AA-PLANNING-1-3 PDF - Site Planning and Landscape Architecture

PLANNING 1 determine whether the land is suitable for the proposed use. If the land is found suitable, the data should be analyzed INTRODUCTION TO SITE PLANNIN...

PLANNING 1 determine whether the land is suitable for the proposed use. If the land is found suitable, the data should be analyzed INTRODUCTION TO SITE PLANNING AND LANDSCAPE further to establish other specific parameters of the site. ARCHITECTURE These include items such as: SITE PLANNING Site Planning is the art of arranging structures on the land The best area to locate the building due to: and shaping the spaces between, an art linked to - Soil condition architecture, engineering, landscape architecture, and city - Topography planning. - Soil erosion It is the organization of the external physical environment to - Drainage patterns accommodate human behavior. It deals with the qualities - Land contour. and locations of structures, land, activities, and living things. - Natural attractions of the site It creates a pattern of those elements in space and time, which will be subject to continuous future management and Further studies, if needed, should be provided such as: change. The technical output- the grading plans, utility - Computer applications in site planning - Computer layouts, survey locations, planting plans, sketches, graphics for easy pictorial and analytical studies diagrams, and specifications- is simply a conventional way - Perspective and isometric depictions of topography of specifying the complex organization. - Slope analysis Professionals related to this practice are the Architects, - Cut-and-fill calculations Landscape Architects, Engineers, and Environmental - Watershed analysis Planners - for large-scale projects. Kindly refer to Republic - Simulation studies Act 10587 or the Environmental Planning Act of 2013. THE SEQUENCE OF THE SITE PLAN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE Landscape Architecture is a profession that deals with the act of planning, designing, specifying, supervising, and giving general administration and responsible direction to the functional, orderly, and aesthetic arrangement, changing, and development of natural scenery and land areas to produce the most desirable effect for human use and enjoyment of various outdoor spaces which consist of landscape components and the softscape of plants; the protection, conservation and rehabilitation of the natural environment and scenery to enhance the ecological system and quality of life; and as further defines by Republic Act 9053 otherwise known as the "Philippine Landscape Architecture Act of 2000". A Landscape Architect is a person qualified to practice said profession. SURVEY PRELIMINARY SITE INVESTIGATION AND ANALYSIS A survey is a checklist of information or data about a site. The process of site planning begins with the gathering of The kind of data that would be required in some rather basic data relating specifically to the site under normal examples of site planning. Such a list would be consideration and the surrounding areas. drawn up after an initial analysis of the problem. To guide The data should include such items as master plans and the first survey, information would be gathered continuously studies, zoning ordinances, base and aerial maps, surveys, as the problem develops. topographic data, geological information, hydrographic data, soil classification, vegetation, and existing Steps that could be followed in conducting a survey (Based easements. on Kevin Lynch): After all information has been obtained, it must be 1. Initial personal reconnaissance notes, sketches, examined and analyzed. photos – apparent character, problems, and Establish the site’s advantages and limitations. possibilities. Conclusions should be established. 2. Collation of existing data: base and contour maps, After a thorough analysis of the site and after all aerial photos, geological soil and water surveys, conclusions have been studied, it is then possible to climate records, ecological studies, engineering reports, borings, census materials, histories, social  studies market reports, traffic studies, legal and public - Location, elevation, and capacity control documents, official proposals, record of current g. Sensuous qualities controversies. - Character and relations of visual spaces - Viewpoints, vistas, visual focal points 3. Summary description of the off-site context and its - Character and rhythm of visual sequences changes: geographic location, surrounding - Quality and variation of light, sound, smell, and feel populations, social and political structure, general economy, ecological and hydrographic system, land 5. Data Correlation use patterns, access system, principal off-site - Classification of the site by areas of similar structures, destinations, and facilities. quality, and problems - Identification of significant key points, lines, and areas 4. Data on the site and its immediate context: - Analysis of current and likely future changes in the A. PHYSICAL DATA dynamic aspect of the site a. Geology and Soil - Identification of significant problems and possibilities - Underlying geology, rock character and depth. - Soil type and depth, value as an engineering material, and Take Note: plant medium When selecting a site, it should be noted that future - Fill, ledge, slides, subsidence considerations and expansion should be met. Never select a b. Hydrology site for its immediate application. - Existing water bodies – variation and purity - Natural and man-made drainage channels- flow capacity purity GEOLOGY is the natural science that studies the Earth - its - Surface drainage pattern, amount, blockages, untrained composition; the processes that shaped its surface; and its depressions history. - Water table- elevation and fluctuation, springs - Water supply- quantity and quality TYPES OF ROCK c. Topography 1. IGNEOUS ROCK- rocks produced by crystallization - Pattern of landforms from a liquid. - Contours 2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- when igneous rocks are - Slope analysis exposed to the surface and weathering reduces them - Visibility analysis to particles, these particles are moved by an erosional - Circulation analysis process and deposited in layers into rivers and oceans. - Unique features 3. METAMORPHOSED ROCKS- when sedimentary d. Climate rocks are pushed to deeper levels of the earth, they - Regional data on the variation of temperature, transform into metamorphosed rocks due to changes precipitation, humidity, solar angle, cloudiness, wind in pressure and temperature. direction, and force - Local microclimates: warm and cool slopes, air drainage, Two (2) main ways in which geology influences the site wind deflection, local breeze shade, heat deflection and planning decision-making process: storage, plant indicators 1. The soil-bearing capacity limits what can be built on - Sound levels, smell, atmospheric quality the site. e. Ecology 2. The presence of geological features that restrict the - Dominant plant/ animal communities- location and relative options for development because of varying degrees of stability hazard to life. - Their dependence on existing factors, self-regulation, and sensitivity to change GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS - Mapping of general plant cover, including wood areas Geophysical Investigations are made to determine the - Specimen trees to be retained: their location, spread, geologic conditions that affect the design, safety, species, and elevation at the base effectiveness and cost of a proposed project. f. Man-made structures Geophysical exploration methods: seismic, electrical - Existing buildings outline, location, floor, elevations, type resistivity, sonic, electrical logging, magnetic and gravity condition use methods - Circulation facilities (roads, paths, rails, transit, etc.) Subsurface borings: probing, wash borings, core drilling, location, capacity, and condition calyx drilling, borehole photography, chum drilling, jack, - Utilities (storm and sanitary sewers, water, gas, electricity, and hammer drilling telephone, steam etc.) Test pits, trenches, tunnels. - Geological faults are lines of weakness caused by GEOMORPHOLOGY is that branch of Geology that deals with previous movements of the earth’s crust and always the origin, nature, and distribution of landforms. have a potential for further movement. If a building is to be built in areas susceptible to earthquakes, special Physiography - refers to the description of landforms. precautions must be taken to enable the buildings and Landforms – are irregularities on the earth’s surface. They structures to withstand the movement. This will add are derived from volcanic, glacial, or erosional processes. substantially to site development costs. When designing a piece of property for architectural, landscape architectural, and engineering usage, it is essential for the designer to first confront the nature of the land, particularly its form, its slopes, and its inherent capabilities for surface and subsurface discharge of water, for supporting vertical and horizontal structures, and for resisting erosion. This exercise requires four basic geomorphologic information such as: a. Soil Properties b. Drainage c. Topography and Slopes d. Soil Erosion A. SOIL PROPERTIES 1. Soil Profile Fault Types: (1) Quiescent Fault; (2) Normal Fault; (3) Thrust and Reverse; (4) Lateral Slip, Strike-Slip or Transform Fault; (5) Normal and Slip Fault Combination; (6) Graben; and (7) Horst. - Rock Outcrops on the site can be both problems and assets depending on the purpose for which the site is to be developed. For leisure areas, these rock outcrops can be used as part of the landscape, i.e., used for rock, climbing, fossil finding, as habitats for relatively rare wildlife. If used for other purposes aside from recreation, rock outcroppings can be costly to remove, obliterate, or hide. - Mineral Reserve: The site planner needs to establish if the rocks, gravel deposits or sands underlying the project area are of any economic value. Legend: - Critical Subsurface Problems: O - a thin organic-rich layer at the surface that consists o Geologic fault lines of devaluating plant material and humus o High or fluctuating water table A - also known as the topsoil layer, it consists of o Presence of peat or other organic soils, or of soft organic material mixed completely with the mineral soil plastic clay, loose slit, or fine water-bearing sand particles o Rock close to the surface B - also known as the subsoil, it is the next layer where o New, unconsolidated fill or land previously used as materials leached from the overlying soil layers have a dump, esp. if any toxic material may be present. been deposited o Evidence of slides, floods, or subsidence C - represents the unconsolidated material that has not o Soil Liquefaction - generally associated with the been affected by the soil formation process reduction in strength and stiffness of soil because Bedrock or Ledge - if it exists near the surface, it is of increased pore water pressure caused by found below the C horizon, and bedrock is found earthquake shaking or rapid loading. directly below the B horizon. o Presence of underground caverns 2. Soil texture o Landslips occur where surface materials are not - Soil is made up of a mixture of stone and earth. yet at a stable angle about the local geological - Soil can be classified either through a laboratory test or structure. a field test. - Soil can be identified by such characteristics as the kind and number of horizons or layers that have  developed in them. The texture (the relative amount of - Infiltration - the rate at which water penetrates the soil stones, gravel, sand, silt, and clay), the kinds surface (usually measured in cm or inches per hour); of minerals present and their amounts, and - Permeability - the rate at which water within the soil the presence of salts and alkali. moves through a given volume of material (also - Stone: 3.00” and above measured in cm or inches per hour) - Gravel: 0.08” – 3.00” - Percolation - the rate at which water in a soil pit or pipe - Sand: 0.08” – 0.0002” within the soil is taken up by the soil (used mainly in - Silt: 0.0002” – 0.00008” wastewater absorption tests and measured in inches - Clay: 0.00008” and lower per hour) 3. Soil Engineering Properties o POOR DRAINAGE means that gravity water is not - Soil Stability readily transmitted by the soil and soil is frequently or Shear strength determines the stability of soil and permanently saturated and may have water standing on its ability to resist failure under loading. Shear it caused by: strength is the result of internal friction and - The local accumulation of water. cohesion. Internal friction is the resistance to - A rise in the level of groundwater within the soil column. sliding between soil particles, and cohesion is the - The size of the particles in the soil being too small to mutual attraction between particles due to transmit infiltration water. moisture content and molecular forces. Under typical conditions, sand and gravel are C. TOPOGRAPHY cohesion less. Clay soils have higher cohesion but The topographic surface, the boundary between earth and little internal friction. air, is the zone richest in living things. It has implications for As a rule, the slopes constructed on cohesive soils site development. The topography itself sometimes require flatter angles as the height of the slope determines the plan. The gradient of paths, the flow of increases. Because of their internal friction, the utilities, the use of areas, the disposition of buildings, and shear strength of sand and gravel increases about the visual aspect are all affected by it. increased normal pressure; therefore, the angle of slope need not decrease with increased height. Topography is the art or practice of graphic or exact Care must be taken when construction takes place delineation in minute detail, usually on maps or charts of at the top or bottom or a relatively large slope, and the physical features of any place or region, especially particular attention must be given to the handling about their exact position and elevation. Topographic of the storm runoff. elevations are indicated along given contour lines. A Soil failure occurs when shear stress exceeds graphic and numerical scale is displayed at the base of the shear strength. The reason for failure is either drawing. increased stress or decreased strength brought about by natural or human-induced activity, i.e., Contours are sets of imaginary lines in a topography map when the load at the top of a slope is increased or that connect all points of some arbitrary equal elevation on lateral support at the base of a slope is removed the ground. through excavation or erosion; when the moisture of the soil is increased, etc. To avoid costly construction and to make maximum use of - Soil Bearing Capacity grade variation, plans should always be studied about Soil Bearing Capacity is the ability of the surface accurately drawn topographical maps or sketches, if and subsurface material to carry the weight of the possible, directly over them. structures. The weight of the building can cause the settlement of the solid which in time can Topographic Maps are printed in 5 colors: damage the building. - Black - cultural features such as roads, railroads, and - Soil for Landscaping civil boundaries Topsoil is a critical medium for plants. - Blue- water bodies - Green- woodlands Soil Features: Excellent Drainage; Content of - Red- developed urban areas. Humus; Relative Acidity (pH); and Presence of - Brown- contour line Available Nutrients particularly Potassium, Phosphorus, and Nitrogen B. DRAINAGE o GOOD DRAINAGE refers to the soil’s ability to transfer gravity water downward through: 1. DRAWING A SECTION - It is adaptable to a great variety of planning forms (groupings of buildings) - it is adequate for all types of street patterns. Disadvantages of a Level Site - The grouping of buildings should be carefully studied to create satisfactory system of drainage. - Surfaces or recreation areas and yards require some pitch for discharging water to surface inlets. TYPES OF BUILDING LAYOUTS SUITABLE FOR LEVEL SITES a. ELEVATIONS Steps: 1. Indicate the cutting plane. 2. Draw parallel lines according to contour interval and proposed vertical scale. b. PLANS 3. Project perpendicular lines from the intersection of the contour line with the cutting plane to the corresponding parallel line. 4. Connect the points to complete the section and delineate the ground line. 2. SLOPE ANALYSIS Slope Analysis is useful for deciding on the distribution of land use to have a plan showing the location of the vertical and near-vertical banks, the very steep land, the steep land, the moderately sloping land, the gently sloping land, and the flat land. Slope and Land Use: do not drain well. usable for all kinds of activities 4-10% --------> suitable for movement and informal activity >10% --------> can be actively used only for hill sports or free play 17% --------> approaches the limit that an ordinary loaded vehicle can climb, for any sustained period. 20-25% --------> normal limit of climb for pedestrians without resorting to stairs. >50% --------> may require terracing or cribbing. ANGLE OF REPOSE - the angle at which soil can be safely inclined and beyond which it will fail. 4. SLOPING AND ROLLING TERRAIN Sloping Terrain A Slope Map is prepared to visually express these slope Next to a level site, a sloping site provides the planner with patterns on the topographic map. a variety of building types and groupings. Different street patterns could be employed. 3. LEVEL SITE - Advantages of a Sloping site: Though not completely without problems, the level site a. Variety of building types and building groupings offers the planner the best and easiest solution to site b. Drainage problems are simpler. Water flows to development. lowest level Advantages of a Level Site c. Adaptable to a great variety of street patterns - Economical in site development  Rolling Terrain - The velocity of runoff is closely related to the slope of More difficult to manage but creates a far more interesting the ground over which it flows. Slopes that are both land development. steep and long produce the greatest erosion because - Advantages of a Rolling terrain: they generate runoff that is high in velocity and mass. a. More interesting land development could attract - Slope also influences the quantity of runoff since long high-end buyers. slopes collect more rainfall and thus generate a larger b. Economies of the first cost in sewer and drainage volume of runoff. lines d. Frequency and Intensity of Rainfall c. The practice of building parallel to contours will - Intensive rainfalls produced by thunderstorms promote reduce costly construction, grading, and filling. the highest rates of erosion. d. On very steep sites, the building itself could serve - Accordingly, the incidence of storms plus total annual as the retaining wall. rainfall can be a reliable measure of the effectiveness - Disadvantages of a Rolling terrain: of rainfall in promoting soil erosion. a. Less variety of street patterns b. Less variety of building type The geomorphological processes that interest the site planner are those that have an impact on the land over a 5. IRREGULAR SHAPE AND SITES WITH ADVERSE relatively short time scale, and particularly those that might CONDITION leave the surface unstable and difficult to develop. - Planning problems inherent in the site: - Erosion and deposition along rivers results in rivers a. Unsuitable for low-rent housing changing their course and making it ill-advised to b. Difficult street pattern: a mixture of meandering develop near them, or in the slow eating away of the and curvilinear could be used. land along parts of the river, while along others the silt c. Complex building arrangement is slowly deposited. d. Abnormal grading arrangement - Erosion is any process by which sediment is entrained e. Limited natural platforms and space for buildings (eroded) and moved away from its original location by and tenant yards gradational agents, which include gravity, water, wind, f. Inefficient utility layout ice, and humans. g. Expensive and extensive drainage layout - Sedimentation is the deposition and accumulation of h. Unusable fragmented areas transported sediment, or precipitation of deposits from i. Force high site improvement costs and recurring water. maintenance problems. - Erosion of cliffs by the sea - Rocks breaking away from mountainsides because of D. SOIL EROSION frost action on the joints. SOIL EROSION – when rocks are broken down - Landslips occur where surface materials are not yet at (weathered) into small fragments, and carried by wind, a stable angle in relation to the local geological water, ice, and gravity. Energy for this process is solar and structure. gravitational. Four factors to consider in forecasting erosion rates: HYDROLOGY a. Vegetation WATERSHED- a geographic area of land bounded by - Foliage intercepts raindrops topographic features and height of land that captures - Organic litter on the ground reduces the impact of precipitation, filters and stores water, and drains waters raindrops. to a shared destination. Knowledge of watershed - Roots bind together aggregates of soil particles. boundaries is critical to water quality and stormwater - Cover density, in the form of ground cover or tree management. canopy, decreases soil loss to runoff. b. Soil Type AQUIFIERS are underground “reservoirs” of water. - Intermediate textures like sand will usually yield The water is not usually held in ponds of water but in (erode) first. the pores between individual particles which make up - To erode clay, the velocity of the runoff should be high the rock, or in the fissures of the rock. It is the water enough to overcome cohesive forces that bind the tapped when drilling artesian wells. particles together. - Similarly, high velocities would be needed to move Careful use of the site is important to protect the masses of pebbles and particles larger than those of aquifers. Contamination of the soil can cause damage sand. to the underground water. An aquifer can be c. Slope Size and Inclination  contaminated by apparently normal events such as oils from automobiles, fertilizers, waste disposal, etc. b. Environmental Engineering 1. Air Purification – Plants clean air through the WATER TABLE is the upper boundary of the zone of process of photosynthesis where they use up groundwater, the top of an unconfined aquifer. carbon dioxide emissions from cars and trucks - Low Water Table - a problem for water supply and and in the process release oxygen in the air. vegetation Trees also help filter out other pollutants, i.e. sulfur - High Water Table - the site is liable to flood, difficulties dioxide, dust, pollen, and smoke. in excavation cause flooding in basements, flood utilities, and unstable foundations. 2. Noise – To understand noise: - Fluctuating Water Table - will cause heavy clay soil The sound level of normal conversation is about alternatively to shrink and swell which damages the 60 decibels; a plane taking off produces 120 building foundation. decibels at 200 ft. - Underground Water Course - critical and no structure should be sited over them. Sound energy usually spreads out and dissipates in transmission. Sound waves can be absorbed, FLOODPLAIN is a larger area with a low to moderate reflected, or deflected. flood susceptibility. A floodway is an area contained within a floodplain that has a high susceptibility to flood Plants absorb sound waves through their leaves, within which flood is unmanageable. branches, and twigs, especially those with thick fleshy leaves and thin petioles. STORM SURGE results from high winds forcing water ashore above normal tide levels. The surge is the Tree trunks deflect sounds, and it has been difference in water level elevation between the normal estimated that a 100 ft. depth of forest can reduce tide level and the storm tide. sound by 21 decibels. 3. Glare and Reflection- Plants reduce glare and reflection caused by sunlight. A light source VEGETATION received directly produces primary glare while The relevance of Plant Materials in site planning is in reflected light is secondary glare. Plants may be their role in: used to filter or block glare by use of plants with a. Climatic control the appropriate size, shape, and foliage density. 1. Solar Radiation – is Earth’s source of light and heat. It warms the earth’s surface, is reflected by 4. Erosion Control- Plants are a primary means of paving and other objects, and produces glare. preventing erosion from stormwater runoff and of Trees are one of the best controls for solar controlling erosion during construction. Erosion is radiation because: also minimized by the plant's action of intercepting  they block or filter sunlight. rain, decreasing splash, and increasing water  they cool the air under their canopies absorption. providing natural air conditioning. Scientists have recorded that with an air - Vegetation with extensive root systems imparts temperature of 84deg F, the surface temp of stability to slopes. concrete paving was 108deg, while the surface - On sandy slopes, the presence of woody temp under shade trees was 20deg lower. vegetation can increase the angle of repose by 10 2. Wind – helps to control temperature. When winds to 15 degrees. are of low velocity, they may be pleasant, but when velocity increases, may cause discomfort or c. Architectural and Aesthetic Uses damage. 1. Space Definition – Plants can help in several Trees help to buffer winds in urban areas caused ways: As wall elements to form outdoor spaces, as by convection and Venturi effects. canopies to provide shade, or as ground covers to 3. Precipitation- Plants help to control precipitation provide color and texture on the base plane. reaching the ground. By intercepting rain and 2. View Control – While trees and shrubs can slowing it down, they aid in moisture retention, and screen out objectionable views, they can also in the prevention of soil erosion. They also help provide backdrops for sculpture and fountains. soil retain water by providing shade, or protection Additionally, they may provide filtered views of from the wind, or by water shedding function of buildings or spaces, or frame a view, maximizing trees’ roots. its effect.  3. Mood – Plants affect peoples’ moods. Use the sun’s radiation and solar panels to provide supplementary heat and energy for cooling. WILDLIFE Consider the wind also as a time tested source of energy. Wildlife relates closely to habitats provided by plant Utilize the evaporation of moisture as a primary method of communities. The three groups of habitat elements essential to cooling. Air moving across any moist surface, be it the different species of wildlife are: masonry, fabric or foliage, is thereby made cooler. 1. Open land Wildlife – includes birds and mammals Maximize the beneficial effects of adjacent water bodies. commonly associated with crop fields, meadows, These temper the atmosphere of the warmer or cooler pastures, and non-forested lands. Habitat elements adjacent lands. essential for open land wildlife include: Introduce water. The presence of water in any form, from - Grain and seed crops film to waterfall, has a cooling effect, both physically and - Grasses and legumes psychologically. - Wild herbaceous upland plants Preserve the existing vegetative cover. It ameliorates - Hardwood woody plants climatic problems in many ways: 2. Woodland Wildlife- These species need various - It shades the ground surface. combinations of: - It retains the cooling moisture of precipitation. - Grasses and legumes - It protects the soils and environs from the freezing - Wild herbaceous upland plants winds. - Hardwood woody plants - It cools and refreshes heated air by evapotranspiration. - Cone-bearing shrubs such as pines. - It provides sunscreen, shade, and shadow. 3. Wetland Wildlife- wetland species include birds and - It helps prevent rapid runoff and recharge the water- mammals needing habitats with: bearing soil strata. - Wetland food plants or wild herbaceous plants of moist - It checks the wind. to wet sites, excluding submerged or floating aquatic Install new plantings where needed. They may be plants; utilized for various types of climate control. - Shallow water development with water impoundments Windscreens, shade trees, and heat-absorptive not deeper than 5 ft.; ground covers are examples. - Excavated ponds with ample supply of water at least Consider the effects of altitude. The higher the altitude one acre and average 6ft depth. and latitude (in the northern hemisphere), the cooler or - streams colder the climate. Reduce the humidity. Generally speaking, a decrease in the humidity affects an increase in bodily comfort. CLIMATE Dry cold is less chilling than wet cold. Dry heat is less MICROCLIMATOLOGY is the study of climatic conditions enervating than wet heat. Humidity can be decreased within a limited area. It is sometimes referred to as the “science by induced air circulation and the drying effects of the of small-scale weather”. It may be inferred that the purpose of sun. the scientific study is to discover facts and principles which may be applied to improve the human condition. This is precisely the Avoid undrained air catchment areas and frost pockets. case. Avoid winter winds, floods, and the paths of crippling storms. All can be charted. Microclimatic Principles: Whatever the climate or weather, Explore and apply all natural forms of healing and when it comes to planning an agreeable living environment cooling before turning to mechanical (energy many microclimatic principles can be applied to advantage. consuming) devices. Among them are these: Eliminate the extremes of heat, cold, humidity, air MICROMATOLOGY NOTES movement, and exposure. This can be achieved by Ideal climate for Human comfort - clear, air, intelligent site selection, plan layout, building orientation, temperature in the 50-80 degrees Fahrenheit (10-27 and the creation of climate-responsive spaces. deg. Celsius), humidity bet. 40-75%, air which is Provide direct structural protection against the discomfort of neither stagnant nor subject to severe prevailing winds, solar radiation, precipitation, wind, storm and cold. and protection from precipitation. (Body temperature Respond to the seasons. Each presents its problems; each 37 deg. C.) provides its opportunities for adaptation and enjoyment. The sun’s orbit and angle of incidence vary with the Adjust community site, and building plans to the movement seasons. By orientation, screening, and overhang, the of the sun. the design of living areas, indoors and out, amount of sunlight admitted to the interior can be should ensure that the favored type and amount of light are precisely controlled. received at the favored time. Temperature and air flow inside and outside a building - can be modified by orientation and siting, construction  techniques, and tree planting, i.e., huts on stilts, narrow Plant materials, both trees and shrubs, are an integral streets in North African towns, windowless thick-walled part of the site design. They serve not only as aesthetic houses with courtyards and arcades in ancient Rome. elements but buffer strips, screens, and dividers. Effect of soil - dry soil (sand, gravel, and the like) result in higher temperatures and lower humidity; wet soils, SUN ORIENTATION- Orientation for sun and prevailing loams, and predominantly clay soils in poorly drained summer breezes always merits consideration. Latitude marshy areas tend to lower temperatures and higher determines the orientation of the sun whereas local conditions humidity. determine the summer breeze. Orientation for sunlight is the Effect of water - land is warmer on the lee side of a lake most successful when sunshine is made available in kitchens or ocean (winter) and cooler in the summer; large and some sun reaches each room at some time of the day. bodies influence humidity and microclimate. Climate- interacting variables including temperature, WIND ORIENTATION- Basically, plants control wind by water vapor, wind, solar radiation, and precipitation. obstruction, guidance, by deflection and filtration. The Plants and natural vegetation are good indicators of differentiation is based not only on the degree of effectiveness microclimate - plants that thrive best in moist, cool of plants but on the techniques of placing them. situations will be found in areas of higher precipitation It must be remembered that plants as natural elements are not or north-facing slopes. predictable in size, shape, and growth rate and consequently in Shade patterns of trees and buildings create their absolute effectiveness. Obstruction with trees as with all microclimate. other barriers reduces the wind speed by increasing the Effect of topography - valleys and ridges resistance to wind flow. Coniferous and deciduous trees and Effect of water - land is warmer on the lee side of a lake shrubs used individually or in combination affect air movement. or ocean (winter) and cooler in the summer, large Windbreaks and Shelterbelts bodies influence humidity and microclimate. Four (4) of the ways in which windbreaks reduce wind Effect of the sun - the difference between concrete and speed horizontally: grass was 10 degrees even in the shade. 1. By absorbing some of the energy of the wind - Under the full sun- concrete 110 degrees, asphalt 124 2. By frictional drag as the air passes through and degrees Fahrenheit, grass 95 deg. Fahrenheit. around the plants - Shade patterns important in the use of outdoor spaces 3. By deflecting some of the wind to higher levels 4. By making the wind move in random patterns so Effect of wind- windbreaks by solid screens create that it becomes turbulent turbulence on the lee; whereas permeability of plants permits certain amounts to move through less turbulence and greater shelter; wind tunnel devices are used to predict the flow of air around and over buildings. FACTORS AFFECTING BUILDING LOCATION AND ORIENTATION The location of buildings on a site or its relationship to other buildings is extremely important. If properly situated, the building achieves harmony with the topography, livability is enhanced, drainage problems are minimized, and the building’s functional efficiencies are increased. If the building is not properly situated, many problems that cannot easily be corrected can and will ensue. Orientation of the building to sun, wind and vista is a basic consideration. Siting a building to conform with its topography will result in a minimum of necessary grading, reduce initial construction cost, and eliminate continuous drainage problems. Noise pollution has now become a serious problem in both urban and suburban areas. This can be controlled or minimized by the judicious placements of the structure on the site. Extent of shelter from wind provided by a bldg. is hardly affected NOISE CONTROL by its width. Site exposure to Roadway noise To evaluate the site’s exposure to roadway noise, we need to consider all major roads within 1000 feet (304 meters) of the sisite.n evaluation of the problem is undertaken by coming out with a list.' Obtain available information, especially of proposed plans and developments such as road widening and roadway changes in traffic in the next 10-15 years. Noise control could be achieved using the following: The extent of shelter from wind provided by bldg. increases in Adjustment for stop-and-go traffic proportion to its length. Adjustment to Mean Traffic Speed Barrier Adjustment: formed by the road profile, by a solid wall or embankment, by a continuous row of buildings, or by the terrain itself. To be an effective shield, the barrier must block all residential levels of all buildings from line-of- sight exposure to the road, and it must not have any gaps that would allow noise to leak through. Truck traffic Adjustment of Road Gradient Site exposed to Railway Noise Consider all above-ground rapid- transit lines and railroads within 3000 feet (915 meters) from the site Noise control could be achieved by the following: An effective barrier block Extent of shelter from wind provided by bldg. increases in Customer relations: by reducing travel operations during proportion to its height. night times. Site exposed to Aircraft Noise Consider all airport, both commercial and military, within 15 miles (24km) Are noise exposure forecast or composite noise rating contours available? Any available information regarding approved plans for runway changes? Know the number of daytime and more importantly night time jet operations. Are there any super-sonic jet operations? What are the flight paths of the major runways? Landscape for Noise Control The roof pitch of a building affects the extent of shelter from When external noise cannot be muffled at the source, wind. landscape barriers can provide some control within the site. Barriers generally involve shielding or absorption, or both.  - Combination of trees, low foliage, and ground cover Self-Esteem needs - need to be held in esteem by oneself and provides noise attenuation when significant masses of by others. such absorbing vegetation are involved. Cognitive needs - need to learn. - Foliage should be 500-1000 feet (152-305 meters) Aesthetic needs - need for sense of beauty. deep to diminish properly the intensity of normal traffic Actualization needs - need to fulfill one's capacities/potential. noise. Self-Transcendence - spirituality BEHAVIOR AND ENVIRONMENT The interaction between human behavior and the nonhuman environment is a two-way process. Behavior is the result of interaction between: - The environment / physical factors - The individuals' physiological/ biological mechanism and -psychological factors. In design, we consider 3 human factors: physical, physiological, and psychological factors: 1. PHYSICAL FACTORS: - Relates to the physical shape and size of person and the detailed form of the environment. 2. PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS: - People need air, water, exercise, and protection from the excesses of heat and cold. - Also, a semi-physiological need is the need for self- preservation and avoidance of pain. - Establishment of City regulations and design specifications for safety and security, i.e., fire code 3. PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS: - Human psychological and social needs, behavioral patterns, and tendencies is the most difficult to define and relate to the form of the environment - Psychological needs and perception of the environment differ according to a multitude of variables including age, social class, cultural background, past experience, motives, and daily routine of the individual. Five (5) Generalized Groupings of Motivational Forces and Psychological Needs: 1. Social Need - need for social interaction (sociopetal form of design- designed to draw people together, to engender social relationships), need for group affiliation, need for companionship and for love. 2. Stabilizing Need - need to be free from fear, anxiety, and danger; need for clear orientation, SITE PLANNING CONCEPT USING NATURAL FACTORS organize the environment. To form and shape PASSIVE COOLING - the technology of cooling spaces through environment according to a symbolic and metaphysical proper siting of structure and use of energy-efficient materials, urge. with the overall objective of energy conservation. 3. Individual Need - need to experience and develop self-awareness; need for privacy; need for identity and BEHAVIOR SETTINGS sense of personal uniqueness in the environment - ABRAHAM MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF HUMAN NEEDS spiritual connection From bottom to top: 4. Self- expression - need for self- assertion and Physiological needs - need for water, food, air, warmth. exhibition, for dominance and power; need for status; Safety and security needs - both psychological and need for territory and play physiological. 5. Enrichment Need - need for self- realization and Belonging needs - need for affiliation and be a member of a personal creativity; need for beauty and aesthetic group. experience (design for complexity).  BEHAVIOR SETTING/ ENVIRONMENTAL Density is expressed in number of families or dwelling SETTING - standing patterns of behavior that repeat units per hectare. It may also be expressed in Floor themselves at regular intervals in some bounded Area Ratio (FAR). locality and in which space and behavior can be Density influences the privacy, social contact among considered. people, and freedom of movement of an individual or a - Behavior circuits- look at the track of activity followed group of people. by an individual over a cycle of time. Zoning regulations, laws and codes are present in - Site planning and human Environmental Preference: every city and municipality to regulate the type of a. Complexity and Diversity development. It divides the city or municipality into land b. Mystery use areas that are designated by building height, c. Legibility building coverage, density of population, and open d. Influence of Past Experience space. e. Make available in the immediate neighborhood a wide array of environmental settings that each SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS individual could choose to experience. The study of the community and its social and economic f. Enhance the visual qualities of the setting to structures are done to determine whether there is a need, an emphasize the uniqueness of the place so that interest, or any objections on the project. people develop individual attachments and group Any proposed project must be compatible with the economy of perceptions. the community. For example, a high-end boutique is hardly suitable in a low-income community. HISTORIC FACTORS The social structure of the community must be taken into 1. Historical Buildings consideration to ensure that a proposed development will not 2. Historic Landmarks result in any displaced families and any major disruption in their 3. Archeology businesses and other activities. PERTINENT LAWS UTILITIES EXISTING LAND USE: It is important to determine the existing availability of Land Use Plans are available in each city and utilities on site in terms of adequacy and efficiency. This municipality to determine the areas for commercial, includes: institutional, industrial, residential, and open space A. Water supply uses. These were planned according to the most Water intended for human consumption must meet rational use of land concerning the natural and socio- extensive physical, chemical, and biological standards economic factors and under compatibility with adjacent for quality and reliability. These standards include land uses. Each site must conform to the land use plan: color, taste, and transparency as well as freedom from a residential subdivision, for example, cannot be bacteria and chemicals related to human or industrial developed in a site designated as Industrial. wastes. Sources of Water: TRAFFIC AND TRANSIT SYSTEMS: - Low-Yield Systems - wells, cisterns, and surface The relationship of traffic patterns to each other and the catchments- for small projects requiring only a limited site must be studied for adequacy of access and water supply, there are several possible sources efficiency of circulation within and outside of the site. including wells, springs, cisterns, and surface Efficient traffic and transportation systems will result in impoundments (or catchments). The choice of system the successful integration of the different generally depends on regional geo-hydrologic developments in the vicinity. conditions, with well (where they are feasible) usually Direction of dominant traffic flow, both vehicular and being the most cost-effective alternative. pedestrian will also help establish points of highest - High- Yield Wells - for larger projects, such as a large visual impact for the site. institution or a new town, a larger well or surface Access must also consider pedestrian movement. reservoir may be required. The design of either system will require specialized engineering and/or hydro- DENSITY AND ZONING: geologic expertise. Development of high-yield wells Density refers to the population per unit of land area. should consider legal/ environmental requirements and This data will determine whether existing utilities and the character and land use history of the tributary area. land areas will be sufficient to sustain additional future B. Sanitary/sewage system development, which will naturally add to the existing SEWAGE DISPOSAL- Some form of sewage disposal population and bear on the capacity of these utilities. is necessary in most buildings or land development projects for the disposal of domestic waterborne wastes. Such wastes are either piped off-site to a  municipal sewer system or are treated and disposed of may be incorporated in the site development as natural assets on-site. of the land. Types of Sewage Systems: The type of sewage disposal system chosen for the SPATIAL PATTERNS is defined as the way an open space of development of any tract of land will influence the a given site is configured according to an arrangement of pattern and density of that development. The sewerage elements that evoke activity or flow, both physically or visually. for any project can include: 1. Simple, economical systems for the safe, PHYSICAL ARRANGEMENT OF BUILDINGS environmentally sound disposal of wastewater Physical arrangement of buildings according to mass and 2. More complex and costly systems for overcoming space. the limits of poorly drained or impermeable soils on sites that have good locations or other valuable ISOLATED BUILDING: enclosed within space aspects. 3. More complex and costly systems for increasing the density of development on site. Regarding the selection of the ultimate wastewater disposal alternatives, whether to groundwater, surface water, or the atmosphere, BUILDING ENCLOSING SPACE AND SPACE ENCLOSING the designer should consider site conditions, BUILDING: interior space becomes cohesive therefore no costs, local governmental regulations and policies elements to alienate buildings and impacts on water quality In general, connection to an existing municipal system will be the least complex method. In addition, where such connections are available, they are often mandated by local officials. Note that this may not be the least costly or the most ENCLOSED SPACE: isolated but cut-up with traffic lines environmentally desirable alternative. STORMWATER MANAGEMENT Development of any site will usually reduce the permeability of the land and reduce the time in which runoff is concentrated. Even a small amount of development on a site, with naturally permeable soils and poorly developed drainage ways, will dramatically increase runoff and its impacts, even SPACE COHESIVE: less Isolated if the proposed development has an efficient drainage system. Control of the harmful effects of runoff include: 1. Minimizing the use of paved gutters or drainage pipes and maximizing the use of vegetated drainage swales etc. 2. Retarding stormwater runoff via various water UNDER/ OVER PASS: unified isolated buildings impoundment techniques so that peak runoff for frequent storms will be no greater after development than before. 3. Providing maximum opportunity for rainwaters to infiltrate the soil. C. Drainage D. Electric power supply BUILT-UP CORNERS: corners are built-up making the design of buildings restricted since a similar shape must be adopted to AESTHETIC AND PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS hold the design together NATURAL FEATURES- When sites are characterized by outstanding natural rock, water or plant material, these  NATURAL LIGHTING - An open corridor around a central courtyard linking all functional areas allows penetration of daylight and shades the functional areas from direct sunlight. MONUMENT/ STATUE/ FOUNTAIN: Introducing a monument/ - Natural lighting statue/ fountain creates a visual identity for the space - The balcony approach allows natural lighting for major circulations to minimize the general lighting. - Linear shape with a depth of a maximum 9 meters for all accommodations to enhance daylight penetration. - Green spaces - Incorporation of a roof garden and landscaped terrace enables the building to blend in with its surrounding TERMINAL POINTS: use of terminal points is essential in siting natural environment. Native species are used a building such as the Piazza San Marco in Venice wherever possible. FORWARD-LOOKING The effects of climate on the type of construction couldn’t be stressed enough/ Climate will affect the types of materials used, the orientation of the building, and even its elevation. Green architecture, also known as environmental design, VISUAL RESOURCES employs several design elements, and one could say they A. View – is a scene observed from a vantage point. are based on climate. B. Vista – is a confined view, usually directed toward a terminal It is the utilization of non- toxic, durable, and natural or dominant feature. It has three components: a viewing station, resource materials in construction. a view, and a foreground. The design also employs directional designs to maximize day lighting, thermal and electric power, and the ability to recycle wastes. SUSTAINABILITY AND SITE DESIGNS The goal of such architecture is to construct a building today SUSTAINABLE DESIGN STRATEGIES that may be able to survive in a completely different resource climate, one that is based on renewable energy. SITE PLANNING- Building design should integrate very nicely with the natural environment and make the best use of the SITE FURNITURE- Elements placed in a landscape or existing site conditions. streetscape for comfort, convenience, information, circulation control, protection, and user enjoyment, i.e. bollards, benches, BUILDING ORIENTATION signage, lighting, tree grates, utility boxes, etc. - Buildings should be laid under the orientation that allows access to solar exposure in terms of the sun DESIGN OBJECTIVES path and prevailing wind - Appropriateness- is a major objective in the design and - Linear block with the least openings in deliberately placement of site furniture elements. It should respond shielding off all accommodation from the west-sided to the character of a site as well as to its existing and solar exposure. proposed function. - Response to setting- design should respond to the BUILDING FORM essential identity or inherent character or a place. - The building form is developed for the topographical contours to minimize the area of cutting solid and in DESIGN DETERMINANTS return filling back of soil to the site and to minimize the - Cultural Factors- Social and Political Context disturbance of the construction to the existing trees and - Physical Factors- Climate, Natural Physiography, landscape where digging up of soil and cutting off of Existing Built Environment tress were minimized. - Environmental Factors - Regulatory Standards- understand the purpose and NATURAL VENTILATION rational for the regulation, i.e., light intensifies for - Openable windows allow natural ventilation to reduce pedestrian and vehicles, signage and control systems, the operation period of the A/C System during the mild height of mailboxes, intersection setbacks, width of season. vehicular lanes, size of garbage etc.  DESIGN PROCESS - It is well, therefore, in the study of climatic regions to note behavioral reactions and patterns of community organization that are unique and attributable to the climate or the weather. - The special foods and dishes, the manner of dress, and the traditional customs are indicative. And so it is with the favored types of recreation, the level of education, and cultural pursuits. Economic factors such as agricultural yields and the production of goods are to be noted. - In short what one eats, drinks, believes, and is climate- induced and characteristic of the region. CLIMATE RESPONSE DESIGN ELEMENTS - There is little to be done about the world climate except 1. Seating to adjust to it 2. Shelter - The most direct form of adjustment is to move to that 3. Convenience Elements region which has a climate best suited to one’s needs 4. Information or desires. Such migrations or attempted migrations 5. Lighting are the basis of much of human history. 6. Traffic Control and Protection - The alternative approach, barring admission to a 7. Utilities climatological Shangri-La, is to make the best of 8. Seasonal Elements existing conditions wherever one may be. - In broad terms, the climatic regions of the earth are DESIGN FOR COMMUNITY/ PEOPLE four: the cold, the cool temperate, the warm-humid, CLIMATE DESIGN- If the central purpose of planning is to and the hot-dry. create for any person or group of persons an environment suited to their needs, then climate must the first consideration. It is proposed that within each region there is, for a given Physical Characteristics: climatological condition, a logical planning-design response. - Perhaps the most obvious facts of climate are the 1. Warm Humid Region annual, seasonal, and daily ranges of temperature. Conditions These will vary with changing conditions of latitude, - Temperatures high and relatively constant longitude, altitude, exposure, vegetation, and proximity - High humidity to such weather modifiers as the Gulf Stream, water - Torrential rainfall bodies, ice masses, or desert. - Storm winds of typhoon and hurricane force - The amount of precipitation in the form of dew, frost, or - Breeze often constant in the daylight hours snow is to be recorded, as well as seasonal variations - Vegetative covers from sparse to luxuriant and in humidity. sometimes jungle like - The duration of sunlight in hours per day is planning - The sun’s heat is enervating and design significance, as re the angles of incidence - Sky glare and sea glare can be distressing at prescribed times of day and year and the intensity of - Climatic conditions breed insects in profusion solar radiation. - Fungi are a persistent problem - The direction and velocity of the winds and the date Community and path of violent storms are to be charted. The - Spacing of habitations in the dispersed “hunter” availability quantity and quality of potable water are to tradition be noted, together with the depths at which it occurs. - Adjustment of community patterns to channels or areas - The geologic structure is to be described, together with of air movement the soil types and depths and the existing vegetation - Avoidance of floodplains and drainage ways. Disturbed and wildlife. areas are subject to heavy erosion - Finally, the working together of all the physical - Location of settlements in the lee of protective land elements as an ecological system is described to masses and forest and above the level of storm-driven complete the story of regional climate. tides, - Alignment of streets and placement of gathering places Social Characteristics: to capture all possible air currents. - The physical well-being and attitudes of people are - Avoidance of natural growth insofar as feasible. directly affected by climate, and these in turn prescribe Disturbance of the ground-cover subjects soils to the planning needs. erosion. - Use of existing tree masses and promontories to - Provision of open, well-ventilated storage areas: use of provide sunscreen to public ways and places. fungus-resistant materials and drying devices as Supplementary planting of shade trees is often needed. desirable, - Planned location of settlements with the arc of the sun 2. Hot-Dry (Desert Like) Regions to the rear not seaward, of the building sites. Conditions - Location of settlements upwind of insect breeding - Intense heat in the daytime. areas. - Often intense cold at night. - Admittance of sun and breeze to building areas to - Expanses are vast. reduce fungi and mildew. - Sunlight and glare are penetrating. Site - Drying winds are prevalent and often raise devastating - Design of the site spaces to provide shade, ventilation, dust storms. and the cooling effects of foliage and water - Spring rains come as a cloudburst with rapid runoff and - Provision for air circulation and evaporation. heavy erosion. - Protection against driving rains and adequate runoff - Water supply is extremely limited. capacity. - Limited agricultural productivity necessitates the - Location of critical-use areas and routes in unexposed importation of food and other goods. places, above the reach of tides and flooding. - Irrigation is a fact of life. - Maximization, by exposure, channeling, and funneling, Community of the favorable effects of the breeze - Creation of cool and refreshing islands of use within the - Use of lush foliage masses and specimen plants as parched surroundings. backdrop and enframement and for the interest of form, - Provision of opportunities for group activity. Chill foliage, or floral display. evening in the desert, as on the tundra, suggest the - Planning of outdoor activity areas for ruse in the cooler need. morning and evening hours. Heat-of-the-day gathering - Adaptation of “outpost”, “fort”, and “ranch” plan places should be roofed or tree-shaded. patterns. - Reduction or elimination of glare by plan location and - Within the dispersed compounds the planning of well-placed tree plantings. compact spaces with narrow passageways and - Elevation of use areas and walkways by deck and colonnades to provide relief from the sun. platform construction to open them to the breeze and - Location of homesteads and trade centers in areas of reduce annoyance by insects. established ground covers: use of shelterbelt tree - Use of stone, concrete, metals and treated wood only plantations. in contact with the ground. - Protection of all possible natural growth surrounding Buildings the development. - Induction of cooling by all feasible means, including the - Avoidance of flood-prone areas. Those who have use of open building plans, high ceilings, broad experienced desert freshets will keep well out their overhangs, louvered openings, and air conditioning of way. local areas. - Minimization of irrigation requirements by compact - Provision of air circulation: periodic exposure to planning and multiple use of planted and seeded sunlight and artificial drying where required. spaces. - Architectural use of the colonnade, arcade, pavilion, - Location of settlements and community centers close covered passageway, and veranda: orientation of to transportation and distribution nodes. entranceways and windows away from the path of the - Coordination of land use and traffic patterns with storm track. existing and projected irrigation canal routes and - Design of wind-resistant structures or lighter temporary reservoir’s locations. and expendable shelters. Site - Design of rooms, corridors, balconies and patios as an - Amelioration of heat and glare by orientation away from interconnected system of breezeways. the sun, by shading, by screening, and by the cast- - Utilization, indoors and out, of indigenous plant shadow patterns of well-placed building components. materials for the cooling effect of their foliage. - Adoption of the corral- compound (herder) - Provision of shade, shade, shade. arrangement of homesteads and neighborhood - Positioning of viewing points away from the glare and clusters, provision of well-designed screening. - Recognition of the automobile as the crucial means of - Elevation of structures above the ground, facing into daily transport and a dominant site-planning factor. the breeze, and insect proofing of critical points and - Screening of use areas and paths of movement from areas. the direct blast of the sun,Protection of outdoor activity spaces from  - exposure. - Preservation of native plant materials as self- sustaining and handsome components of the desert - Orientation to warming sun landscape - Utilization of all protective ground forms and covers as - Avoidance of arroyos and floodplains as development windscreens and soil stabilizers routes and sites. - Preservation of all possible vegetation, with the strong - Limitation in the size of parks, gardens, and seeded wind-resistant edges left intact areas. - Grouping of activity areas to reduce travel time - Use of tubbed and container-grown plants, drip - Avoidance of low ground, natural drainage ways, and irrigation, and hydroponic gardening. floodplain - Incorporation of irrigation canals, ponds, and Site structures as attractive site features. - Creation of enclosed courts and sun traps; use of Buildings textured construction materials and warm, “primitive” - Architectural use of thick walls, high ceilings, wide roof colors overhangs, limited fenestration, light-reflective colors, - Use of short accessways, grouped entries, raised and a precise design response to the angles and arcs platforms, and covered walks. of the sun. - Maximum utilization of daylight, orientation of building - Exclusion of the chill night air by insulation, reduction toward sunlit spaces with views to the sky and sunlit of heat loss, and use of localized radiant heat. The hills. open fireplace is a desert tradition for good reason. - Use of decks raised walkways, and flexible ground - Low ranch-type spreads are a logical architectural surfacing to preclude frost heave. expression of the hot—dry climate and desert - Use of post, beam, and platform construction to avoid topography. the need for extensive excavation and foundations. - Provision of cool, compact, and dim interior spaces in Buildings contrast to the stifling heat and brilliance of the great - Design or massive, low-profile, well-insulated outdoors. structures, with maximum exposure of walls and roof - Sealing of all buildings against dust and wind. Airtight areas to the sun and minimum exposure to the wind; openings and skillful architectural detailing are heat loss to be reduced in all ways possible, including required. limitation of the window area, - Grouping of rooms or structures around planted and - Use of steep roof pitches, deep overhangs, and irrigated courts and patios. exaggerated storm drainage gradients and capacities - Provision of spring rainfall catchment and storage. to facilitate runoff, Water from roofs, courts, and paved areas can be - Placement of window away from the prevailing winds: directed to cisterns. orientation of the long building axis into the wind and - Recycling of wastewater is prescribed. The type of use utilization of all possible topographic shielding and tree will determine the degree of treatment and purification screens required. - Reduction of building perimeter and ground contact to - The provision of food and fodder storage is an reduce foundation problems and heat loss important consideration in desert building design. - Forest cover preserved and buildings nestled against - Adaptation of irrigation to interior courts and garden the protective slopes and tree masses spaces. The evaporation of moisture from paved surfaces, fountains, spray heads, mulches, or foliage 4. The Cool- Temperate Region provides welcome relief from the heat. Conditions - Variable temp from warm to hot in the summer, cold in 3. The Cold Region winter, and moderate in spring and fall Conditions - Marked seasonal change - Scrub forest cover - Changing wind directions and velocities - Short winter days - Soils are generally well drained and fertile - Long winters - Many streams, rivers, and freshwater lakes - Alternating freeze and thaw - Topographically scenic, including marine, plain, - Rapid spring melt plateau, and mountainous areas - Extreme winter cold Community - Deep snow - Definition of land use and trafficway patters to reflect - Strong winds local temp ranges and other climatic conditions. - High wind-chill factor Extremes suggest compact plan arrangements; more - Deep frost moderate conditions permit dispersal. - Community  - Alignment of streets and open spaces to block cold Disadvantages: causes traffic congestion due to the frequent winter winds and admit welcome summer breezes crossings created. - Design of streets, utility systems, and drainage channels to meet extreme conditions - Consideration of high winds, flooding, and occasional snowstorms as important design factors Site - Possibility of, and necessity for, wide variety in the type and size of outdoor activity areas RADIAL: Use of circumferential and radial roads to connect the - Dramatization of the seasonal variations; consideration center of the city to the outskirts a ripple manner. of spaces for winters, spring, summer, and fall activities - Full utilization of scenic possibilities Buildings - Elimination by design, of extremes of demands for cooling, heating, and ventilating - Consideration of shrinkage, swelling, condensation, freezing and snow loadings. - Expansion and extension of plan forms when desirable, since excavation and foundation MEANDERING: Used in highly mountainous sites. Following construction are not generally a problem the contours of the topography. Planning Considerations - Clearly, architectural or landscape planning for the well-being of a cultural group demands an understanding not only of the physical nature of the region and site but of the people as well. - Then, given a specific location within the region and a well-defined program of needs, the two- dimensional COMBINATION: using both the geometric and meandering plan forms can be developed to achieve a pattern of street patterns. Geometric street pattern is used where the appropriate, functional, and agreeable relationships. terrain is flat and meandering where the terrain is rolling. - Sometimes the most important consideration in site selection or planning is a realization of the need and benefits of protecting the natural environment. - Native Americans well understood that to preserve the integrity of their hunting grounds their nomadic villages must be widely dispersed and clustered. MODIFIED GRIDS: The advantage of a grid system is its ability Contemporary Americans have yet to understand the to lay