cannot be shared outside of class or published in any way as it will infringe on the copyright.  Evolution: A Very Short Introduction | Oxford Academic 0112ÿ45617128ÿ97 ÿ21ÿ2 8 17ÿ24ÿ8 8ÿ 2ÿ45617121ÿ 2ÿ01  14ÿ97 ÿ 7128ÿ8ÿ8 157ÿ6752ÿ8 8ÿ5ÿ8 1ÿ71ÿ175801ÿ9 45617121ÿ171ÿ 171ÿ41ÿ8ÿ8 1ÿ ÿ8 1ÿ25 ÿ7ÿ28ÿ171 871 814ÿ11851ÿ0711452ÿ24ÿ7855ÿ11852ÿ 4ÿ 1ÿ2 1618ÿ2ÿ8 1ÿ218ÿ1217852ÿ21ÿ 1ÿ9ÿ8 1ÿ45617121ÿ171 175801ÿ8 1ÿ07114ÿ 4ÿ5 7 1ÿ2ÿ0ÿ5 7 14ÿ0 247 17ÿ5 52 01ÿ524ÿ9ÿ 7817ÿ 2ÿ 7ÿ17580ÿ 1ÿ45617128 07114ÿ9ÿ4 ÿ45617ÿÿ5ÿ1ÿ2 2ÿ2 8ÿ8ÿ52ÿ1 721ÿ24ÿ5!1 08ÿ ÿ52ÿ 128ÿ8758ÿ ÿÿ 7817ÿ24ÿ45 5852ÿ 1 812452ÿ8ÿ01ÿ975124ÿ 51ÿ8 17ÿ71ÿ171ÿ24ÿ5801ÿÿ 74 4 ÿ 1ÿ45617ÿ52ÿ8 157ÿ5281718ÿ52ÿ128ÿ24ÿ52ÿ8 157ÿ5252 852ÿ8 918 ÿ24ÿ 77ÿ7ÿ8ÿ5 ÿ24ÿ52ÿ52815121ÿ 1ÿ45617ÿ52ÿ8 1 451 1ÿ8ÿ 5 ÿ8 1ÿ71ÿ18501ÿÿ52ÿ8 1ÿ1"2 2ÿ 1ÿ9 #  852ÿ0152ÿ7 21ÿ8ÿ 8ÿ 1ÿ112ÿ45617ÿ52ÿ8 1ÿ152 7 1ÿ58 ÿ 1ÿ07114ÿ ÿÿ8 1ÿ$ 5  ÿ 52ÿ77552 2158ÿ%8 157ÿ591" 2ÿ5ÿ 8ÿÿ2ÿÿ8 8ÿ9ÿ 8&ÿ 51 8 17ÿ ÿÿ8 1ÿ'71 8ÿ# 21ÿ51ÿ2ÿ0 8ÿ 9ÿÿ2ÿ(8  ÿ8 11ÿ 7817585ÿ71ÿ9ÿ 71ÿ61814ÿ0ÿ1257 2 128 57 821ÿ ÿÿ 4ÿ 71ÿ24ÿ871 8 128ÿ8 1ÿ71ÿ87 2 52)1214ÿ0ÿ171458 *5 57ÿ175801ÿ45617121ÿ71ÿ2 2ÿ52ÿ 2ÿ8 17ÿ4 185 814 151ÿ ÿ81ÿ2 8 17ÿ1 1ÿ8 1ÿ+ 5851ÿ9ÿ45617128ÿ1  751851ÿ71ÿ175801ÿ45617121ÿ 1ÿ5241ÿ4 8852ÿ8 45617128ÿ 2ÿ2114ÿ ÿÿ1 7ÿ7ÿ81ÿ 71852ÿ580558ÿ97  52ÿ7ÿ1 852ÿ24ÿ8ÿ8 1ÿ4561752ÿ5 81ÿ9ÿ45617128ÿ 28751 ,8ÿÿ52ÿ8 1ÿ 1ÿ9ÿ4 ÿ8 17ÿ1 852 7ÿ7 11ÿ 1ÿ 21ÿ2./ÿ12 52ÿ1ÿ8ÿ8 1ÿ 1ÿ85 1ÿÿ  2ÿ11852ÿ24ÿ1791852ÿ5 2117ÿ885214ÿ97ÿÿ415701ÿ8758ÿ- 7ÿ52821ÿ$ 1ÿ71ÿ  7857ÿ)  7 1ÿ1ÿ08ÿ71ÿ5 ÿ18501ÿ8ÿ451 1 34567ÿ9:ÿ;?@A495  1ÿ1ÿ9ÿ7855ÿ11852ÿ5ÿ17ÿ87 2ÿ154121ÿ8 8ÿ 2 524ÿ9ÿ 7817ÿ45617121ÿ52ÿ25 ÿ24ÿ28ÿ71ÿ175801  171ÿ71ÿ ÿ 2ÿ12185ÿ8451ÿ 52ÿ175801ÿ 75852ÿ97 8 1ÿ 7817585ÿ9ÿÿ541ÿ721ÿ9ÿ7 25 ÿ52ÿ2 871ÿ52452 2ÿ45617128ÿ151ÿ9ÿ25 ÿ28ÿ925ÿ0 8175ÿ24 The PDFs of these chapters from "Evolution: a very short introduction" are for your personal use only. Page 7 of 29 They cannot be shared outside of class or published in any way as it will infringe on the copyright.  Evolution: A Very Short Introduction | Oxford Academic 01234546ÿ892191 ÿ211954ÿÿ53 524 ÿ2 54454ÿÿ29   391 ÿ1ÿ5ÿÿ4535 54ÿÿ5 54ÿ41192ÿ ÿ 45ÿ9 2 35ÿ39 ÿ5 51ÿ14 2524ÿ952ÿ!6ÿ" 4ÿ391 4ÿ925 2 9ÿ5552134ÿ1#5ÿ5ÿ5 51ÿ14 2524ÿÿ39 4ÿ9 ÿ92 9 194ÿ3ÿ909 9 5 34ÿ391 4ÿ ÿ4 5154ÿ326ÿ$3 391 4ÿ905ÿ5ÿ ÿ5ÿ254149 5ÿÿ9 194ÿ ÿ145945ÿ43ÿ94 5ÿ50 31 ÿÿ% 9 414ÿ254149 5ÿ1ÿ2914!6ÿ&5ÿ925ÿ94 254 415ÿ2ÿ9ÿ9'2ÿ2 5ÿ 9ÿ544ÿ50 01 ÿ254149 5ÿ 5194ÿ131 ÿ254149 5ÿÿ294ÿ ÿ92921ÿ2ÿÿ 24 929411ÿ1ÿ39 4ÿ9 ÿ92ÿ9 194ÿ ÿ9 151 1ÿ5194 145115ÿ254149 5ÿ1ÿ 431 54ÿ9 ÿ9 11 1ÿ254149 5ÿ1 95219!6ÿ(59345ÿÿ512ÿ1 29 5ÿ ÿ39 ÿ2ÿ9 19ÿ5925 9 ÿ9454ÿ925ÿ3 524 ÿ1ÿ259ÿ5916 )52195ÿ1*525 54ÿ925ÿ94 ÿ5ÿ#  ÿ1ÿ39 46ÿ892191 ÿ9 9#5ÿ5ÿ2ÿÿ+14255,ÿ92952ÿ1*525 54ÿ43ÿ94ÿ55ÿ9 ÿ912  32ÿ94ÿ9259ÿ5 1 56ÿ&545ÿ925ÿ09219 4ÿ 2 5ÿ 1*525 54ÿ1ÿ41 5ÿ5 54ÿ9 ÿ3 9*55ÿÿ5 012 5 9 12349 54ÿ2ÿ9525ÿ ÿ41 ÿ2ÿ149 5ÿ5 ÿ9ÿ912 9125ÿ524 ,4ÿ912ÿ14ÿ595ÿÿ5ÿ43 !6ÿ  ÿ09219 4ÿ1#5 545ÿ925ÿ95ÿ-./01.2-345156ÿ 11 4ÿ43ÿ94ÿ 32ÿ1 544 925ÿ94 ÿ415ÿ5 51ÿ1*525 54ÿ3ÿ925ÿ3ÿ29252ÿ09219 4ÿ1 39 ÿ 391 46ÿ605 ÿ5901329ÿ929524ÿ9ÿ5ÿ521956 9:ÿ?ÿ5 32ÿ455 ÿ1ÿ9 ÿ1*525  3 2154ÿ14ÿ ÿ35ÿ ÿ5 51ÿ9 54ÿ3ÿ ÿ9 5ÿ 11 4ÿ 15ÿ131 ÿ5 52ÿ3211 ÿ9 ÿ552ÿ452134ÿ154454ÿ321 1 6ÿ50525544ÿ525ÿ14ÿ94 ÿ4 5ÿ5 255ÿÿ5 51 552191 ÿ2ÿ43ÿ929524ÿ1ÿ39 ÿ 391 46ÿ&14ÿ14 #  ÿ2 ÿ43154ÿÿ15 19ÿ9 ÿ 15 19ÿ146ÿ  15 19ÿ14ÿ925ÿ2192ÿ411 4ÿ9ÿ95 ÿ ÿ5ÿ 5105ÿ9 5ÿ495ÿ15ÿ9 ÿ5ÿ1*52ÿ94ÿ3ÿ94ÿ9 ÿ411 4ÿ3ÿ15 19 14ÿ 5ÿ2 ÿ9ÿ41 5ÿ5211@5ÿ5 ÿ9ÿ414ÿ1 ÿ ÿ52 4 The PDFs of these chapters from "Evolution: a very short introduction" are for your personal use only. Page 8 of 29 They cannot be shared outside of class or published in any way as it will infringe on the copyright.  Evolution: A Very Short Introduction | Oxford Academic 012ÿ045ÿ65157890 ÿ82517890 ÿ450754ÿ4550195ÿ57551ÿ82517890 701ÿ1182517890ÿ781ÿ05ÿ551ÿ2951752ÿ4ÿ01 904097548789ÿ012ÿ7ÿ5ÿ25ÿ7ÿ7584ÿ6515789ÿ880487ÿ9045 7ÿÿ945ÿ5ÿ7051ÿ707ÿ75ÿ82517890ÿ781ÿ045ÿ17ÿ7450752ÿ45 085ÿ701ÿ1182517890ÿ0844ÿ8170195ÿ1 ÿ055ÿ084ÿ 7ÿ812ÿÿ781ÿ2ÿ5ÿ72852ÿ5875ÿ75ÿ847017 518415170ÿ81 5195ÿ707ÿ9504 ÿ751ÿ587ÿ78ÿ012ÿ754 812ÿÿ5825195ÿ9187517 ÿ4550ÿ5ÿ256455ÿÿ548705ÿ08 4ÿ0480781ÿ81ÿ01 ÿ904097548789ÿ8192816ÿ0597ÿ 8175 865195ÿ!548705ÿ0480781ÿ0ÿ551ÿ2951752ÿ81ÿ01 46018ÿ012ÿ4ÿ0 ÿ812ÿÿ904097548789ÿ"51ÿ01ÿ0180#ÿ095 81ÿ75ÿ2810195ÿ854049 ÿ4ÿ59816ÿ4254ÿ901ÿ5ÿ548705$ÿ78 0ÿ551ÿ251740752ÿ81ÿ98951ÿ012ÿ81ÿ994095ÿ%5ÿ017 ÿ91781ÿ6515789ÿ0480887ÿ901ÿ5ÿ50452ÿ4ÿ4550195 57551ÿ450785ÿÿ28&54517ÿ256455ÿ%8ÿ8ÿ5ÿ81ÿ0180ÿ012 94ÿ017ÿ4552816ÿ012ÿ0 ÿ455254ÿ7ÿ452897ÿ75 904097548789ÿ9ÿ0ÿ8ÿ852ÿÿ9ÿ707ÿ&4816ÿÿ28&54517 04517ÿ8ÿ05ÿ012ÿ7ÿ7ÿ01ÿ7584ÿ4552816 78ÿ:; 515789ÿ28&545195ÿ8ÿ21ÿ7ÿ28&545195ÿ81ÿ75ÿ'57754#ÿ81ÿ75 ()ÿ%55ÿ751ÿ505ÿ75ÿ081ÿ0982ÿ5*5195ÿÿ47581 1901652ÿ+51ÿ75ÿ()ÿ5*5195ÿÿ75ÿ05ÿ6515ÿ045ÿ90452 57551ÿ28&54517ÿ8128820ÿ28&545195ÿ045ÿ551ÿ76ÿ0 554ÿ701ÿ51ÿ5*5195ÿ045ÿ90452ÿ57551ÿ28&54517ÿ5985 9ÿ90481ÿ545ÿ28952ÿ81ÿ,0754ÿ-ÿ55ÿ.8645ÿ/ÿ.4 505ÿ985ÿÿ75ÿ6515ÿ4ÿ6950075 25 2465105ÿ5178152ÿ81ÿ,0754ÿ-ÿ15ÿ4ÿ509ÿÿ0ÿ57ÿ 8128820ÿ867ÿ5ÿ90452ÿ%545ÿ0 ÿ5ÿ1ÿ28&545195ÿÿ1 285487ÿ1ÿ5ÿ8128820ÿ81ÿ75ÿ0781ÿ05ÿ0ÿ048017 5*5195ÿÿ75ÿ6515ÿ75ÿ28&545195ÿ8ÿÿÿ81ÿ5ÿÿ75 90481ÿ%8ÿ8ÿ90 52ÿ5904ÿ 48 ÿ51578987 5045ÿ9ÿ285487ÿ ÿ75ÿ409781ÿÿ75ÿ57754ÿ81ÿ75ÿ() 5*5195ÿ707ÿ04ÿ57551ÿ8128820ÿ81ÿ75ÿ0781ÿ11ÿ75 01ÿ5985ÿ87ÿ8ÿ0 ÿ12ÿ707ÿ554ÿ701ÿ234ÿÿ75ÿ() 57754ÿ28&54ÿ51ÿ5ÿ9045ÿ75ÿ05ÿ6515#ÿ5*5195ÿ57551 28&54517ÿ55ÿ90452ÿ87ÿ651540 ÿ0412ÿ34ÿÿ75ÿ57754 5816ÿ28&54517ÿ51ÿ0ÿ6515#ÿ5*5195ÿ045ÿ90452ÿ57551ÿ0 01ÿ012ÿ0ÿ9801555ÿ60480781ÿ8ÿ8654ÿ81ÿ5ÿ6515ÿ012 54ÿ81ÿ754ÿ012ÿ0ÿ15ÿ867ÿ5597ÿ0480781ÿ8ÿ651540 The PDFs of these chapters from "Evolution: a very short introduction" are for your personal use only. Page 9 of 29 They cannot be shared outside of class or published in any way as it will infringe on the copyright.  Evolution: A Very Short Introduction | Oxford Academic 012034ÿ16ÿ703ÿ8439 ÿ399ÿ1 84767ÿ432169ÿÿ703ÿ236 3ÿ70 7 ÿ67ÿ3ÿ4ÿ8473169ÿ70 6ÿ16ÿ703ÿ162ÿ8 479ÿÿ23639ÿ 69 43ÿ47034ÿ162ÿ16ÿ 41 117ÿ 8 43ÿ170ÿ 97ÿ7034ÿ983139 4ÿ3 83ÿÿ8 48019 ÿ19ÿ 0ÿ 43ÿ 6ÿ16ÿ 13 43ÿ70 6ÿ!"ÿÿ179ÿÿ377349ÿ43ÿ 41 3# $03ÿ19741 716ÿÿ 41 117ÿ17016ÿÿ983139ÿ 6ÿ213ÿ9ÿ93 164 716ÿ%036ÿ29ÿ43ÿ43ÿ4ÿ1&34367ÿ0 473419719ÿ4339 43ÿ3383ÿ70 7ÿ43ÿ47034ÿ614 ÿ16ÿ70314ÿ0 473419719ÿ$019ÿ19  3ÿ7ÿ97417ÿ8312433ÿ4 39ÿ010ÿ674ÿ 71629ÿ6ÿ4 1ÿ'2363 ()ÿ37336ÿ4339ÿÿ0 47341971ÿ70 7ÿ19ÿ39143ÿ16ÿ63ÿ433 9 0ÿ9ÿ370162ÿ19ÿ70 9ÿ3ÿ3383ÿ16ÿ70 7ÿ433ÿ6ÿ6 938 473ÿ4339ÿ736ÿ7ÿ13423ÿ4 ÿ3 0ÿ7034ÿ$019ÿ19716 37336ÿ4339ÿ19ÿ66 74ÿ6ÿ29ÿÿ1&34367ÿ4339ÿ1ÿ0 881 /0ÿ23 73ÿ6ÿ84 3ÿ03 70ÿ  62ÿ* 0ÿÿ703ÿ 41 117ÿÿ29ÿ19 4162ÿ37336ÿ4339ÿ* 6ÿ6 74ÿ983139ÿ13ÿ16ÿ1&34367 2324801 ÿ938 473ÿ88 7169ÿ6ÿ9ÿ63ÿ 1207ÿ3837ÿ703  67ÿÿ134917ÿ16ÿ9 0ÿ983139ÿ9ÿÿ03ÿ19ÿ243 734ÿ70 6ÿ17016ÿ 91623ÿ88 716ÿ3 93ÿ70343ÿ43ÿ1&343639ÿ37336ÿ88 7169 4ÿ3 83ÿ34716ÿÿ24 89ÿ43ÿ 43ÿ 6ÿ16ÿ9 3ÿ0 6 439ÿ70 6ÿ16ÿ70349ÿ933ÿ+0 8734ÿ,#ÿ6ÿ703ÿ9 3ÿ19ÿ74 3ÿ4ÿ 6 7034ÿ236371ÿ 41679ÿ334ÿ16ÿ0 69ÿ6ÿ 6ÿ7034ÿ983139 16ÿ6 743ÿ703ÿ1&343639ÿ37336ÿ88 7169ÿ43ÿ34ÿ91207ÿ16  8 4196ÿ170ÿ703ÿ134917ÿ17016ÿ88 7169ÿ613ÿ703 917 716ÿ4ÿ2ÿ4339ÿ$03ÿ1&34363ÿ19ÿ3 93ÿ0 69ÿ 6ÿ 3 433ÿ37336ÿ88 7169ÿ6ÿ1 84767ÿ1 81 716ÿÿ70393 236371ÿ439 79ÿ19ÿ70 7ÿ0 6ÿ88 7169ÿ43ÿ197162 1903ÿ170 439837ÿ7ÿ6ÿÿ9 ÿ4716ÿÿ 4ÿ236 39ÿ013ÿ 97ÿ 41679 70 7ÿ43ÿ8439367ÿ17016ÿ703ÿ0 6ÿ983139ÿ43ÿ 6ÿ413 -643 93ÿ  117ÿ16ÿ703ÿ 346ÿ4ÿ19ÿ. 1ÿ43 162ÿ6 1&343639ÿ37336ÿ88 7169 4567859ÿ;6@5'8)ÿ9282ÿ159ÿ589ÿ'22ÿ'922 ÿÿ5658ÿ97229 9 1ÿ59ÿ' 9ÿ5 ÿ929ÿ52ÿ9222ÿ969ÿ12ÿ9    589ÿ2 ÿÿ'2ÿ 262 52ÿÿ9)2ÿ182ÿ12ÿ9658829ÿ5 The PDFs of these chapters from "Evolution: a very short introduction" are for your personal use only. Page 25 of 29 They cannot be shared outside of class or published in any way as it will infringe on the copyright.  Evolution: A Very Short Introduction | Oxford Academic 0123456ÿ124ÿ8964 ÿ0856ÿ 4 ÿ82ÿ4 168 5ÿ928ÿ1 ÿ86ÿ1 0842ÿ5210ÿ82ÿ942606ÿ6ÿ145ÿ54 54ÿ64249824ÿ616ÿ8231 55 116168 ÿ68ÿ642ÿ4 28 4 6ÿ5ÿ8964 ÿ24554ÿ5ÿ4ÿ4014 ÿ1642ÿÿ6ÿ584645ÿ5445ÿ15ÿ9ÿ4 4 ÿ64ÿ6456ÿ4610ÿ1 ÿ4 8261 6ÿ412ÿ429468 ÿ5ÿ8964 ÿ14 4ÿ5ÿ15ÿ64 46218212ÿ121ÿ89ÿ26ÿ6642!45ÿ245401 4ÿ68ÿ041 45 82ÿ89ÿ164200125ÿ68ÿ635ÿ"610#3ÿ540468 ÿ1058ÿ145ÿ54 54ÿ89 64ÿ8542168 ÿ616ÿ5445ÿ8964 ÿ58ÿ06604ÿ4 8068 12ÿ1 34$ÿ15 08 3ÿ15ÿ642ÿ4 28 4 6ÿ8545ÿ8ÿ4ÿ1004 345ÿ540468 ÿ00 /0ÿ22 64 ÿ68ÿ44ÿ635ÿ15ÿ64ÿ 124ÿ%4ÿ56104ÿ828083ÿ89ÿ584 8231 55ÿ8 42ÿ08 3ÿ4 8068 12ÿ645ÿ5ÿ15ÿ64ÿ58&1004ÿ'()(*+ ,-..('.ÿ854ÿ842 ÿ4425ÿ245404ÿ561 60ÿ240164ÿ985505ÿ1 65ÿ4ÿ 425688 345678ÿ:484;? 16210ÿ540468 ÿ5ÿ64ÿ8 0ÿ401 168 ÿ982ÿ116168 ÿ616ÿ15 5688ÿÿ68ÿ4210ÿ64565ÿ@84 42ÿ540468 ÿ845ÿ86ÿ4455120 24154ÿ64ÿ8 42100ÿ5210ÿ82ÿ42ÿ89ÿ8A523ÿ284ÿÿ64 80168 ÿ15ÿ1ÿ804ÿB4 ÿ6424ÿ5ÿ84668 ÿ62165ÿ616ÿ8 942 5455ÿÿ84668 ÿ982ÿ1ÿ064ÿ245824ÿ1ÿ244ÿ4 428 45 5210ÿ9ÿ64ÿ856ÿ545590ÿ64ÿ89ÿ105ÿ484ÿ88 ÿ1ÿ80168 ÿ64ÿ80168 5ÿ5210ÿ28106ÿ1ÿ4 424154ÿ1045ÿ89ÿ64ÿ101164ÿ8 54C4 45ÿ89ÿ84668 124ÿ86ÿ8 D 4ÿ68ÿ808310ÿ56168 5ÿ%4ÿ6254 455ÿ1  924C4 6ÿ1ÿ61564ÿ89ÿ1 42653ÿ124ÿ400ÿ 8 E 4ÿ89ÿ64ÿ456ÿ 425688ÿ808310ÿ41045ÿ89ÿ84668 ÿ5 540468 ÿ163ÿ8 ÿ64ÿ106ÿ89ÿ1045ÿ68ÿ861ÿ1645ÿ ÿ1  1 10ÿ5445ÿ86ÿ100ÿ942604ÿ1045ÿ041 4ÿ454 1 65ÿ6ÿ8 0ÿ6854 616ÿ544ÿÿ8265ÿ1 F82ÿÿ8 64565ÿ6ÿ8642ÿ1045 "84645ÿ8 0ÿ64ÿG81 6ÿ1045ÿ124ÿ1464ÿÿ64ÿ941045 4 ÿ926!ÿ1045ÿ1 4ÿ68ÿ826ÿ941045H6ÿ1 45ÿ58 35 I284ÿÿ4163ÿ642ÿ35Jÿ1 ÿ54 65H49824ÿ43ÿ10084 68ÿ164ÿ"455ÿ5ÿ86ÿ3121 644ÿI 86ÿ522530ÿ54ÿ941045 56ÿ4ÿ885ÿ1 ÿ1 8ÿ1463ÿ1045ÿ89ÿ64ÿ28 3ÿ5445Jÿ 1 ÿ1105ÿ5ÿ15ÿ08 5ÿ6424ÿ124ÿ5810ÿ421245ÿÿ64 106ÿ68ÿ346ÿ1635ÿ1 ÿ941045ÿ124ÿ885ÿ58ÿ616ÿ1045ÿA42ÿ The PDFs of these chapters from "Evolution: a very short introduction" are for your personal use only. Page 26 of 29 They cannot be shared outside of class or published in any way as it will infringe on the copyright.  Evolution: A Very Short Introduction | Oxford Academic 01234ÿ4264789 032ÿ9 2 ÿ094ÿ22037ÿ3ÿ01242742ÿ 794 14 024303 ÿ 7 3028ÿ301ÿ2ÿ873 2ÿ3ÿ012ÿ132441ÿ74 01234ÿ004 0322 ÿ07ÿ22 ÿ2ÿ8224ÿ1 2ÿ42ÿ024ÿ131 42ÿ9 28ÿ3ÿ10ÿ2022ÿ2ÿ8ÿ72ÿ6232ÿ1 2ÿ70124ÿ2 7ÿ30338037ÿ9 1ÿ ÿ798ÿ4743ÿÿ0122ÿ14 024ÿ42ÿ124302 !"ÿ$% 131ÿ ÿ2ÿÿ 7 2ÿ3ÿ702ÿ012ÿ 2ÿ2ÿ301ÿ012 14 024303 ÿ010ÿ2ÿ012ÿ9 2 9ÿ3ÿ03ÿ3ÿ6 ÿ7ÿ01234 22ÿ07ÿÿ6472ÿ132ÿ70124ÿ2ÿ3ÿ028ÿ07ÿ1 2ÿ224 7 643 &701ÿ2'2ÿÿ2 72ÿ14 024303 ÿÿ013ÿ()*+,-ÿ()-)/0123ÿ8ÿ30 647ÿ 790ÿ74ÿ012ÿ4310ÿ692ÿ7ÿÿ348 ÿ472 24ÿ3 ÿ6232ÿ0122ÿ14 024303 ÿ42ÿ728ÿ07ÿ2ÿ53942ÿ67 9203ÿ010ÿ012ÿ42ÿ70ÿ3ÿ012 22ÿ778ÿ860037 ÿ07ÿ012 6232ÿ2 34720ÿÿ9 1ÿ2ÿ14 024303 ÿ2403ÿ87 70ÿ22ÿ32ÿ07ÿ126ÿ943ÿ8ÿ012ÿ702ÿ3 94ÿ7 0ÿ29 2ÿ7 724ÿ943ÿ7ÿ01234ÿ2ÿ44324 ÿ82 7 ÿ2ÿ301ÿ01234 27479 ÿ8ÿ29039ÿ03ÿ42ÿ6774ÿ924ÿ8ÿ012ÿ798 647ÿ2ÿ20024ÿ2ÿ07ÿ2 62ÿ6428074ÿ3ÿ01234ÿ03ÿ242ÿ24 82 7  ÿ42ÿÿ3 7 2320ÿ6232ÿ74ÿ2'624320ÿ09832ÿ7ÿ012 24783 ÿ7ÿ9310ÿ90ÿ7 ÿ03ÿ1 2ÿ22ÿ17ÿ07ÿ2 724ÿ01ÿ7603ÿ74ÿ9310ÿ132ÿ2ÿ301ÿ724ÿ03ÿ42 64224428ÿÿ22 ÿ: 2ÿ2 ÿ620 94ÿ2ÿ7940136 14 024303 ÿ702ÿ43ÿ3 42 28ÿ43 ÿ574ÿ2'62ÿ72 04763ÿ47ÿ6232ÿ42ÿ64228ÿ7ÿÿ0ÿ010ÿ82020ÿ2ÿ33 01234ÿ7940136ÿ7 ÿ: 2ÿ301790ÿ0122ÿ824ÿ79403ÿ2 702ÿ2'628ÿ42ÿ790ÿ7ÿ2 740ÿ131ÿ798ÿ2ÿ7012432 26728ÿ74ÿ2'62ÿ3ÿ773ÿ74ÿ778ÿ8ÿ012ÿ42ÿ702ÿ3 2'0422ÿ6774ÿ61 3ÿ162ÿ0ÿ012ÿ28ÿ7ÿ012ÿ03ÿ2 7 The PDFs of these chapters from "Evolution: a very short introduction" are for your personal use only. Page 27 of 29 They cannot be shared outside of class or published in any way as it will infringe on the copyright.  Evolution: A Very Short Introduction | Oxford Academic 012 3ÿ5678ÿ69 ÿ85678ÿÿ8ÿ658ÿ88ÿÿ559 ÿ!"#$ÿ%&'ÿ()#*&*ÿ#(!)ÿÿ!"ÿ()!+!ÿ), ()-&!#".ÿ!)ÿ/ÿ*0&!ÿ,&)1ÿ1)#!ÿ)!"&ÿ#!-!)#$ÿ*ÿ!&)*-(* !"ÿ#.(ÿ!&1ÿ#+-ÿ#(!)ÿ!)ÿ"""!ÿ!"#ÿ*0&(2ÿ3#ÿ' "4ÿ5-#!ÿ&-*$ÿ!ÿ#ÿ-67ÿ!"!ÿ1ÿ.()(6#8ÿ!#ÿ&ÿ*.!4$ /)!"ÿ)ÿ9ÿ;