A4 - Personality Past Paper PDF 2020-2021

Pack: A4 Module 2 Personality Ms Stephanie Bugeja Dr. Olivia Galea Seychell Dott. Mireille Vila Dr. Miriam Geraldi Gauci 1 1...

Pack: A4 Module 2 Personality Ms Stephanie Bugeja Dr. Olivia Galea Seychell Dott. Mireille Vila Dr. Miriam Geraldi Gauci 1 1 Additional Compulsory Reading Book: Simply Psychology Chapter: 18 Title Personality 2 2 Cohort 2020-2022 1  Pack: A4 What is Personality? “The more or less STABLE, INTERNAL factors that make one person’s behaviour CONSISTENT from one time to another and DIFFERENT from the behaviour other people would manifest in comparable situations” (Child,1968, p. 83). 3 3 Does this view of personality vary across different cultures? Yes. Studies indicate that the culture we belong to, especially whether it is individualistic or collectivistic, will have a huge impact on how personality is perceived and the expectations we have of it. Collectivistic cultures ‘tend to see people as Individualistic cultures ‘tend to conceive of connected with others and embedded in a people as self-directed and autonomous, and broader social context – as such, they tend to they tend to prioritize independence and emphasize interdependence, family uniqueness as cultural values’ relationships, and social conformity’ (https://www.psychologicalscience.org; n.d.) (https://www.psychologicalscience.org; n.d.) Personality is stable Personality is flexible and described according to People focus more on the self & on ‘personality social expectations characteristics (e.g., I am an introvert, I am open to People describe themselves in terms of social roles new experiences) (I am a brother, I am a nurse) 4 4 Cohort 2020-2022 2  Pack: A4 Personality assessment Why and how do we assess personality? 5 5 Why do we assess people’s personality? Personality Assessment is a type of specialised knowledge in the psychology profession that ‘involves the administration, scoring, and interpretation of empirically supported measures of personality traits and styles in order to: Refine clinical diagnoses; Structure and inform psychological interventions; and Increase the accuracy of behavioral prediction in a variety of contexts and settings (e.g., clinical, forensic, organizational, educational)’. (APA.org; n.d.) 6 6 Cohort 2020-2022 3  Pack: A4 Personality assessment tools » Psychologists have a number of assessment tools at their disposal to study personality. » These include observations, interviews and clients’ past records (medical, employment or school). In addition, they often also make use of standardised personality questionnaires. » A personality questionnaire is a type of self-report scale. This means that the person whose personality is being assessed will be reporting first-hand on his/her thoughts, behaviours and feelings. This refers to tests that would have been given to a large representative number of people in order to establish the meaning of a particular score. ’For example a score of 19 on a test of extraversion has no meaning on its own but becomes meaningful if we know they’re only 10% of the population have such a high score.’ (Eysenck, 2018; p.280) 7 7 Personality assessment tools cont… » Sound personality assessments stand the test of reliability and validity. These two concepts are further explained in Research Methods. Reliability refers to the extent to which the personality assessment produces consistent results across various situations over time Validity refers to which a test is truly assessing particular aspects of personality » There are both advantages and disadvantages associated with these questionnaires: Advantage: it is assumed that you are the expert about your own life, thoughts, behaviours and feelings Disadvantage: very often we want to come across as social desirable individuals to appear in a better light either intentionally (when you want to give a positive impression of you) and unintentionally (when you are not aware of the ‘bias’ yourself (Paulhus, as cited in Eysenck, 2018) 8 8 Cohort 2020-2022 4  Pack: A4 Personality assessment tools cont… Are human beings really that inclined to make themselves appear social desirable? In one study using the bogus pipeline technique, participants who thought that they were attached to a lie detector, described themselves less defensively whilst answering a personality questionnaire then during a normal condition (Derakshan & Eysenck, as cited in Eysenck 2018,). A useful and common method for exposing the social desirability bias, is to ‘use a Lie scale consisting of items were the socially desirable answer is very unlikely to be the honest one (e.g., ‘do you ever gossip?’; “do you know anyone you really dislike?”). It is assumed that someone who answers most such questions in the socially desirable direction is faking their responses (Eysenck, 2018; p.280) 9 9 Theories of Personality Freud’s psychoanalytic approach Trait theories Social cognitive theory 10 10 Cohort 2020-2022 5  Pack: A4 Freud’s psychoanalytic approach 11 11 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: The structure of personality & the unconscious The Unconscious, in Freud’s view is like a reservoir of thoughts, wishes, feelings, memories, that are hidden from awareness because they feel unacceptable. Personality develops from the efforts of our ego, our rational self, to resolve tension between our id, based in biological drives, and the superego, society’s rules and constraints. The Mind is mostly below the surface of conscious awareness: it is mostly unconscious 12 Cohort 2020-2022 6  Pack: A4 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: The role of childhood and the importance of parenting » Although Freud’s psychoanalytic theory places a lot of importance on nature and human beings’ innate instincts, it also highlights the importance of the environment (nurture), particularly the impact of the relationship with one’s parents. » He believed that events that occur in our childhood, especially with our parents, and the way we interpret them will have a significant impact on who we become as adults: they form our personality. » Significant experiences and our interpretations of them will be stored in our consciousness. The unconscious is the biggest part of our consciousness which, like a cauldron attempts to relieve that energy when the material inside is ‘bubbling up’. This Unconscios usually leads a person to experience anxiety. 13 13 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: The structure of personality » According to Freud, everyone’s personality is composed of three components: the id, the ego and the superego. These three components are in constant dynamic relationship. The id is the part of our personality, driven to satisfy basic biological drives. The sexual or biological energy resulting from the id is called the libido. The more ‘gratified’ the libido is, the more pleasure the person feels; the more frustrated the libido is, the more tension, the person experiences (Greem, Lewis & Willerton, 2015). The id is driven by the pleasure principle. It is the oldest part of our personality, with us since birth. Example: A test is coming up. The id may say something like: “You’ve been wanting to watch the new season of this series for a long time. Watch it! Don’t study now”. 14 Cohort 2020-2022 7  Pack: A4 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: The structure of personality / cont. (1) The superego develops around the ages of 4 or 5. It is like a conscience, making us feel bad when we think of or actually disobey social rules. It develops as a result of rules that parents and significant people teach us, which we later unconsciously adopt as our own. It also predicts a rigid ideal of our ‘self’ in terms of good behaviour and punishes us with bad thoughts and feelings when we neglect this ideal. It follows the morality principle. Example: The superego would say “you must study all night. You cannot watch anything until the test it over. Only bad students would waste time”. 15 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: The structure of personality / cont. (2) The ego develops when we are about 2-years old and we realise that, although we are autonomous, we have to fit in a social context. This means that we cannot always get what gives us pleasure. In this way, the ego mediates between the demands of the id and the pressures of external reality (later becoming the superego). It follows the reality principle. Example: The ego would say ‘study now, whilst you have enough energy. Then you watch an episode whilst you have a break’ 16 Cohort 2020-2022 8  Pack: A4 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: The role of defence mechanisms » Does the ego always manage to strike a balance between the ego and the superego? No. Sometimes, the ego and superego are too strong for the ego. According to Freud, when this happens, people experience defence mechanisms. » Defence mechanisms are unconscious strategies, used by the ego, to defend against the anxiety that someone experiences when the ego does not manage to mediate successfully between the id and the superego. According to Freud, in such cases, the individual’s ego develops these strategies that stop him or her from becoming consciously aware of any thoughts or feelings related to the traumatic situation (Cardwell & Flanagan, 2015). » There are a number of defence mechanisms. For examples, refer to the additional notes for this topic. » Let us take one of them to see how it works… 17 17 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: The role of defence mechanisms / cont… » An example of regression. » Explanation: ‘retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated)’ (Myers, 2013; p.518) The id: Regression: ‘They should stay at Jane starts having a tantrum at home since I cannot go. home. She starts crying Jane wants to be the centre of uncontrollably and holding her They cannot have fun attention all the time. One day she was breath until she faints. without me’ sick and her friends went to a party without her. She unconsciously did not The ego: She makes sure that her want them to have fun without her. Maybe they can tell me friends know that it’s their what they did and how fault she fainted. it went This way, next time they will But this time, the id think twice before doing is too strong and something without her overwhelms the ego 18 18 Cohort 2020-2022 9  Pack: A4 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: other types of defence mechanisms Freud believed that we are anxious about our unacceptable wishes and impulses, and we repress this anxiety with the help of the strategies below. 19 Freud’s psychoanalytic theory: The psychosexual stages » According to Freud, psychological development in childhood takes place in a series of fixed stages, which he calls the psychosexual stages: as a person grows physically certain areas of their body become important sources of potential frustration, pleasure or both. » Each stage represents the fixation of libido (sexual drives or instincts) on a different area of the body. » People feel shame about these needs and can get fixated at one stage, remaining stuck in that phase and never resolving the dilemmas of a particular stage. » Freud considered the first 3 to be crucial for the development of personality. » If children receive too much or too little gratification in any of these stages, they are at risk of fixation (arrest in development). Therefore, they may need help. 20 20 Cohort 2020-2022 10  Pack: A4 Freud’s psychoanalytic theory: The psychosexual stages / cont (1) Genital Latency Stage Phallic Stage Anal Stage Oral Stage Stage Freud considered the first 3 to be crucial for the development of personality 21 21 Freud’s psychoanalytic theory: The 1st psychosexual stage – The Oral stage (0-18 mts) » In the first stage of personality development, gratification is hypothesised to be achieved primarily through oral activities (the libido is centered in a baby’s mouth). » At this stage in life everything is oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting and breast-feeding. » The baby is believed to get a lot of satisfaction (gratification) from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy libido, and thus the demands of the id. » Freud believed that fixation at the oral stage can stem from weaning that is too early or too late and that this may result in adult characteristics ranging from overeating or childlike dependence (late weaning) to the use of “biting” sarcasm (early weaning). 22 22 Cohort 2020-2022 11  Pack: A4 Freud’s psychoanalytic theory: The 2nd psychosexual stage – The Anal stage (18mts – 3.5 yrs) » The second stage of psychosexual development – the child’s ego develops to cope with parental demands for socially appropriate behaviour. » Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to full force in potty training. » The child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e. their ego has developed). » The nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority. » Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. This is all related to pleasure derived from holding on to their feces when toddlers. » The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-training regime during the anal stage. In adulthood the anal expulsive is the person who is disorganized, messy, careless and rebellious. 23 23 Freud’s psychoanalytic theory: The 3rd psychosexual stage – The Phallic stage (3.5yrs – 6yrs) » Both boys and girls begin by loving their mother, because she satisfies their needs, and by seeing their father as a rival for the mother’s affections. » Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals: the child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls). 24 24 Cohort 2020-2022 12  Pack: A4 Freud’s psychoanalytic theory: The Phallic stage - The Oedipus Complex Freud named the § According to Freud, between the ages of 2 and 5 a boy wants to possess crisis that boys face during the phallic his mother exclusively and as a result get rid of his father. stage, Oedipus complex for the § The boy imagines that if his father had to find out about all this, he legendary king of would cut off the boy’s genitals as punishment for desiring the mother. Thebes whose murder Thus the boy develops castration anxiety. of his father and marriage to his § The boy sets out to resolve his anxiety by imitating, copying and joining mother form the dramatic plot of the in masculine dad-type behaviours. This is called identification. play Oedipus Rex. Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes and behaviours of another person. § By identifying with his father, the boy gets vicarious satisfaction of his sexual impulses toward the mother. At the same time he represses his dangerous feeling for her and converts it into tender affection. § The consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male gender role and the boy’s Oedipus complex is then said to have been resolved. 25 25 Freud’s psychoanalytic theory: The Phallic stage - The Electra Complex In Greek mythology, Electra was the § According to Freud during the phallic stage the girl desires the father, daughter of the king but realizes that she does not have a penis. Agamemnon. She longed for him after § She believes that her lack of a penis is her mother’s fault. As a result his death and sought her love towards her mother turns to anger and she chooses her revenge against his killers -her mother father as a sexual object because he has the penis she wants. and her mother’s lover. § This leads to the development of penis envy and the wish to be a boy. § The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the mother to take on the female gender role and displaces her feelings for her father onto other men. 26 26 Cohort 2020-2022 13  Pack: A4 Freud’s psychoanalytic theory: The Phallic stage - Conclusion » Therefore, the phallic stage is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the characteristics of the same sex parent. » Freud believed that unresolved conflicts from the phallic stage can lead to many problems in adulthood, including difficulties in dealing with authority figures and an inability to maintain a stable love relationship. » As the phallic stage draws to a close and its conflicts are dealt with by the ego, an interval of psychological peace occurs - the Latency Period. 27 27 Freud’s psychoanalytic theory: The 4th psychosexual stage – The Latency stage (6/7 yrs - puberty) » Latent means hidden. In this stage the libido is dormant. » During this period, which lasts through childhood, sexual impulses stay in the background as the child focuses on education, same sex play and the development of social skills. » Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latency stage and sexual energy can be sublimated (defence mechanism) towards school work, hobbies and friendships. » Much of the child's energies are channelled into developing new hobbies and acquiring new knowledge and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same sex. ‘[an] unacceptable sexual or aggressive drives are unconsciously channeled into socially acceptable modes of expression and redirected into new, learned behaviors, which indirectly provide some satisfaction for the original drives’ (APA dictionary) 28 28 Cohort 2020-2022 14  Pack: A4 Freud’s psychoanalytic theory: The 5th psychosexual stage – The Phallic stage (from puberty onward) » In the genital stage, which begins at about age 12, people begin to love others for altruistic motives. The driving forces of previous stages are self-oriented. » Latency is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship. » Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self pleasure during the phallic stage. Gradually as people participate in group activities and prepare for work and marriage they change into socialised adults » For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. 29 29 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: How does it work in practice? Psychoanalytically-trained psychologists help people in therapy by looking at how childhood experiences (especially traumatic ones) are having an impact on the client’s current problems and trying to learn more about the content of their unconscious. They do this by using the following techniques: o Free Association (express whatever comes to mind without censoring) o Dream Analysis (actual content and symbolic elements). o Projective Techniques (what a person sees in an ambiguous figure reflects his/her personality). o Analysis of defense mechanisms 30 30 Cohort 2020-2022 15  Pack: A4 Evaluating Freud’s psychoanalytic approach Strengths Weaknesses It is the first comprehensive It overemphasised the importance psychological theory of human of childhood sexuality nature and the first to There is little research evidence demonstrate that some about the unconscious behvioural problems can be It is based on Western culture – it treated psychologically may not be relevant to non- It emphasised the role of Western communities childhood on later life development It identified unconscious processes as possible motivators of behaviour 31 31 Trait theories 32 32 Cohort 2020-2022 16  Pack: A4 Trait Theories » Traits are relatively permanent and identifying characteristics of each of us. They become evident as we interact with others and with our environment. » Trait theorists do not assume that some people have trait and others do not; rather, they propose that all people possess certain traits, but that the degree to which a given trait applies to a specific person varies and can be quantified. » ‘One of the goals of trait theorists is to provide a comprehensive description that includes all the major personality traits’ (Eysenck, 2018; p.282). Can we ever manage to capture all personality traits? Unfortunately, this is quite difficult. However, a hypothesis developed by Galton in 1884 called the ‘fundamental lexical hypothesis’, suggests that a ‘significant individual difference, such as a central personality trait, will be encoded into the natural-language lexicon; that is, there will be a term to describe it in any or all of the languages of the world’ (APA dictionary). 33 Trait Theories / cont… » Trait theories place a lot of importance on genetic factors in shaping personality » Supporters of Trait theories suggest two methods of assessment: a) Answering questionnaires: the person describes himself/herself by answering according to his/her attitudes, feelings, and behaviours. This method is very common and is considered valid and reliable (Eysenck, 2013). At the same time, it is susceptible to the social desirability bias. b) Someone else (usually a trained professional such as a psychologist) evaluates the person's traits either from what he knows about the individuals or from direct observations of behaviour. » Trait theories are typically less interested in development and with predicting a person's behaviour; are interested in the comparison of people, and the degrees to which they vary on particular traits; and do not inherently provide a medium of personality change. » Let us look at three of the most popular trait theories… 34 Cohort 2020-2022 17  Pack: A4 The trait theory of Raymond Cattell 35 35 Cattell’s trait theory » According to Cattell's research (1949), human personality traits could be summarised in 16 personality factors or main traits. » He came to this conclusion through an assessment device known as the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) and by analysing data from report cards of students, evaluations from employees, etc., » He described these 16 traits on a continuum; in other words, everybody has some degree of every trait, according to Cattell. » The key to assessment is determining where the individual falls on the continuum. 36 36 Cohort 2020-2022 18  Pack: A4 Cattell’s trait theory cont… The 16PF is very well known and quite a popular assessment of personality. However, further investigations about this personality assessment highlight its limitations, especially the high overlap that exists between the different factors. Research has indicated that, in reality, there are only between 7 and 9 personality factors, rather than the declared 16 (Barrett & Kline, as cited in Eysenck, 2018) 37 37 The trait theories of Hans J. Eysenck & Jeffrey A. Gray 38 38 Cohort 2020-2022 19  Pack: A4 Eysenck’s trait theory » Hans J. Eysenck believed that, rather than concentrating on a number of personality traits that overlap between them, it is best to ‘focus on a small number of uncorrelated or independent factors entirely separate from each other’ (Eysenck, 2018; p. 284). » He developed a model of personality based on just three universal traits. Many of the particular characteristics of individuals can be seen as a combination of these factors together. Source: Eysenck, 2018 39 39 Eysenck’s trait theory – the three universal traits Introversion involves directing attention on inner experiences, while extraversion relates to focusing attention outward on other people and the environment. So, a person high in introversion might be quiet and reserved, while an individual high in extraversion might be sociable and outgoing. Neuroticism/Emotional Stability related to moodiness versus even-temperedness. Neuroticism refers to an individual’s tendency to become upset, anxious or emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally constant. Psychoticism Individuals who are high on this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and may be antisocial, hostile, non empathetic and manipulative. 40 40 Cohort 2020-2022 20  Pack: A4 According to Eysenck, our personality is made up of a combination of the factors. Psychoticism is not mentioned here as Eysenck developed it later. Research has also suggested that it is not a major personality trait (Eysenck, 2018). Besides, researchers believe the name given by Eysenck is not accurate as it seems to be closer in meaning to anti-social personality disorder than psychotic disorders (Corr, cited in Eysenck, 2018) 41 41 Eysenck’s trait theory: the way our genes have an impact on our brain chemistry » Eysenck suggested that most personality differences (60- 80%) are attributable to one’s genetic make-up which, in turn, has an impact on how our body works and on the type of chemicals are released and absorbed in the brain (Eysenck, 2018). He also acknowledged the role of the environment in how these biological processes are expressed (nurture). » He explains that variations in personality are the result of distinctive levels of arousal of different brain systems. ‘Eysenck proposed that extroversion was caused by variability in cortical arousal, with introverts characteristically having a higher level of activity in this area than extroverts. He also hypothesized that neuroticism was determined by individual differences in the limbic system, the part of the human brain involved in emotion, motivation, and emotional association with memory.’ (Taken from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/trait-perspectives-on-personality) 42 42 Cohort 2020-2022 21  Pack: A4 Jeffrey A. Gray’s perspective on Eysenck’s trait theory » Gray studied with Hans Eysenck and developed his theory further. Gray suggested that part of the brain susceptible to rewards and punishment: ‘trait anxiety (consisting mainly of neuroticism but also including introversion) is associated with brain systems concerned with susceptibility to punishment. In contrast, extraversion (especially impulsivity) is associated with brain systems concerned with susceptibility to reward.’ (Eysenck, 2018; p284) » Research suggests that Gray’s perspective is a valid one. 43 43 The big five model by McCrae & Costa 44 44 Cohort 2020-2022 22  Pack: A4 The Big Five model of personality » McCrae and Costa expanded Eysenck’s theory further by coming up with a model of personality with five overarching personality traits: » The five personality factors are distinct from one another (even though research suggests that they are also related). » McCrae and Costa support the idea that the personality factors are related to one’s genetic make-up. 45 Practical Imaginative Prefers routine Openness Prefers variety Conforming Independent Disorganised Organised Careless Conscientiousness Careful Impulsive Disciplined Retiring Sociable Sober Extraversion Fun-loving Reserved Affectionate Ruthless Soft-hearted Suspicious Agreeableness Trusting Uncooperative Helpful Calm Anxious Secure Neuroticism Insecure Self-satisfied Self-pitying Source: McCrae & Costa, cited in Myers 2013 46 Cohort 2020-2022 23  Pack: A4 The Big Five model of personality /cont… » McCrae & Costa found evidence supporting the cross-cultural relevance of this model. Besides, Gosling and John (1999) also found that ‘the personality dimensions of extraversion, neuroticism, and agreeableness have been identified in several species’ (Eysenck , 2018; p. 287) » Each of the factors identified by the Big Five has relevance for society. In order to live comfortably in a community, degrees of agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness, extraversion are very helpful. At the same time, high levels of neuroticism (which is not highly favourable for communal living), is associated with low scores on the other four factors. » Research also suggests that these factors are predictable of people’s everyday life behaviour. For example, people who score highly on introversion are more likely to be comfortable using e-mail rather than face-to-face conversations (Hertel et al., 2008) » Some of the factors of the Big Five seem to be common amongst people with a mental health disorder. For example, a study by Kotov et al. (2010), indicated that ‘ patients suffering from a wide range of mental disorders were high on neuroticism and low on conscientiousness, and also tended to be low in extraversion’ (Eysenck, 2018; p. 287) 47 47 Evaluating trait theory Strengths Weaknesses Trait theories are based on research Traits may change over time. This and therefore there is support for the means that personality assessments theory, especially in view of how traits based on trait theory may be unable to are related to mental health predict behaviour in the long run. Assessment of personality based on Very often, we can identify a trait but trait theories can help explain some different individuals may express their behaviour and compatibility between trait very differently in their behaviour. people (e.g., they can shed light on The cognitive element (and therefore why a couple may be experiencing people’s intentional behaviour) is not problems of incompatibility) taken into consideration Different environments may trigger different behaviours from people, notwithstanding their traits. 48 48 Cohort 2020-2022 24  Pack: A4 Social Cognitive Theory Albert Bandura’s theory 49 49 The Social Cognitive Theory » As a behaviourist, Albert Bandura, agreed that our personality is the product of our environment, but he also placed a lot of importance on our cognitions: what goes on in our mind. » He ‘assumed that personality, behaviour and the environment influence each other in complex ways. The environment influences our behaviour, but our personality and behaviour also help to determine the environment’ (Eysenck, 2018; p.288). Comparison: Trait theories suggests that personality influences behaviour, and some of them also consider how the environment influences behaviour. But they do not consider other possibilities. 50 Cohort 2020-2022 25  Pack: A4 The Social Cognitive Theory – The triadic reciprocal model » Bandura called this the triadic reciprocal model to emphasise how these three elements are interlinked and therefore influence each other. » He also stressed the importance of the environment, not simply in terms of our conditioning or reinforcement as we are growing up (traditional behaviourist view), but also in terms of the specific situation we find ourselves in. » Above all, Bandura emphasised the importance of cognition and explained that people’s perceptions of what they are experiencing may be more significant than the reality of that experience. » In fact, he also mentions the importance of self-regulation and how this has an impact on our behaviour. » He stated that people do not only learn from experiencing things first-hand but also through observing whether other people and being rewarded or punished for specific behaviour. ‘The idea that individuals learn to reward and punish themselves internally to regulate their own behaviour and achieve the desired outcomes’ (Eysenck, 2018; p.290) 51 The Social Cognitive Theory – The role of self-efficacy » Self-efficacy is ‘Bandura’s term for an individual’s sense of their abilities, of their capacity to deal with the particular sets of conditions that life puts before them’ (Penguin dictionary of Psychology, 1995) » In most cases, the stronger the sense of self-efficacy, the more confident one feels to deal with a situation and therefore, the more motivated one feels to face it. Bandura (1994) suggests that there are four sources of self-efficacy: Previous success in facing issues, especially successes that require effort Seeing other succeed whilst facing similar issues (vicarious learning) Social persuasion – others convincing you of your ability to deal with the issue successfully Reducing the reactions of stress and anxiety when facing a difficult situation 52 Cohort 2020-2022 26  Pack: A4 The Social Cognitive Theory – Evaluating the role of self-efficacy » A study (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998) suggests that self-efficacy has a significant impact on people’s performance. This study found that having a sense of self-efficacy increased work-performance by 28%. Interestingly however, the study suggested that ‘self – efficacy was more strongly associated with high task performance on easy rather then complex tasks, and the strength of the association was higher in laboratory settings than in more naturalistic ones’ (Eysenck, 2018; p.289). Why is this so? One needs to consider that real-life (naturalistic) tasks requiring high performance are more complex and less predictable (Eysenck, 2018). This means that the person facing such issues is usually less equipped with information about how to deal with the task itself. 53 The Social Cognitive Theory – Evaluating the role of self-efficacy cont… » Another study explored the relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance. In this case researchers, studied participants over a 5-year period. The findings indicated that although self-efficacy beliefs were found to predict subsequent academic performance, past academic achievement predicted more strongly subsequent self-efficacy beliefs (Eysenck, 2018). » This suggests that self-efficacy (cognitive element) may be less powerful than other elements such as previous experience and behaviour, in predicting performance. » Other studies in fact indicate that, although self-efficacy may be important in predicting performance, other identified traits, such as the degree of conscientiousness and level of intelligence seem to be more pivotal. 54 Cohort 2020-2022 27  Pack: A4 Evaluating social cognitive theory Strengths Weaknesses This theory focuses on various This theory dismisses the role of elements that help explain why people emotional factors in explaining are so different. It does not only focus behaviour and motivation. on internal but also external factors Research suggests that levels of self- that could explain our behaviour. efficacy are related to one’s genetic By focusing on self-efficacy and self- make-up. This theory does not take regulation, social cognitive theory may this into consideration. explain the different levels of This theory can help explain why motivation people may have towards people behave the way they do in adopting healthy lifestyles. specific situations but, unlike other theories, it does not explain why some behaviours are adopted ‘generally’ in people’s lives. 55 55 Humanism Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers George Kelly 56 56 Cohort 2020-2022 28  Pack: A4 Humanism » Humanistic theories give prominence to the free will of people: they stress that human beings have conscious control over their destiny. » They also stress the overall dignity and worth of human beings and their capacity for self- actualisation. They also emphasise conscious experience and each individual’s perception and experience of their world (phenomenology). » Humanists oppose what they see as pessimism in the psychoanalytic perspective and the robotic conception of humanity offered by behaviourism. » They has a more positive perception of human beings and tend to view people as beings who are creative and growth-oriented. » Humanism was mainly developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers in the United States in the 1950s, although George Kelly made useful contributions. 57 The humanistic theory of Abraham Maslow » In line with the main ideas of humanism, for Abraham Maslow, people are motivated by a conscious desire for personal growth, not by sexual and aggressive instincts (psychoanalysis). » Maslow believed that we are separated from other animals by our capacity for self- actualisation, or self-initiated striving to become what we believe we are capable of being. » He organised human motivational needs into a hierarchy where ‘each level must be fulfilled [to some degree] before a person can move up to a higher need. Maslow believed the more basic the need, the more powerfully it is experienced’ (Cardwell & Flanagan, 2015; p.136). » When human beings reach self-actualization, they are likely to experience peak experiences: profound moment[s] in a person’s life, an instance when they feel in harmony with all things, clear, spontaneous, independent and alert’ (Dictionary of Psychology, 1995). 58 Cohort 2020-2022 29  Pack: A4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Self-fulfilment Growth needs needs Psychological Deficiency needs needs Basic needs 59 Adapted from: http://blog.idonethis.com/management-maslows-hierarchy-needs/ 59 The humanistic theory of Carl Rogers » Carl Rogers developed his theory of personality whilst working therapeutically with people. He emphasized the human being’s capacity for personal growth and development. » Rogers saw people as basically good and healthy and saw problems occurring only because of particular experiences and the negative influence of others. » He believed that we hurt others or act in antisocial ways only when we are frustrated in our efforts to develop our potential. He explained that, anxiety often stems from recognition that we have feelings and desires that are inconsistent with our distorted self-concept. 60 60 Cohort 2020-2022 30  Pack: A4 Carl Rogers – The focus on the self » Carl Rogers developed further the idea of the self-concept and how this can have an impact on the way we see ourselves and on the way we present ourselves to others. » He claimed that human beings have two essential needs: To be accepted by others unconditionally (unconditional positive regard). This is important throughout our lives: from childhood to old age. Self-worth. This refers to the way we see ourselves as worthy of other people’s acceptance and positive regard. Self-worth depends on unconditional positive regard. Feelings of self-worth start developing early on in childhood and are very much dependent on how older people, especially parents, treat us. 61 61 Carl Rogers – The focus on the self/cont » Carl Rogers did not support the idea of laissez-faire parents. He suggested that if children misbehave, parents should show disapproval for the behaviour but they should not reject the child or make them feel that they are unworthy of love. » He believed that when children are treated with unconditional positive regard, they will grow to have high self-esteem (the degree to which ones values oneself). » To grow, children also need an environment that provides them with genuineness, and empathy (grown ups should be able to see the world through their eyes). » If this is not provided, children will develop conditions of worth, the conditions that they perceive are important for others and that will allow them to be accepted. This can be seen more obviously in those of us who can only feel loved and accepted if others agree with them or complement them. 62 62 Cohort 2020-2022 31  Pack: A4 Carl Rogers – The idea of Congruence » According to Carl Rogers, a healthy personality is one where there is congruence between the perceived self (one’s self image) and the ideal self. The The closer these two are, the The more congruent the person perceived feels and the more ideal self psychologically healthy s/he is. self The further they are, the more incongruence is experienced The way we think The way we think and the more pronounced the about ourselves. feeling of psychological we should be or Who we perceive discomfort is. would like to be. ourselves to be. 63 63 Humanistic theory: How does it work in practice? Psychologists using the humanistic approach work with clients to help them discover their potential and get closer to their self-actualization needs, after dealing with lower level needs. Similar to what Rogers’ suggested for good parenting, humanistic psychologists try to provide clients with acceptance (unconditional positive regard) through being genuine and empathic in their approach. Rogers also developed the Q-sort method to measure the self-concept. This involves presenting a client with a pile of cards which contain personal statements (e.g., “I am a friendly person”). The client is encouraged to decide which statements best describe him/her – self-concept. The same procedure is used for him/her to describe the ideal self. The gap between the self-concept and the ideal self is worked out in therapy 64 64 Cohort 2020-2022 32  Pack: A4 The humanistic theory of George Kelly » George Kelly’s ideas about personality merged together humanistic and social-cognitive approaches. » Similar to Rogers and Maslow, Kelly believed that in order to get to know someone’s personality, one needs to learn about how s/he understands the world (humanism). At the same time, Kelly admits that ‘understanding’ requires cognitive processes, or personal constructs. These are ways or lenses through which people perceive, understand and predict and control reality (Penguin Dictionary of Psychology, 1995). 65 65 The humanistic theory of George Kelly » ‘Each of an individual’s personal constructs functions like hypothesis, a possible way of constructing the physical and social environment. They may be altered if conflicting information is perceived [from the environment] or become fixed and incorporated as basic aspects of one’s personality’ (Penguin Dictionary of Psychology, 1995; p.554) » Constructs are often polar in that they have opposites, e.g., the construct of good implies another of bad. Polar constructs create one another: thus 'good' cannot exist without 'bad'. 66 66 Cohort 2020-2022 33  Pack: A4 Evaluating humanism Strengths Weaknesses Research with adolescents suggests The concepts utilised by humanists that when they are brought up with are difficult to study, so research conditions of worth, they are more about them is lacking likely to change their behaviour The positive outlook that human according to what they think others beings being intrinsically good is expect of them. This usually has a sometimes questionable negative impact on their own self- Maslow’s hierarchy of needs or esteem and mental health Rogers’ idea of conditions of worth The hierarchy of needs seems to be may not be transferable notions relevant on a social level. Poorer across different cultures. countries are more characterised by lower level needs. 67 67 The End! 68 68 Cohort 2020-2022 34