Muslim Culture PDF

Page 1 of 7 3 Muslim Culture MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES CULTURAL INTERACTION Many of the ideas developed...

Page 1 of 7 3 Muslim Culture MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES CULTURAL INTERACTION Many of the ideas developed House of calligraphy Muslims combined and during this time became the Wisdom preserved the traditions of many basis of today’s scientific and peoples and also advanced academic disciplines. learning in a variety of areas. SETTING THE STAGE The Abbasids governed during a prosperous period of Muslim history. Riches flowed into the empire from all over Europe, Asia, and Africa. Rulers could afford to build luxurious cities. They supported the scien- tists, mathematicians, and philosophers that those cities attracted. In the special atmosphere created by Islam, the scholars preserved existing knowledge and pro- duced an enormous body of original learning. Muslim Society TAKING NOTES Clarifying Use a web Over time, the influence of Muslims grew as the empire attracted people from a diagram to show the variety of lands. The many cultural traditions combined with the Arabic culture to key elements of Muslim create an international flavor. Muslim society had a sophistication matched at that culture. time only by the Tang Empire of China. That cosmopolitan character was most evident in urban centers. Science and Math City Life The Rise of Muslim Cities Until the construction of Baghdad, Damascus was the leading city. It was also the cultural center of Islamic learning. Other cities grew Muslim Culture up around power centers, such as Córdoba (the Umayyad capital), Cairo (the Arts A t andd Fatimid capital), and Jerusalem. (See the map on page 261.) Cities, which sym- Society Literaturee bolized the strength of the caliphate, were very impressive. The Abbasid capital city, Cities, A.D. 900 Baghdad, impressed all who saw it. Caliph al-Mansur Baghdad chose the site for his capital Constantinople on the west bank of the Tigris Córdoba River in 762. Extensive plan- ning went into the city’s Rome distinctive circular design, 0 500 1,000 formed by three circular pro- Population (in thousands) tective walls. The caliph’s Source: Tertius Chandler and Gerald Fox, palace of marble and stone 3,000 Years of Urban Growth. sat in the innermost circle, SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Graphs along with the grand mosque. Comparing How much larger in population was Originally, the main streets Baghdad than Córdoba? between the middle wall and The Muslim World 273  Page 2 of 7 the palace were lined with shops. Later, the mar- ketplace moved to a district outside the walls. Baghdad’s population approached one million at its peak. Four Social Classes Baghdad’s population, made up of different cultures and social classes, was typ- ical for a large Muslim city in the eighth and ninth centuries. Muslim society was made up of four classes. The upper class included those who were Muslims at birth. Converts to Islam were in the second class. The third class consisted of the “pro- tected people” and included Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians. The lowest class was composed of slaves. Many slaves were prisoners of war, and all were non-Muslim. Slaves most frequently per- formed household work or fought in the military. Role of Women The Qur’an says, “Men are the managers of the affairs of women,” and “Righteous women are therefore obedient.” However, the Qur’an also declares that men and women, as believers, are equal. The shari’a gave Muslim women specific legal rights concerning marriage, family, and property. Thus, Muslim women had more economic and property rights than European, Indian, and Chinese women of the same time period. Nonetheless, Muslim women were still expected to submit to men. When a husband wanted to divorce his wife, all he had to do was repeat three ▲ In a miniature times, “I dismiss thee.” The divorce became final in three months. painting from Responsibilities of Muslim women varied with the income of their husbands. Persia, women are shown having a The wife of a poor man would often work in the fields with her husband. Wealthier picnic in a garden. women supervised the household and its servants. They had access to education, Gardens were and among them were poets and scholars. Rich or poor, women were responsible seen as earthly for the raising of the children. In the early days of Islam, women could also par- representations of paradise. ticipate in public life and gain an education. However, over time, Muslim women were forced to live increasingly isolated lives. When they did go out in public, they were expected to be veiled. Muslim Scholarship Extends Knowledge Muslims had several practical reasons for supporting the advancement of science. Rulers wanted qualified physicians treating their ills. The faithful throughout the empire relied on mathematicians and astronomers to calculate the times for prayer and the direction of Mecca. However, their attitude also reflected a deep-seated curiosity about the world and a quest for truth. Muhammad himself believed strongly in the power of learning: Analyzing PRIMARY SOURCE Primary Sources Acquire knowledge. It enableth its possessor to distinguish right from wrong; it lighteth According to the way to Heaven; it is our friend in the desert, our society in solitude, our companion Muhammad, what when friendless; it guideth us to happiness; it sustaineth us in misery; it is an ornament are the nine valu- amongst friends, and an armour against enemies. able results of MUHAMMAD, quoted in The Sayings of Muhammad knowledge? 274 Chapter 10  Page 3 of 7 Astronomy Muslim interest in astronomy developed from the need to fulfill three of the Five Pillars of Islam—fasting during Ramadan, performing the hajj, and praying toward Mecca. A correct lunar calendar was needed to mark religious periods such as the month of Ramadan and the month of the hajj. Studying the skies helped fix the locations of cities so that worshipers could face toward Mecca as they prayed. Extensive knowl- edge of the stars also helped guide Muslim traders to the many trading cities of the ancient world. RESEARCH LINKS For more on astronomy, go to classzone.com ▲ The device shown here is called an armillary sphere. The man standing in the center is aligning the sphere, while the seated man records the observations. Astronomers calculated the time of day or year by aligning the rings with various stars. This helped Muslims set their religious calendar. ▼ Muslim observatories were great centers of learning. This scene depicts astronomers working at the observatory in Istanbul. They are using many instruments including an astrolabe like the one shown on this page. ▼ The astrolabe was an early scientific instrument. It had a fixed “plate” and a rotating “rete.” The plate was a map of the sky and the rete simulated the daily movement of the earth in relation to the stars. Using this tool, one could calculate time, celestial events, and 1. Recognizing Effects How did fulfilling relative position. For Muslims, the religious duties lead Muslims to astron- astrolabe helped determine where omy and a better understanding of they were in relation to Mecca. the physical world? See Skillbuilder Handbook, page R6. 2. Comparing and Contrasting Muslim These pointers on the astronomers developed instruments rete represented different to improve their observations of the stars. At night, observers sky. We do the same thing today. could look at the sky, Research how modern astronomers This is the rete—it position the pointers, and make their observations and compare This is the plate. The rotated over the plate. make their calculations. their methods with early Muslim plate was etched with The rete was mostly astronomers. Write two paragraphs a map of the sky for a cut away so the map on how their methods are similar to certain latitude. beneath was visible. and different from each other. 275  Page 4 of 7 The Prophet’s emphasis on study and scholarship led to strong support of places of learning by Muslim leaders. After the fall of Rome in A.D. 476, Europe entered a period of upheaval and chaos, an era in which scholarship suffered. The scientific knowledge gained up to that time might have been lost. However, Muslim leaders and scholars preserved and expanded much of that knowledge. Both Umayyads and Abbasids encouraged scholars to collect and translate scientific and philo- sophical texts. In the early 800s, Caliph al-Ma’mun opened in Baghdad a combi- nation library, academy, and translation center called the House of Wisdom. There, scholars of different cultures and beliefs worked side by side translating texts from Greece, India, Persia, and elsewhere into Arabic. Art and Sciences Flourish Scholars at the House of Wisdom included researchers, editors, linguists, and tech- nical advisers. These scholars developed standards and techniques for research that are a part of the basic methods of today’s research. Some Muslim scholars used Greek ideas in fresh new ways. Others created original work of the highest quality. In these ways, Muslims in the Abbasid lands, especially in Córdoba and Baghdad, set the stage for a later revival of European learning. Muslim Literature Literature had been a strong tradition in Arabia even before Islam. Bedouin poets, reflecting the spirit of desert life, composed poems celebrating ideals such as bravery, love, generosity, and hospitality. Those themes continued to appear in poetry written after the rise of Islam. The Qur’an is the standard for all Arabic literature and poetry. Early Muslim poets sang the praises of the Prophet and of Islam and, later, of the caliphs and other patrons who supported them. During the age of the Abbasid caliphate, lit- erary tastes expanded to include poems about nature and the pleasures of life and love. Popular literature included The Thousand and One Nights, a collection of fairy tales, parables, and legends. The core of the collection has been linked to India and Persia, but peoples of the Muslim Empire added stories and arranged them, beginning around the tenth century. Muslim Art and Architecture As the Muslim Empire expanded, the Arabs entered regions that had rich artistic The Thousand and One Nights traditions. Muslims continued these traditions but often The Thousand and One Nights is a collection of stories tied together adapted them to suit Islamic beliefs and practices. For using a frame story. The frame story example, since Muslims believed that only Allah can create tells of King Shahryar, who marries a life, images of living beings were discouraged. Thus, many new wife each day and has her killed artists turned to calligraphy, or the art of beautiful hand- the next. When Scheherezade marries writing. Others expressed themselves through the decora- the king, however, she tells him fascinating tales for a thousand and tive arts, such as woodwork, glass, ceramics, and textiles. one nights, until the king realizes that It is in architecture that the greatest cultural blending of he loves her. the Muslim world can be seen. To some extent, a building The tradition of using a frame story reflected the culture of people of the area. For example, the dates back to at least 200 B.C., when Great Mosque of Damascus was built on the site of a the ancient Indian fables of the Christian church. In many ways, the huge dome and Panchatantra were collected. Italian writer Giovanni Boccaccio also set his vaulted ceiling of the mosque blended Byzantine architec- great work, The Decameron, within a ture with Muslim ideas. In Syrian areas, the architecture frame story in 1335. included features that were very Roman, including baths using Roman heating systems. In Córdoba, the Great 276 Chapter 10  Page 5 of 7 Muslim Art Calligraphy ▼ Muslim art is intricate and colorful but often Calligraphy, or ornamental does not contain images of living beings. Muslim writing, is important to Muslims leaders feared that people might worship the because it is considered a way to reflect the glory of Allah. In images rather than Allah. Thus, Muslim artists pictorial calligraphy, pictures found different ways to express their creativity, are formed using the letters as shown on this page. of the alphabet. This picture of a man praying is made up of the words of the Muslim declaration of faith. Geometric Patterns ▼ Muslim artwork sometimes focuses on strictly geometric patterns. Geometric designs can be found in everything from pottery to architecture. This mosaic is from the Jami Masjid Mosque in India (shown below) and uses intricate patterns radiating out from the central shape. ▲ Arabesque Arabesque decoration is a complex, ornate design. It usually incorporates flowers, leaves, and geometric patterns. These arabesque tiles are from the Jami SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Visual Sources Masjid Mosque. Arabesque designs are also found Drawing Conclusions What do these three artistic techniques suggest in Muslim mosaics, textiles, and sculptures. about Muslim art? The Muslim World 277  Page 6 of 7 ▲ This interior view of the Great Mosque used two levels of arches in a style unknown before. The style was based Mosque of Córdoba on principles used in earlier mosques. These blended styles appeared in all the showed a new lands occupied by the Muslims. architectural style. Two tiers of arches Medical Advances Muslim contributions in the sciences were most recognizable in support the ceiling. medicine, mathematics, and astronomy. A Persian scholar named al-Razi (Rhazes, according to the European pronunciation) was the greatest physician of the Muslim world and, more than likely, of world civilization between A.D. 500 and 1500. He wrote an encyclopedia called the Comprehensive Book that drew on knowledge from Greek, Syrian, Arabic, and Indian sources as well as on his own experience. Al-Razi also wrote Treatise on Smallpox and Measles, which was translated into several lan- guages. He believed patients would recover more quickly if they breathed cleaner air. Math and Science Stretch Horizons Among the ideas that Muslim scholars intro- duced to modern math and science, two especially stand out. They are the reliance on scientific observation and experimentation, and the ability to find mathematical solu- tions to old problems. As for science, Muslims translated and studied Greek texts. But they did not follow the Greek method of solving problems. Aristotle, Pythagoras, and other Greek thinkers preferred logical reasoning over uncovering facts through observation. Muslim scientists preferred to solve problems by conducting experi- ments in laboratory settings. Muslim scholars believed that mathematics was the basis of all knowledge. Al- Khwarizmi, a mathematician born in Baghdad in the late 700s, studied Indian rather than Greek sources. He wrote a textbook in the 800s explaining “the art of bringing together unknowns to match a known quantity.” He called this technique al-jabr—today called algebra. Many of the advances in mathematics were related to the study of astronomy. Muslim observatories charted stars, comets, and planets. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), a brilliant mathematician, produced a book called Optics that revolutionized ideas about vision. He showed that people see objects because rays pass from the objects to the eyes, not from the eyes to the objects as was commonly believed. His studies about optics were used in developing lenses for telescopes and microscopes. Philosophy and Religion Blend Views In addition to scientific works, scholars at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad trans- lated works of Greek philosophers like Aristotle and Plato into Arabic. In the 1100s, Muslim philosopher Ibn Rushd (also known as Averroës), who lived in 278 Chapter 10  Page 7 of 7 Córdoba, was criticized for trying to blend Aristotle’s and Plato’s views with those of Islam. However, Ibn Rushd argued that Greek philosophy and Islam both had the same goal: to find the truth. Ibn Rushd Moses Ben Maimon (Maimonides), a Jewish physician 1126–1198 and philosopher, was born in Córdoba and lived in Egypt. Today Ibn Rushd is considered by many to be the most important of Like Ibn Rushd, he faced strong opposition for his ideas, but all Muslim philosophers. Yet his he came to be recognized as the greatest Jewish philosopher views were so offensive to Islamic in history. Writing during the same time as Ibn Rushd, conservatives that he was once Maimonides produced a book, The Guide for the Perplexed, stoned in the Great Mosque of that blended philosophy, religion, and science. Córdoba. In 1184, the philosopher began serving as physician to Caliph The “Ideal Man” The values of many cultures were recog- al-Mansur in Marrakech. Under nized by the Muslims. A ninth-century Muslim philosophi- pressure by conservatives, however, cal society showed that it recognized the empire’s diverse the caliph accused Ibn Rushd of nature when it described its “ideal man”: heresy and ordered some of his books to be burned. Fortunately, all of his work was not PRIMARY SOURCE lost. Ibn Rushd’s writings had a great The ideal and morally perfect man should be of East Persian impact on Europe in the 13th century derivation, Arabic in faith, of Iraqi education, a Hebrew in and played a major role in the revival astuteness, a disciple of Christ in conduct, as pious as a Greek of Christian scholarship. In the 16th monk, a Greek in the individual sciences, an Indian in the century, Italian painter Raphael placed interpretation of all mysteries, but lastly and especially a Sufi in Ibn Rushd among the ancient Greek his whole spiritual life. philosophers in School of Athens. IKHWAN AS-SAFA, quoted in The World of Islam Drawing Though the unified Muslim state broke up, Muslim cul- RESEARCH LINKS For more on Ibn Conclusions ture continued. Three Muslim empires—the Ottoman, the Rushd, go to classzone.com What is the Safavid, and the Mughal—would emerge that would reflect advantage of blend- ing various tradi- the blended nature of the culture of this time. The knowl- tions within a edge developed and preserved by the Muslim scholars would be drawn upon by culture? European scholars in the Renaissance, beginning in the 14th century. SECTION 3 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. House of Wisdom calligraphy USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Which of these elements most 3. What was the role of women in 6. EVALUATING What do you consider to be the five most strengthened the Abbasid Muslim society? significant developments in scholarship and the arts rule? Explain. 4. How did Muslim scholars help during the reign of the Abbasids? preserve the knowledge of the 7. MAKING INFERENCES What united the scholars of Science ancient Greeks and Romans? different cultures who worked in the House of Wisdom? and Math City Life 5. What were some of the Muslim 8. SYNTHESIZING What role did cities play in the Muslim Culture contributions in medicine, advancement of Muslim culture? mathematics, and astronomy? 9. WRITING ACTIVITY CULTURAL INTERACTION Write a one- Society Arts A t andd paragraph analysis explaining how the primary source Literaturee quotation on this page reflects the Muslim Empire’s diversity. CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A POSTER Research to find out how the discoveries of Muslim physician al-Razi have influenced medicine today. Present your findings in a poster. The Muslim World 279