Abnormal Psychology Midterm Lesson PDF

ASSESSING MENTAL DISORDERS Parallel-Forms Reliability:. Consistency between two different versions of the same test measuring ASSESSMENT...

ASSESSING MENTAL DISORDERS Parallel-Forms Reliability:. Consistency between two different versions of the same test measuring ASSESSMENT the same thing. the process of gathering information about people's symptoms and the possible cause of Example: A teacher gives two versions of a math test to her students. If the scores on both symptoms tests are similar, the tests have high parallel-forms reliability. CLINICAL ASSESSMENT a systematic evaluation of an individuals Internal Consistency various psychological, biological, and social Reliability: How well the items on a factors, as well as identifying past and present test measure the same underlying problems, stressors and other behavioral or concept. cognitive symptoms. Example: A depression questionnaire asks multiple. questions about mood, energy, and interest. If all the questions give consistent results about depression levels, the test has high internal consistency reliability. To help gather information, a number of assessment tools have been developed. 2. VALIDITY is the accuracy of a test in Every assessment tools must be reliable, valid, and standard: assessing what is supposed to assess. 1. RELIABILITY indicates the tests Face Validity: The extent to which consistency in measuring what is supposed to a test appears to measure what it's measure. supposed to, at face value. Test-Retest Reliability: Example: A depression questionnaire asking about Consistency of results when the mood, sleep, and energy levels has face valid type same test is given to the same group because it looks like it’s measuring depression. at different times. Content Validity: Ensures a test Example: A person takes a personality test covers all aspects of the concept today and then again in two weeks. If their being measured. results are similar both times, the test has good test-retest reliability. Example: A stress scale with questions about physical, emotional, and behavioral symptoms has Inter-Rater Reliability: content validity if it includes all important aspects of stress, not just one part (like emotional symptoms Agreement between different people only). (raters) when they score or assess the same thing. Criterion Validity: the extent to which a test correlates with a related Example: Two psychologists observe a child's behavior during a therapy session. If both rate the outcome or external standard. child’s behavior in the same way, there is high inter-rater reliability. Example: A new social anxiety test has Criterion validity if people who score high also have difficulty in real social situations, as measured by another well-known anxiety test  Predictive Validity: a type of COMMONLY USED ASSESSMENT validity that measures how well a TOOLS: test predicts future outcomes.. Example: If a high score on an anxiety test CLINICAL INTERVIEW accurately predicts future panic attacks, the test has - one method of gathering information about predictive validity. a person's past and current beliefs, attitude, Concurrent Validity: A type of emotions, behaviors, and problems. Criterion validity that measures how well a test correlates with an existing SYMPTOMS QUESTIONNAIRE measure taken at the same time. - a quick way to determine a person's symptoms representing several different Example: A new self-esteem test shows concurrent disorders. validity if the scores strongly match with results from a ex. Beck Depression Inventory Short form well-established self-esteem test given at the same time. PERSONALITY INVENTORIES Convergent Validity: shows that a - are questionnaires meant to assess test correlates well with other people's typical ways of thinking, feeling, and measures of the same construct. behaving to which the person responds with specific answers. Example: A new anxiety test has convergent validity Ex. MMPI-2 scales if it strongly correlates with other anxiety tests, like the Beck Anxiety Inventory PROJECTIVE TESTS Discriminant Validity: ensures that - consist of ambiguous stimuli which have a test does not strongly correlate no sets of answers that a person interprets or with measures of different,unrelated makes up a story about. constructs. ex. Rorschach Inkblot test Example: A depression scale has discriminant validity if it INTELLIGENCE TEST shows weak correlation with a test measuring physical - are used to get a sense of the person's fitness, confirming the two are measuring different things. intellectual strengths and weaknesses, especially when brain damage or mental 3. STANDARDIZATION - is conformity to AN retardation is suspected. acknowledged criterion. It is a method of ex. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale improving the reliability and validity by (WAIS) preventing extraneous factors affecting a person’s response. A standard way of NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS administration and interpretation of test makes - are used to detect specific cognitive the test more valid and reliable. deficits such as memory and sensorimotor problems.. ex. Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test “A test must be reliable to be valid, but not all reliable tests are valid.” BRAIN-IMAGING TECHNIQUES - used to identify specific deficits and possible brain abnormalities. such as existing brain-imaging technologies.  a. Computerized Tomography (CT scan) Matching Symptoms to Diagnostic Criteria: b. Positron-emission Tomography (PET) To diagnose Major Depressive Disorder, the c. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) clinician would refer to the DSM-5 criteria, which typically include: PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST - used Alternatively to detect changes in the Depressed mood most of the day, nervous system and the brain that reflect nearly everyday emotional and psychological changes Markedly diminished interest or ex. Lie-Detector Test, Heart Rate Variability pleasure in almost all activities (HRV) Significant weight loss when not dieting, weight gain, or BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATION AND decrease/increase in appetite SELF-MONITORING Insomnia or hypersomnia - are used to assess deficits in their skills or Psychomotor agitation or retardation ways of handling situations. (restlessness or slowed movements) Fatigue or loss of energy Feelings of worthlessness or DIAGNOSING MENTAL excessive guilt Diminished ability to think or DISORDERS concentrate, or indecisiveness. Recurrent thoughts of death or suicidal ideation DIAGNOSIS the labeling we attach to a set of symptoms Clinical Diagnosis: After a thorough that tend to occur together. assessment, if Lena’s symptoms meet the required criteria (e.g., duration of symptoms CLINICAL DIAGNOSIS lasting at least two weeks and causing process of matching an individual's specific significant distress or impairment), the symptoms to those that define a particular clinician would conclude that Lena has mental disorders. Major Depressive Disorder. THE CASE OF LENA Lena visits a Symptoms Reported by SYMPTOMS psychologist, she Lena: reports experiencing a Persistent low indication of disorder, especially a persistent low mood, mood change from normal function, sensation, or Lack of interest lack of interest in or pleasure in appearance. activities she once previously enjoyed, difficulty enjoyed activities sleeping, fatigue, and Difficulty sleeping SYNDROMES feelings of (insomnia) list of symptoms that tend to co-occur worthlessness. These Fatigue or loss of symptoms occur energy within individuals. together over several Feelings of weeks, significantly worthlessness or affecting her daily life excessive guilt ex. symptoms of one syndrome, such as Based on the symptoms and functioning. Sarah is experiencing, she MDD, can overlap with the symptoms of could be diagnosed with another syndrome such as generalized Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) anxiety disorder.  health assessments. The DSM-5 includes 298 disorders and emphasizes empirical research and clinical consensus in its structure, allowing for better diagnosis and treatment planning KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DSM-5 AND DSM-5-TR. DSM-5 DSM-5 TR The DSM-5-TR (Text The TR version also DISORDERS Prior to the 1950's, making Revision), published introduces more a clinical diagnosis (ex. in 2021, includes inclusive language DSM-I 109 matching symptoms to a updates to the and addresses DSM-II 182 specific mental disorder) diagnostic criteria, critiques regarding DSM-III 265 was very difficult since text descriptions, and cultural competence DSM-IV 410 there was no standard cultural in mental health DSM-V 298 uniform system. considerations. While diagnoses. DSM-V TR 298 it maintains the same structure and 1952 The American classifications as the Psychological Association DSM-5, it reflects (APA) has been developing current research and a standard diagnostic clinical practices. system, which in recent times is known as the CULTURAL Diagnostic and Statistical CONTEXT Manual of Mental Disorders. The DSM-5-TR enhances the DSM V The Diagnostic and sections on cultural Statistical Manual of Mental concepts of distress, Disorders, Fifth Edition providing clearer (DSM-5), published by the guidelines for American Psychiatric understanding and Association in 2013, is a diagnosing disorders comprehensive within various cultural classification system for contexts. This is mental health disorders. It crucial for improving serves as a key resource diagnostic accuracy for clinicians and across diverse researchers, providing populations. standardized diagnostic criteria to improve reliability and validity in mental TERMINOLOGICAL  CHANGES ADHD into adulthood -updated terminology MOOD DISORDERS The DSM-5-TR in some diagnostic included more categories to reflect detailed descriptions changes in societal regarding bipolar and understanding and related disorders, language around specifying the mental health. For symptoms that are instance, it addresses critical for accurate biases and promotes diagnoses, which more culturally aids clinicians in sensitive practices in distinguishing mental health between different diagnosis types of bipolar disorder. Continuity in Disorders PERSONALITY The section on DISORDERS Personality Disorders Both editions was revised to maintain a similar provide a clearer number of disorders, framework for (approximately 298), understanding and but the DSM-5-TR diagnosing these may revise complex conditions. descriptions and The DSM-5-TR criteria based on new expanded on the findings and expert definitions and recommendations descriptions of various personality disorders to facilitate better recognition in SUBSTANCE-RELA The DSM-5-TR clinical settings TED AND clarified the ADDICTIVE diagnostic criteria for CULTURAL The DSM-5-TR DISORDERS : Cannabis Use CONCEPTS OF provide more clarity Disorder, including DISTRESS onObsessive-Compul additional information sive Disorder (OCD), about withdrawal including distinctions symptoms, which can between OCD and help in more accurate related disorders like diagnoses body dysmorphic disorder, ensuring NEURODEVELOPM The diagnostic that clinicians can ENTAL DISORDERS criteria for make more nuanced Attention-Deficit/Hype diagnoses ractivity Disorder (ADHD) were updated to include additional examples of symptoms in adults, recognizing the persistence of  THREE MAIN REGIONS OF THE BRAIN ADVANTAGES OF DISADVANTAGES DSM OF DSM 1. HINDBRAIN closest to the spinal cord. It 1. The classification 1. Diagnostic labels includes all the structures located in the system is helpful have negative posterior part of the brain. for mental health associations. It may professionals elicit undesirable a. Medulla - responsible for regulating to communicate response. largely unconscious functions such as breathing with one another 2.It has powerful and circulation. and discuss their social and political b. Pons - important in sleep and arousal client’s effects. c. Reticular Formation - a network of problems. 3. Clinicians and neurons related to sleep, arousal, and attention 2. The classification researchers should d. Cerebellum - concerned with balance system can be try to apply the and the coordination of movement. used to study and labels as fairly as explain mental possible. disorders. 4. Clinicians and 2. MIDBRAIN located in the middle of the brain 3. The classification researchers also which contains: system can be see room for used by therapists improvement in the a. Superior Colliculus - relay control to design their treatment of culture movement and sensory information treatment program because different b. Inferior Colliculus - regulate responses that fits their clients cultures have to reward problems. distinct ways of conceptualizing mental disorders. BRAIN DYSFUNCTION. The brain can be divided into three main regions: 3. FOREBRAIN include structures located in the front part of the brain a. Cerebral Cortex - involved in many of our most advanced thinking processes. b. Thalamus - handles incoming and outgoing signals. c. Hypothalamus - responsible for regulating basic biological needs (hunger, thirst, temperature, control) d, Amygdala responsible for processing emotions, especially fear, anger, and pleasure. It also plays a key role in forming emotional memories and triggering the body's responses of psychopathology. It can be affected by to stress. two processes: e. Hippocampus - crucial for forming, 1. Reuptake is when neurotransmitters organizing, and storing new memories.It also are absorbed back into the sending plays a key role in spatial navigation and nerve cell (the presynaptic neuron). connecting emotions to those memories. 2. Degradation is when enzymes f. Pituitary Gland - regulates other break down the neurotransmitters in endorsing glands. the synapses (the gap between nerve cells). BRAIN DYSFUNCTION can result from injury caused by accident or When one or both of these processes from diseases that cause deterioration. malfunction, they result in abnormally high In schizophrenia, the cerebral cortex does not or low levels of Neurotransmitter in the effectively function causing delusions (unreal synapses. beliefs) and hallucinations (unreal perceptual experiences). BIOCHEMICAL IMBALANCES a number of chemicals were required for the brain to work efficiently and effectively: the neurotransmitters and the hormones. NEUROTRANSMITTERS a dozen different chemicals that are made by neurons and then used for communication between neurons during the performance of mental or physical activities. HORMONES Two Effects of Neurotransmitter substances secreted by endocrine glands that regulate a wide range of bodily Excitatory neurotransmitters processes affecting organs, muscles, and increase the likelihood that the next other glands in the body. nerve cell will send a signal. They “excite” or stimulate the cell to pass ENDOCRINE SYSTEM the message along. made up of numerous glands that are located throughout the body. Inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease the likelihood that the next GENETIC ABNORMALITIES nerve cell will send a signal. That Chromosomes: strand-like structures found “calm” the cell down, making it less in the nuclei of all cells. They are composed likely to continue the message. of a substance known as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is made up of several The amount of Neurotransmitters in the simpler components arranged in the form of synapses is associated with specific types a double helix. GENES then behave in accord with those rewards segments of DNA that serve as basic units and punishments. of heredity. Our genes determine all aspects of our biological make-up. COGNITIVE THEORIES argue that thoughts or beliefs-- not rewards Most disorders are associated with multiple and punishments--shape our behaviors and abnormal genes and not with single the emotions we experience. Some of the abnormal genes. most maladaptive behavior and negative example: Down Syndrome emotions are the results of broad beliefs called global assumptions, such as: Abnormality: Trisomy 21, where there is an extra copy of GLOBAL ASSUMPTIONS chromosome 21. Effect: Results in developmental - “I should be love by everyone for delays, intellectual disabilities, and everything I do.” distinct physical features. - “It is better to avoid problems than to face them. ” PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES - “I should be completely competent, emphasize that mental disorders result from intelligent, and achieving in all I do. ” either unconscious conflicts, thoughts and - “I must have perfect self-control.” beliefs, classical and operant conditioning, dysfunctional interpersonal dynamics, or PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES pressure to conform to societal norms. suggests that all normal or abnormal behavior, thoughts, and emotions, are BEHAVIORAL THEORIES influenced to a large extent by unconscious focus on the influences of punishments and processes. It began with Freud referring to reinforcements in producing behavior. libidinal and aggressive drive as the forces motivating human behavior. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING has been used to explain people’s It attempts to explain or interpret behavior or seemingly irrational responses to a host of mental states in terms of innate emotional neutral stimuli. forces or processes. OPERANT CONDITIONING HUMANISTIC THEORIES the shaping of behaviors by providing argue that normal or abnormal behavior rewards for desired behaviors and comes from the pressure of society to punishment for undesired behaviors. conform to certain norms, with the fulfillment of his/her innate capacity for goodness and MODELING for living a full life. learning new behaviors from imitation of It recognize that environment can behaviors modeled by important people in play a strong role in our happiness or our lives unhappiness. Without undue pressure from society and family, individuals are naturally OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING move toward personal growth, self- takes place when a person observes the acceptance, and self-actualization rewards and punishments that another (fulfillment of their potential for creativity, persons receives for his/her behavior and love, and meaning) FAMILY SYSTEM THEORIES DISTRACTION TECHNIQUES - helps see psychological disorders not as a individual temporarily distract from problem of the individual but as an anxiety-producing situations; diverts attention indication of dysfunctional family system. from physiological manifestations of anxiety. Individuals' psychopathology takes depends FLOODING OR IMPLOSIVE THERAPY - on the complex interactions among the exposes the individual to the dreaded or feared family’s cohesiveness, adaptability to stimulus while preventing avoidant behavior. change, and communication styles. SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION - pairs the EMOTION-FOCUSED THEORIES implementation of relaxation techniques with focus on people’s ability tounderstand and hierarchical exposure to the aversive stimulus. regulate their emotions. They view poor regulation of emotions as being at the core RESPONSE SHAPING THROUGH OPERANT of many types of psychopathology like CONDITIONING - pairs rewards with desired anxiety, personal disorders, and substance behaviors. abuse. BEHAVIORAL CONTRACTING - provides SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORIES rewards for reaching proximal goals. suggests that we need to look to the larger society to understand people's problems. A MODELING AND OBSERVATIONAL wide range of mental health problems may LEARNING - models desired behaviors, so that occur under the following risk factors: the client can learn through observation. socio-economic aadvantage COGNITIVE THERAPIES - helps clients the disintegration and upheavel of identify and challenge negative thoughts and society due to famine, war, and dysfunctional belief system. natural disasters. social norms and policies that Assist client in identifying their stigmatized and marginalized certain irrational and maladaptive thoughts. groups. Teach clients to challenge their implicit or explicit rules about what irrational or maladaptive thoughts types of abnormal behavior are and to consider alternative ways of acceptable. thinking Encourage silents tp face their worst. fears about a situation and recognize ways they could cope. THERAPIES PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPY - helps clients recognize their maladaptive coping strategies AVERSION THERAPY - makes the situation or and the sources of their unconscious conflicts. stimulus that was once no longer reinforcing. the person's ego uses certain strategies to disguise or transform unconscious wishes. RELAXATION EXERCISES - helps the individual voluntarily control physiological manifestations of anxiety. The objective of the therapy is to free clients from the grip of the past and give them a sense of agency in making changes in the present DEPRESSED MOOD DISORDER through:. The client’s free association in which client talks about whatever comes to MOOD DISORDER mind. a prolonged and disturbed emotional state The client’s resistance to certain that affects almost all of a person's thoughts material is an important clue. and behaviors. The client’s transference to the therapist. 1. UNIPOLAR DEPRESSION - when The client’s catharsis or the experiencing only depression and expression of emotions connected to not mania. individuals experience memories and conflicts. extreme happiness, lack of energy, and several related symptoms. HUMANISTIC THERAPY - clients discover their greatest potential through self-exploration. 2. BIPOLAR DEPRESSION - a mood disorder in which individuals Client-centered therapy is where the therapist experience very wide swings in communiced an empathic understanding of the mood, from deep depression to wild underlying feeling and the client's search for elation. self by way of reflection. UNIPOLAR DEPRESSION FAMILY SYSTEM THERAPY - help the MAJOR DEPRESSION DYSTHYMIC individual by treating the entire family system DISORDERS that created and is maintaining the individual's problems. At least five less severe than symptoms (including major depression but BEHAVIORAL FAMILY SYSTEM THERAPY - either depressed more chronic. A targets problem solving and family mood or loss of person diagnosed interest/pleasure) for with dysthymic communication, beliefs of adolescents and a minimum duration disorder must parents, and systematic barriers to problem of two weeks. These experience solving. symptoms of depressed mood plus impairment in social, two of the following EMOTION-FOCUSED THERAPY - focus on occupational, or other symptoms for at least difficulties in managing negative emotions and areas of functioning. 2 years: controlling impulsive behaviors. People who a. poor appetite or experience only one overeating The dialectical behavior therapy combines depressive episode b. Insomnia or principles of mindfulness, distress tolerance, receive a diagnosis of hypersomnia emotion regulation, and interpersonal major depression, c. low energy or effectiveness. These core components help single episode. Two fatigue individuals balance accepting themselves as or more episodes d. low self-esteem separated by at least e. poor concentration they are (the "dialectical" part) while also 2 months without or difficulty making working on changing harmful behaviors. symptoms merit the decisions diagnosis of major f. feelings of depression, hopelessness  recurrent. interpersonal rejection. - In DSM-5, both dysthymic disorder and major depressive episodes lasting longer with postpartum onset of major than 2 years may fall under proposed onset depressive episode diagnostic chronic depressive disorder. within four weeks of delivery of child - Unipolar depression is marked by at least with seasonal history of at least two two weeks of continually being in a bad pattern years in which major mood, having no interest in anything, and depressive episodes getting no pleasure in activities. occur during one season of the year. (usually winter) and remit when season is SUBTYPES OF MAJOR DEPRESSION over. AND THE DEPRESSIVE PHASE OF BIPOLAR DISORDER. inability to experience THEORIES OF UNIPOLAR pleasure, distinct depressive mood, DEPRESSION with melancholic depression regularly features worse in morning, BIOLOGICAL THEORIES of unipolar early morning depression focus on genetic, neurochemical, awakening, marked neuro endocrine factors. by psychomotor retardation or agitation, significant 1. Genetic Factors: Depression tends anorexia or weight to run in families, suggesting a loss, excessive guilt. genetic predisposition. Twin and family studies indicate higher rates with psychotic presence of of depression among relatives. features depressing delusions or hallucinations 2. Neurochemical Factors: with catatonic catatonic behavior: Imbalances in neurotransmitters, features catalepsy, excessive especially serotonin, norepinephrine, motor activity, severe and dopamine, are linked to disturbances in depressive symptoms. Lower levels speech or dysregulation in these chemicals with atypical positive mood are often observed in people with features reactions to some depression. events, significant weight gain or 3. Neuroendocrine Factors: increase in appetite, Abnormalities in the hypersomnia,heavy hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) or laden feelings in arms or legs, long- axis can increase cortisol levels, standing pattern of leading to a heightened stress sensitivity to  response, which is associated with Cohort effects differences in depression. depression rates across generations or age groups, often influenced by Depression has been linked to problems or shared historical, social, or imbalances in the brain with regard to the environmental factors neurotransmitter's serotonin, norepinephrine, Women are about twice as likely and dopamine. to experience depression: likely due to a combination of biological, Serotonin: involved in regulating hormonal, and social factors. many important physiological Hormonal changes, such as those (body-oriented) functions, including related to menstruation, pregnancy, sleep, aggression, eating, sexual postpartum, and menopause, can behavior, and mood. Decrease in impact mood regulation. Social and serotonin can cause depression, and psychological factors, like higher more specifically a mood state that rates of stress, caregiving can cause some people to feel responsibilities, and experiences of suicidal. trauma or abuse, also contribute to the higher prevalence of depression Antidepressant medications are known to act in women upon these particular neurotransmitters and their receptors.. BEHAVIORAL THEORIES - depression TREATMENTS OF UNIPOLAR suggests that people with much stress in their DEPRESSION lives may have too low a rate of reinforcement and too high a rate of punishment leading to depression. BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS: Drugs used to stressful events can lead to learned treat depression are called antidepressants. helplessness — the belief that nothing you do can control your Selective serotonin reuptake environment, which is linked to inhibitors (SSRIs), including depression. fluoxetine (Prozac), sertraline (Zoloft), paroxetine (Paxil), COGNITIVE THEORIES - argue that depressed fluvoxamine (Luvox), citalopram people have negative views of themselves, the (Celexa), and escitalopram world, and the future and engage in biased (Lexapro). thinking that promotes this negativity. Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), including INTERPERSONAL THEORIES - suggests that desvenlafaxine (Pristiq), venlafaxine people prone to depression are highly sensitive (Effexor), and duloxetine (Cymbalta). to rejection and engage in excessive Tricyclic antidepressant reassurance thinking. Bupropion (Wellbutrin) Monoamine oxidase inhibitors SOCIOCULTURAL THEORIES explain the differences in rates of depression among If with delusions or hallucinations, doctors may different demographic groups. prescribe additional medication.  Zoloft is the most prescribed antidepressant in the United States. If client does not feel better, it may BIPOLAR DISORDER have treatment-resistant depression.. Doctors often prescribed higher (but still safe) doses of antidepressant, or a combination of medications. MANIA HYPOMANIA Lithium or any mood stabilizers and - the signature - generally , a mild to thyroid hormone supplements also characteristics of moderate level of may be added to help the bipolar disorder, and mania, characterized antidepressant work better. depending on its by optimism, severity, is how the pressure of speech St. John’s wort is a herb sold without disorder is classified. and activity, and prescription. It may help some decreased need for - It is generally sleep. people with mild depression. It may characterized by a change the way other medicines distinct period of an - many people with work in the body including elevated hypomania are antidepressant and birth control pills. mood, which can take actually in fact more a form of productive than PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENTS: talk euphoria. usual, while manic individuals have therapy is counseling to talk about your feelings 1. increase energy difficulty completing and thoughts, and help you learn to deal with it. and decreased need tasks due to a for sleep shortened attention. Cognitive behavioral therapy teaches the client to challenge self- 2. pressured speech - some people have defeating, but enduring ways of with thoughts increased creativity thinking (cognitions) and change experienced as while others racing. demonstrate poor counterproductive behaviors. judgements and 3. attention span is irritability. Many Psychodynamic psychotherapy is low, and easily experience signature loosely based on psychoanalysis distracted. hypersexuality. and has an additional social and interpersonal focus. This 4. judgements may modification was found to be as be impaired, and sufferers may go on effective as medication for mild to spending sprees or moderate depression. engage in behavior that is quite abnormal Logotherapy, a form of existential for them. psychotherapy which addresses the filling of an “existential vacuum” 5. may indulge in substance abuse. associated with feelings of futility and meaninglessness. It may be 6. aggressively , useful for depression in older adults intolerant, or intrusive  episodes. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES - meta-analysis of Individuals with cyclothymia may experience: MRI studies in bipolar disorder reports an Hypomanic Episodes: periods of increase in the volume of the lateral elevated mood, increased energy, and ventricles, globus pallidus, and increase in heightened productivity, but not to the rates of deep white matter extent of a manic episode. hyperintensities. Depressive Episodes: periods of low BIPOLAR HAS AN EVEN GREATER mood, lack of energy, and feelings of CONNECTION TO GENETIC hopelessness, though these episodes FACTORS THAN DOES UNIPOLAR are also less severe than major DEPRESSION. depression. - the area of the brain most implicated in Sociocultural Theories - recent life events bipolar disorder are amygdala, prefrontal and interpersonal relationships contribute cortex, and stratum. to the likelihood of onsets and recurrences of dopamine is the Neurotransmitter bipolar mood episodes, as they do for onsets most implicated in bipolar disorder. and recurrences of unipolar depression. Third and a half of adults diagnosed BIPOLAR I BIPOLAR II with bipolar disorder report traumatic/abusive experiences in - one or more manic - no manic episodes, childhood, which is associated on episodes. but one or more average with earlier onset, a worse Subcategories hypomania episodes course, and more co-occuring specify whether there and one or more disorders such as PTSD. has been more than major depressive one episode,and the episodes. type of the most. recent episode. A.) hypomania TREATMENTS OF BIPOLAR episodes do not go a depressive to the full extremes of DEPRESSION or hypomania mania (do not usually episode is not cause severe social required for or occupational BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS - medications diagnosis, but impairment, and are used to treat bipolar disorder are known as it frequently without psychosis), mood stabilizers; these work by reversing occurs. and this can make manic or depressive episodes and preventing bipolar II more relapses. LITHIUM CARBONATE difficult to diagnose, ○ The first known and “gold since hypomania standard: mood stabilizer is episodes may simply lithium carbonate, which is appear as a period of effective in treating acute manic successful high episodes, and preventing productivity and is relapses, more so far manic than reported frequently for depressive episodes. than a distressing, ○ it is strongly linked to a reduced crippling depression. risk of suicide, self-harm, and death in people with bipolar disorder. SODIUM VALPORATE CYCLOTHMIA - a history of hypomanic ○ Initially used as anti-convulsant, episodes with periods of depression that do sodium valporate has become a not meet criteria for major depressive commonly prescribed treatment,  and it’s effective in treating manic episodes. CARBAMAZEPINE SUICIDE ○ became widely used to treat. bipolar disorder in the late 1980's (latin suicidium from sui caedere means “to kill and early 1990's but was replaced by sodium valporate in 1990's. It oneself”) is effective in treating manic - is the act of intentionally causing episodes, with some evidence it one’s own death. has greater benefit in rapid-cycling bipolar disorders, or those with more psychotic manic ➔ Suicide is the ultimate response to symptoms or a more depression, the cause of which can schizoaffective clinical picture. be attributed to mental disorder such LAMOTRIGINE as depression, schizophrenia, ○ has been shown to have some bipolar disorder, autism spectrum efficacy in treating bipolar disorder, alcoholism, or drug abuse. depression, and this benefit is greatest in more severe depression. Stress factors such as financial difficulties or troubles with interpersonal relationships often OMEGA 3 FATTY ACIDS play a significant role. ○ have beneficial effects on depressive symptoms, although 87% to 98% of suicides are studies have been scarce and of committed by people with some type variable quality. of mental disorder. PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENTS Broken down by type: mood disorders are Psychotherapy is aimed at alleviating core present in 30%, substance abuse in 18%, symptoms, recognizing episode triggers, schizophrenia in 14%, and personality disorders reducing negative expressed emotion in in 13% of suicides. relationships, recognizing prodromal About 5% of people with symptoms before full-blown recurrence, and schizophrenia die of suicide. practicing the factors that lead to Major depression and alcoholism are maintenance of remission. Cognitive behavioral therapy, the specific disorders most strongly family-focused therapy, and correlated with suicide risk. psychoeducation have the most evidence for efficacy in regard to. relapse prevention. Interpersonal and social rhythm CAN SUICIDE BE PREDICTED? therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy appear the most effective in regard to residual depressive Suicide often seems to occur not episodes. when the individuals are at their most depressed but rather when they show improvement. A period of calm following considerable agitation.  Persons who seriously think about suicide have different patterns of thoughts about death and it's effects. 2. PYCHOTHERAPEUTIC TALK - therapies reduce suicidal ideation such as dialectical behavioral THEORIES ON SUICIDE therapy (DBT) that helps reducing suicidality. Benefits include a Serotonin is a vital brain reduction in self-harm behaviors and neurotransmitter; in those have suicidal ideation. attempted suicide, it has been found that they have lower serotonin 2. COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY FOR levels, and individuals who have SUICIDE PREVENTION (CBT-SP) completed suicide have the lowest - is a form of DBT adapted for level. adolescents at high risk for repeated suicide attempts. Substance abuse is the second most common risk factor for suicide after major depression and bipolar disorder Genetic inheritance accounts for roughly 30-50% of the variance in suicide risk between individuals. Having a parent who has committed in suicide is strong predictor of suicide attempts. More than 50% of suicides have some relation to alcohol or drug use and 25% if suicides are committed by drug addicts and alcoholics.. TREATMENT ON SUICIDE 1. LITHIUM - has been effective with lowering the risk of suicide in those with bipolar disorder to the same levels as the general population. - Low doses of Lithium with minimal side effects has also proven effective in lowering the suicide risk in those with unipolar depression.