Abnormal Psychology Notes PDF

***PSY 111: ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY*** **MODULE 1**: Understanding Psychopathology **Psychological Disorder (abnormal behavior)** - A psychological dysfunction - Associated with distress or impairment in functioning - A response that is not atypical ----------------------------------------...

***PSY 111: ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY*** **MODULE 1**: Understanding Psychopathology **Psychological Disorder (abnormal behavior)** - A psychological dysfunction - Associated with distress or impairment in functioning - A response that is not atypical --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Phobia --** psychological disorder characterized by marked and persistent fear of an object or situation. This can be disabling and can put their health at risk. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - **Cause --** an event, condition, or characteristic without which the disease would not have occurred. - **Risk factor --** increases the chance of having a particular condition. **Types of Causes** ------------------------ ----------------------------------------------------------- **Necessary Cause** Condition that must exist for a disorder to occur. **Sufficient Cause** Guarantees the occurrence of a disorder. **Contributory Cause** Increase the probability of the occurrence of a disorder. **Time frame in which they operate** -------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Distal causal Factors** Occur relatively early in life but manifest their effects after many years. **Proximal causal factors** Operate shortly before the occurrence of symptoms. **Reinforcing contributory cause** Maintains the already occurring maladaptive behavior. **Factors** --------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Predisposing factors** Determine the vulnerability to other causes that are present at the time of illness. **Precipitating factors** Occur shortly before the onset of a disorder, trigger the onset of a problem. Can be linked to specific life events. **Perpetuating factors** Maintain a disorder once it occurs. - **Predisposing Factors** set the stage for vulnerability. - **Precipitating Factors** trigger the onset of the condition. - **Perpetuating Factors** sustain or worsen the condition over time. **5 D's of Abnormality** 1. **Dysfunction** - Breakdown in cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functioning **e.g.** severe fear all evening and happens every date though there is nothing to be afraid of, emotions are not functioning properly. 2. **Distress or Impairment** - Extremely upset ***Impairment:*** extreme expressions of otherwise normal emotions, behaviors, and cognitive processes. **e.g.** extreme shyness that hinders and avoids interactions with other people even though you'd like to have friends, social functioning is impaired. 3. **Deviance** - Deviates from the average. - The greater the deviation, the more abnormal it is. ***Violating Social Norms:*** useful for cultural differences in psychological disorders. ***Harmful dysfunction*:** behavior is out of the individual's control 4. **Danger** - Inflicts danger to self or other people. 5. **Duration** - Different mental health disorders and conditions are characterized by specific timeframes. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Accepted Definition:** | | | | describes behavioral, psychological, or biological dysfunctions | | | | that are unexpected in their cultural context and associated with | | | | present distress and impairment in functioning, or increased | | | | risk of suffering, death, pain, or impairment. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Science of Psychopathology** **Psychopathology --** scientific study of psychological disorders +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Efficacy --** treatment in the laboratory | | | | **Effectiveness --** treatment in real life situations. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Scientist-Practitioner** - Scientific approach to their clinical work. - **Consumer of Science:** enhancing - **Evaluator of Science:** determining effectiveness - **Creator of Science:** conducting the research **3 Basic Things from Conducting Research** - To describe disorders - To determine causes - To treat them **Clinical Description** - **Presenting Problem -** *Presents* is a way of indicating why the person came to the clinic. The first step to determine clinical description. - **Clinical --** types of problems or disorders. - **Prevalence --** how many new cases during a given period in the population. - **Incidence --** number of new cases. - **Sex Ratio --** percentage of males and females have the disorder - **Diagnosis --** if the presenting problem meets the criteria for a specific disorder. - **Course --** pattern of the disorder - ***Chronic course --*** lasting a long time/lifetime. - ***Episodic course --*** recovery within a few months only to suffer a recurrence later. - ***Time-limited course --*** disorder improves without treatment in a short period with little or no risk of recurrence. - **Onset --** the start of showing symptoms. - ***Acute onset --*** begin suddenly. Easier and faster to treat. - ***Insidious onset --*** develop gradually over period of time. - **Prognosis --** anticipated course of a disorder. - ***Good prognosis --*** individual will recover. - ***Guarded/Bad prognosis --*** probable outcome doesn't look good. **Developmental Psychology** study of changes in behavior over time --------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------- **Developmental Psychopathology** study of changes in abnormal behavior **Life-span Developmental Psychopathology** study of abnormal behavior across the entire age span **Etiology --** study of origins, why a disorder begins (cause) **Treatment --** drugs and/or psychosocial **Indigenous Concepts of Abnormality** - **Cultural Relativism --** view that there are no universal standards or rules for labeling a behavior abnormal. Behaviors can only be labeled such relative to cultural norms. - **Cultural Differences** - gender and culture can influence the ways people express symptoms and willingness to admit certain types of behaviors/feelings. - **Cultural Universality --** perspective that symptoms of mental disorders are the same in all cultures and societies. **Cultural Concept of Distress** - Refers to the way that individuals experience, understand, and communicate suffering, and behavioral problems. - Three Main Types: - **Cultural idioms of stress --** ways of expressing distress, collective, shared ways of experiencing about personal or social concerns. - **Cultural Explanations/**perceived causes -- labels, attributions, or features of an explanatory model that indicate culturally recognized meaning or etiology for symptoms. - **Cultural Syndromes --** clusters of symptoms and attributions that tend to co-occur among individuals in specific cultural groups. **MODULE 2.** Approaches to Psychopathology **Prototype --** common symptoms **Uni-dimensional & Multi-dimensional Approach** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Uni-Dimensional** | - Single cause | | | | | | - Linear causal model | | | | | | - Ignores critical information | | | | | | - Origins of behavior is a | | | single cause. | +===================================+===================================+ | **Multi-dimensional** | - Abnormal behavior results in | | | multiple influences | | | | | | - Independent inputs that | | | become dependent. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Multidimensional Perspective** - Behavioral Influences - Biological Influences - Emotional & Cognitive Influences - Social Influences A diagram of causes and causes Description automatically generated **4 Categories of Biological Factors to the Development of Maladaptive Behavior** - Genetic Vulnerabilities - Brain Dysfunction and Neural Plasticity - Neurotransmitter and Hormonal Abnormalities - Temperament **The Role of Genes** - **Genes --** long molecules of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) - **Genetic Endowment --** genes a person inherits from parents. - Each normal cell has 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. - **First 22 pair (autosomes) --** provide directions for the development of the body and brain - **23^rd^ pair (sex chromosome) --** determines an individual's sex. Both x chromosome for women, and y & x chromosome for men. - **Dominant Gene --** strongly influences a particular trait. - **Recessive Gene --** must have its pair of recessives to gain the trait. - **Coding DNA --** DNA sequence that defines a gene. - **Polygenic --** influenced by many genes but has little effect, environment contributed more. - **Genome --** set of genes (20,000 genes) - **Quantitative genetics --** sums up all the tiny effects across many genes. - **Molecular genetics --** focuses on examining the actual structure of genes. - Not all genes are influenced by environment: - Huntington's diseases (damage in basal ganglia) - PKU (causes intellectual disability) - **Genetic Locus --** specific location on a chromosome that codes for a gene. - **Polymorphism --** different forms of alleles (SNP). - **Genetic factors** - stability in cognitive abilities. - **Environmental factors** -- responsible for changes. - "Chaotic" childhood can influence genes. - Genetic variations can act as biological markers, which help locate genes that are associated with diseases. - **Adrenal Hormone Cortisol --** elevate blood sugar levels and increases metabolism. - **Genotype --** total genetic endowment - **Phenotype --** observable characteristics. **Dopamine** Schizophrenia, addictive disorders. -------------------- ------------------------------------- **GABA** Anxiety disorders **Norepinephrine** Emergency reactions of the body. **Serotonin** Mood, depression, and anxiety. **Methods of Determining Genetic Influences** **Family History** Degree of risk of relatives developing mental disorders. ---------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Twin Studies** Best indicators of whether biology affects traits and psychopathology in humans. **Adoption Studies** Psychopathology in their biological and adoptive parents. - **Temperament --** stable early appearing individual differences on our behavioral tendencies that has constitutional basis - **Five dimensions:** fearfulness, irritability and frustration, positive affect, activity level, and attentional persistence and effortful control. - **Neural Plasticity --** flexibility of the brain in making changes. **DIATHESIS-STRESS MODEL** - Individuals are assumed to inherit certain vulnerabilities that make them susceptible to a disorder with the right kind of stressor.  - The greater the underlying vulnerability, the less stress is needed to trigger a disorder. A diagram of a glass of alcohol Description automatically generated **GENE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION MODEL** - Reciprocal gene-environment model - Genetic vulnerability toward a certain disorder makes it more likely that the person will experience the stressor. - Tendency to create the environmental risk factors that trigger a genetic vulnerability. - **Evocative effect --** child's genotype evokes kinds of reactions from the social and physical environment. - **Active effect --** child's genotype may play a more active role in shaping the environment.  **EPIGENETICS** - Immediate effects of the environment impact cells that turn certain genes on or off. - Can be passed through generations. A logo with a circle and text Description automatically generated with medium confidence **NEUROSCIENCE AND ITS CONTRIBUTIONS TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY** - **Central Nervous System (CNS) --** processes all information received from our sense organs and reacts as necessary. - **Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) --** coordinates with the brain stem to make sure the body is working properly. - Brain dysfunction contributes to maladaptive behavior. - **Pituitary gland --** excretes hormones as well as stimulates others. **Neurotransmitters** - Carry messages from one neuron to another. - Research focuses on what happens when activity levels change. - **Agonists --** increase the activity of a neurotransmitter by mimicking its effects. - **Antagonists --** decrease or block a neurotransmitter. - **Inverse agonists --** produce effects opposite to those produced by the neurotransmitter. **Major Neurotransmitters**  A close-up of blue text Description automatically generated  A close-up of a white background Description automatically generated  **Major Hormones** A white background with blue text Description automatically generated  **Psychological Approaches** **Psychodynamic Perspective** - Unconscious determinants of behavior. - Attempt to restructure the individual's personality. - Early life experiences play a formative role in personality. - *Disorder:* imbalance between id's needs and the superego's restriction. Defects in the ego. - It will become concerning if an individual constantly uses one or two defense mechanisms only. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Narcissistic Defenses** | | +===================================+===================================+ | **Denial** | - Avoid awareness of some | | | painful aspect of reality. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Distortion** | - Reshaping external reality to | | | suit inner needs. | | | | | | - Blames other things because | | | of one's misfortunes. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Projection** | - Project bad qualities of | | | oneself to other people. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Immature Defenses** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Acting out** | - Expressing unconscious wish | | | through action to avoid being | | | conscious of an accompanying | | | affect. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Blocking out** | - Temporary inhibiting thinking | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Hypochon-** | - Exaggerating an illness for | | | evasion. | | **driasis** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Introjection** | - Internalizing the qualities | | | of an object. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Passive-** | - Expressing aggression | | | indirectly through passivity. | | **aggressive** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **regression** | - Attempt to return to an | | | earlier phase. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Schizoid fantasy** | - Indulging in autistic | | | retreat. | | | | | | - Daydreaming | | | | | | - Retreating in fantasy. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Somatization** | - Converting psychic | | | derivatives into bodily | | | symptoms. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Neurotic Defenses** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Controlling** | - Attempt to manage events in | | | the environment. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Displacement** | - Transferring one's emotional | | | burden or emotional reaction | | | from one person to another. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Externali-** | - Perceived in the external | | | world elements of one's own | | **zation** | personality. | | | | | | - Generalizing | | | | | | - "ang sama ng mundo." | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Inhibition** | - Limit some ego functions to | | | evade anxiety. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Intellectual-** | - Excessively using | | | intellectual processes. | | **lization** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Sexualization** | - Endowing an object with | | | sexual significance. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Isolation** | - Avoiding the experience | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Rationalization** | - Offering rational | | | explanations to justify | | | behavior. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Reaction** | - Replacing one's initial | | | impulse toward a situation or | | **formation** | idea with the opposite | | | impulse. | | | | | | - Tulak ng bibig, kabig ng | | | dibdib. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Dissociation** | - Modify a person's character | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Repression** | - Subconsciously blocking | | | undesirable ideas. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Mature Defenses** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Altruism** | - Constructive gratifying | | | service to others. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Anticipation** | - Planning for future inner | | | discomfort. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Asceticism** | - Eliminate pleasurable effects | | | of experiences. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Humor** | - Combating negative emotions | | | by using comedy. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Sublimation** | - Transforming one's anxiety | | | into pursuits considered by | | | societal norms (useful) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Suppression** | - Consciously blocking ideas. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Types of Anxiety:** | | | | - **Reality anxiety --** anxiety caused from actual dangers. | | | | - **Neurotic anxiety --** caused when id's impulses are threatening | | to break through ego. | | | | - **Moral Anxiety --** resulting from feelings of guilt. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - **Neurosis --** conflict between ego and id. - **Psychosis --** same conflict along with breakdown of outer reality and collapse of ego identity. - **Ego Psychology** -- ego and its function as the executive of personality. **Disorder:** develops when the ego doesn't make use of adequate and appropriate defense mechanisms. **Post-Freudian Psychodynamic Views** **C.G. Jung** \- goal of healthy personality development: integration of the unconscious life with conscious thoughts. \- psychological disorders: imbalance between two parts of the personality. **Alfred Adler** - Individual's relationship to society - psychological disorder: loss of social interest or a turning-away from fellow humans. **Karen Horney** - psychological disorder: inner world of the individual. They have become distanced from their true needs and desires. **Erik Erikson** - unconscious roots of personality and psychological disorder and development occurs throughout life span with a series of eight "crises." **OBJECT-RELATIONS THEORIES** - mother-child relationship. - Disorder: defects in the individual's sense of self. Failure to form an integrated approach. - **Object --** important people of the infant. - **Introjection --** process of incorporation. - **Melanie Klein** - Infant's active fantasy life built around parents. - Infant-mother dyad as the template for internal object relations. - ***Splitting --*** keeps positive object relations unit separate from negative counterpart. - Principal Positions: **Paranoid Schizoid and Depressive Positions** - ***Paranoid-schizoid --*** infant's tendency to use splitting to divide the world into good and bad objects. - ***Paranoid Anxiety --*** project own badness to others and then fear that those projected badness would attack them. - ***Depressive Position --*** integration of the bad and the good that had been split from each other. Feels love & hate toward parents. - **Heinz Kohut** - Disorder: disturbed sense of self. - Failure of parental empathy -- develop intrapsychic structures that can regulate self-esteem and calm the self. - Centered on narcissism (positive) - "self-object experiences" -- parent is experienced as part of oneself. - Three self-object needs: - **Mirroring --** caregiver recognizes child's capabilities and affirms the child's feelings of strength. - **Idealization --** children need someone they can admire and idealize. - **Twinship or alter-ego --** sense of alikeness to caregivers. - **Margaret Mahler** - Disorder: a problem arises at any phases of the development. - **Separation-individuation process --** key to contribution to the field of developmental psychoanalysis. - First 3 years of life is based on a symbiotic relationship. - The child takes all the positive and negative aspects of the mother. **HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE** - Belief that human motivation is based on an inherent tendency to strive for self-fulfillment and meaning in life. - Disorder: blocking one's potential for living to full capacity resulting in a state of ***incongruence*** -- a mismatch between a person's self-perception and reality *(person-centered approach.)* - Or those who were subjected to parents who were too critical and demanding as a child. - **Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs** - Needs for self-actualization to reach potential for psychological growth. - Disorder: degree of deviation from the ideal state of being and/or the suppression of the higher-level needs required to achieve actualization. - **Carl Rogers: Person-centered Therapy** - **Unconditional Positive Regard --** acceptance of the client's feelings and actions, critical to humanistic approach. **BEHAVIORAL APPROACH** - More scientific approach - **Ivan Pavlov: Classical Conditioning** - Emotions and behaviors are acquired through the pairing of a neutral and an emotion-provoking stimuli. - Learning through conditioning. - Disorder: failure in learning adaptive behavior or learning inappropriate behavior. - **B.F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning** - A type of learning in which behavior changes as a function of what follows the behavior. - Shaping -- process of reinforcing successive approximations to a final behavior. (important method for treatment of certain behavioral problems.) **COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL APPROACH** - Thoughts and information processing can become distorted and lead to maladaptive emotions and behavior. - **Schema --** representation of knowledge that guides the current processing of information and often leads to distortions in attention, memory, and comprehension - **Ellis --** irrational beliefs - **Beck --** dysfunctional attitudes - **Meichenbaum --** people create their own unhappiness by having unduly negative thoughts about their situations. - **George Kelly --** disorder occurs when constructs fail to organize the individual's world. **Cultural, Social, & Interpersonal Factors** - **Social factors --** environmental influences often unpredictable and uncontrollable negative events that can affect a person psychologically.