A Brief History of Modern India PDF

A Brief History of Modern India by Rajiv Ahir I.P.S. With contributions from R. Vidya Sabina Madan Shashi Kumar Saxena Kalpana Rajaram Editor Kalpana Rajaram Revised and Enlarged Edition 2020 SPECTRUM BOOKS (P) LTD. A1 291, First Floor, Janakpuri, New Delhi 110 058 Editor’s Note Several books ha...

A Brief History of Modern India by Rajiv Ahir I.P.S. With contributions from R. Vidya Sabina Madan Shashi Kumar Saxena Kalpana Rajaram Editor Kalpana Rajaram Revised and Enlarged Edition 2020 SPECTRUM BOOKS (P) LTD. A1 291, First Floor, Janakpuri, New Delhi 110 058 Editor’s Note Several books have been written by justly famous authors and historians of India’s struggle for freedom which is the major strand in any consideration of the history of Modern India. But these volumes are extensive and in-depth studies, and often suffer from an overemphasis on one aspect at the cost of another. The present small effort, however, brings together various aspects of the turbulent period (from the arrival of the Europeans on Indian soil and the establishment of British rule in India to the day India won independence and the years after freedom) in a systematic and succinct manner: major and important details and milestones are effectively discussed while several relevant but little known details are also highlighted. It is not just the mainstream freedom struggle that has been considered; the disparate efforts—small but significant— of several groups have also been discussed. The political and socio-economic developments that have influenced the growth of modern India have been dealt with in independent chapters. The endeavour has been to present complex and truly vast material in a brief and easy-to-understand manner, and we hope our readers find the book of use and interest. The present edition includes chapters on the advent of (iii) Editor’s Note the Europeans in India and the British consolidation of power in India besides incorporating additional information under several chapters. There are also chapters on the challenges that a newly independent nation faced in the wake of a brutal partition. The Nehruvian era is also briefly discussed. The chapter on India after Nehru discusses various developments under the governments that came after 1964. In the Appendices, a survey of personalities associated with various movements is given. Also included for easy ready reference are several charts relating to modern India and the freedom struggle. We are grateful for the feedback we have received from our readers. We have incorporated many of their valuable suggestions in the present edition. Suggestions for improvement are welcome. Kalpana Rajaram November 2020 (iv) Contents UNIT 1 SOURCES AND APPROACHES 1 Chapter 1 Sources for the History of Modern India 1 Archival Materials 2 Central Government Archives 2 Archives of the State Governments 3 Archives of Three Presidencies 4 Archives of Other European Powers 4 Judicial Records 5 Published Archives 5 Private Archives 6 Foreign Repositories 6 Biographies, Memoirs and Travel Accounts 7 Newspapers and Journals 8 Oral Evidence 9 Creative Literature 10 Painting 10 Summary 12 Chapter 2 Major Approaches to the History of Modern India 13 Colonial Approach/ Historiography 14 Nationalist Historiography/ Approach 14 Marxist Historiography/ Approach 15 Subaltern Approach/ Historiography 16 Communalist Approach 17 Cambridge School 18 Liberal and Neo-Liberal Interpretations 18 (v) Contents Feminist Historiography Summary 18 19 UNIT 2 ADVENT OF EUROPEANS AND CONSOLIDATION OF BRITISH POWER IN INDIA Chapter 3 Advent of the Europeans in India The Portuguese in India The Quest for and Discovery of a Sea Route to India From Trading to Ruling Portuguese State Portuguese Lose Favour with the Mughals Decline of the Portuguese Significance of the Portuguese The Dutch Dutch Settlements Anglo-Dutch Rivalry Decline of the Dutch in India The English Charter of Queen Elizabeth I Progress of the English Company The French Foundation of French Centres in India The Anglo-French Struggle for Supremacy: the Carnatic Wars Causes for the English Success and the French Failure The Danes Why the English Succeeded against Other European Powers Structure and Nature of the Trading Companies Naval Superiority Industrial Revolution Military Skill and Discipline Stable Government Lesser Zeal for Religion Use of Debt Market (vi) 21 21 22 22 23 28 30 32 34 35 35 36 36 37 37 38 42 42 44 51 53 53 53 54 54 54 54 55 55 Contents Summary Boxes Portuguese Rise and Fall Formative Years of the East India Company Rise and Fall of Dupleix in India About the Goods in Trade Initially Chapter 4 India on the Eve of British Conquest Challenges before the Mughals External Challenges Weak Rulers after Aurangzeb—An Internal Challenge Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars Jagirdari Crisis Rise of Regional Aspirations Economic and Administrative Problems Rise of Regional States Survey of Regional Kingdoms Nature and Limitations of Regional States Socio-Economic Conditions Agriculture Trade and Industry Status of Education Societal Set-up Developments in Art, Architecture and Culture Summary Boxes Why Many Empire-shaking Battles at Panipat? Causes of the Mughals’ Downfall in a Nutshell Chapter 5 Expansion and Consolidation of British Power in India The British Imperial History Was the British Conquest Accidental or Intentional? When did the British Period Begin in India? Causes of British Success in India Superior Arms, Military, and Strategy (vii) 55 33 41 47 52 59 59 59 62 64 65 65 68 69 70 70 73 74 74 74 76 77 78 80 61 68 82 82 82 84 85 85 Contents Better Military Discipline and Regular Salary Civil Discipline and Fair Selection System Brilliant Leadership and Support of Second-Line Leaders Strong Financial Backup Nationalist Pride British Conquest of Bengal Bengal on the Eve of British Conquest Alivardi Khan and the English Challenges Before Siraj-ud-Daulah The Battle of Plassey Mir Kasim and the Treaty of 1760 The Battle of Buxar The Treaty of Allahabad Dual Government in Bengal (1765–72) Mysore’s Resistance to the Company The Wodeyar / Mysore Dynasty Rise of Haidar Ali First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69) Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–84) Third Anglo-Mysore War Fourth Anglo-Mysore War Mysore After Tipu Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy Rise of the Marathas Entry of the English into Maratha Politics First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82) Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05) Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–19) Why the Marathas Lost Conquest of Sindh Rise of Talpuras Amirs Gradual Ascendancy over Sindh Criticisms of the Conquest of Sindh Conquest of Punjab Consolidation of Punjab under the Sikhs Ranjit Singh and the English Punjab After Ranjit Singh First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46) Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49) Significance of the Anglo-Sikh Wars Extension of British Paramountcy (viii) 85 86 86 86 87 87 87 88 88 89 90 91 93 94 95 95 95 96 97 98 99 101 102 102 102 103 105 107 108 110 110 110 114 114 114 116 117 117 119 120 120 Contents Through Administrative Policy The Policy of Ring-Fence Subsidiary Alliance Doctrine of Lapse Relations of British India with Neighbouring Countries Anglo-Bhutanese Relations Anglo-Nepalese Relations Anglo-Burmese Relations Anglo-Tibetan Relations Anglo-Afghan Relations John Lawrence and the Policy of Masterly Inactivity Lytton and the Policy of Proud Reserve British India and the North-West Frontier Summary Boxes Robert Clive Estimate of Tipu Sultan Annexation of Awadh 120 121 124 126 126 127 127 129 130 131 132 133 134 93 100 125 UNIT 3 RISING RESENTMENT AGAINST 137 COMPANY RULE Chapter 6 People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857 137 People’s Resistance: Meaning 138 Genesis of People’s Resistance 138 Causative Factors for People’s Uprisings 139 Civil Uprisings 139 Major Causes of Civil Uprisings 139 General Characteristics of Civil Uprisings 140 Important Civil Uprisings 140 Peasant Movements with Religious Overtones 153 Tribal Revolts 155 Different Causes for Mainland and 155 North-Eastern Tribal Revolts Characteristics of Tribal Revolts 156 Important Tribal Movements 157 of the Mainland (ix) Contents Tribal Movements of the North-East Sepoy Mutinies Causes Important Mutinies Weaknesses of People’s Uprisings Summary Boxes Some Tribal Movements after 1857 Tribal Movements: Period, Region, Causes at a Glance North-East Frontier Tribal Movements: Year, Region, Major Causes Chapter 7 The Revolt of 1857 Simmering Discontent The 1857 Revolt: the Major Causes Economic Causes Political Causes Administrative Causes Socio-Religious Causes Influence of Outside Events Discontent Among Sepoys Beginning and Spread of the Revolt The Spark Starts at Meerut Choice of Bahadur Shah as Symbolic Head Civilians Join Storm Centres and Leaders of the Revolt Suppression of the Revolt Why the Revolt Failed All-India participation was absent All classes did not join Poor Arms and Equipment Uncoordinated and Poorly Organised No Unified Ideology Hindu-Muslim Unity Factor Nature of the Revolt Consequences Significance of the Revolt (x) 167 169 169 170 170 171 162 166 168 174 174 175 175 176 177 177 177 177 178 178 179 179 180 181 183 184 184 184 185 185 185 186 186 189 192 Contents Summary Box White Mutiny 193 188 UNIT 4 REFORM MOVEMENTS 195 Chapter 8 Socio-Religious Reform Movements: General Features Factors Giving Rise to Desire for Reform Impact of British Rule Social Conditions Ripe for Reform Opposition to Western Culture New Awareness among Enlightened Indians Social and Ideological Bases of Reform Middle Class Base The Intellectual Criteria Two Streams Direction of Social Reform Fight for Betterment of Position of Women Struggle Against Caste-Based Exploitation Summary 195 195 196 196 197 197 198 198 199 200 201 202 209 215 Chapter 9 A General Survey of Socio–Cultural 217 Reform Movements and their Leaders Socio-Cultural Reform Movements and their Leaders 217 Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj 217 Prarthana Samaj 222 Young Bengal Movement and 223 Henry Vivian Derozio Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar 224 Balshastri Jambhekar 225 Paramahansa Mandali 225 Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai Phule 226 Gopal Baba Walangkar 228 Kisan Faguji Bansod 229 Vitthal Ramji Shinde 229 Gopalhari Deshmukh ‘Lokahitawadi’ 230 Gopal Ganesh Agarkar 230 (xi) Contents The Servants of India Society Social Service League The Ramakrishna Movement and Swami Vivekananda Dayananda Saraswati and Arya Samaj Seva Sadan Dev Samaj Dharma Sabha Bharat Dharma Mahamandala Radhaswami Movement Sree Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana (SNDP) Movement Vokkaliga Sangha Justice Movement Self-Respect Movement Temple Entry Movement Indian Social Conference Wahabi/Walliullah Movement Titu Mir’s Movement Faraizi Movement Ahmadiyya Movement Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and the Aligarh Movement The Deoband School (Darul Uloom) Parsi Reform Movements Sikh Reform Movements The Theosophical Movement Significance of Reform Movements Positive Aspects Negative Aspects Summary 231 231 231 235 238 239 239 239 239 240 241 241 241 241 242 242 243 243 244 244 246 247 247 248 249 249 251 252 UNIT 5 THE STRUGGLE BEGINS Chapter 10 Beginning of Modern Nationalism in India Factors in the Growth of Modern Nationalism Understanding of Contradictions in Indian and Colonial Interests (xii) 254 254 254 255 Contents Political, Administrative, and Economic Unification of the Country Western Thought and Education Role of Press and Literature Rediscovery of India’s Past Progressive Character of Socio-religious Reform Movements Rise of Middle-Class Intelligentsia Impact of Contemporary Movements in the World Reactionary Policies and Racial Arrogance of Rulers Political Associations Before the Indian National Congress Political Associations in Bengal Political Associations in Bombay Political Associations in Madras Pre-Congress Campaigns Summary Chapter 11 Indian National Congress: Foundation and the Moderate Phase Foundation of the Indian National Congress Was It a Safety Valve? Aims and Objectives of the Congress Era of Moderates (1885–1905) Important Leaders Moderate Approach Contributions of Moderate Nationalists Economic Critique of British Imperialism Constitutional Reforms and Propaganda in Legislature Campaign for General Administrative Reforms Protection of Civil Rights An Evaluation of the Early Nationalists Role of Masses Attitude of the Government Summary (xiii) 255 256 256 257 257 257 257 258 258 259 260 260 261 261 262 262 263 264 264 264 264 265 265 266 268 268 269 270 270 271 Contents UNIT 6 NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1905–1918) Chapter 12 Era of Militant Nationalism (1905–1909) Growth of Militant Nationalism Why Militant Nationalism Grew The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement Partition of Bengal to Divide People Anti-Partition Campaign Under Moderates (1903–05) The Congress Position The Movement under Extremist Leadership The Extremist Programme New Forms of Struggle and Impact Extent of Mass Participation All India Aspect Annulment of Partition Evaluation of the Swadeshi Movement The Movement Fizzles Out Movement a Turning Point The Surat Split Run-up to Surat Split Takes Place Government Repression The Government Strategy Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 The Reforms Evaluation Summary Box Differences between Moderates and Extremists Chapter 13 First Phase of Revolutionary Activities (1907–1917) Why the Surge of Revolutionary Activities The Revolutionary Programme A Survey of Revolutionary Activities Bengal Maharashtra Punjab (xiv) 272 272 272 272 276 276 277 278 279 279 280 283 285 285 285 285 286 289 289 290 291 292 293 293 295 296 287 299 299 300 300 300 303 304 Contents Revolutionary Activities Abroad Decline Summary Chapter 14 First World War and Nationalist Response Home Rule League Movement Factors Leading to the Movement The Leagues The Home Rule League Programme Government Attitude Why the Agitation Faded Out by 1919 Positive Gains Lucknow Session of the Indian National Congress (1916) Readmission of Extremists to Congress Lucknow Pact between Congress and Muslim League Montagu’s Statement of August 1917 Indian Objections Summary 304 308 308 311 312 312 313 314 315 315 316 317 317 317 320 320 321 UNIT 7 ERA OF MASS NATIONALISM BEGINS (1919–1939) Chapter 15 Emergence of Gandhi Why Nationalist Resurgence Now Post-War Economic Hardships Expectations of Political Gains for Cooperation in the War Nationalist Disillusionment with Imperialism Worldwide Impact of Russian Revolution (November 7, 1917) Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and Government of India Act, 1919 Main Features Drawbacks Congress Reaction Making of Gandhi (xv) 322 322 323 323 323 324 324 325 325 327 328 329 Contents Early Career and Experiments with Truth in South Africa Gandhi’s Experience in South Africa Gandhi’s Technique of Satyagraha Gandhi in India Champaran Satyagraha (1917)—First Civil Disobedience Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)— First Hunger Strike Kheda Satyagraha (1918)—First Non-Cooperation Gains from Champaran, Ahmedabad, and Kheda Rowlatt Act, Satyagraha, and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre The Rowlatt Act Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act— First Mass Strike Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919) The Hunter Committee of Inquiry Congress View Summary Box Tolstoy Farm Chapter 16 Non-Cooperation Movement and Khilafat Aandolan Background The Khilafat Issue Development of the Khalifat-Non-Cooperation Programme Congress Stand on Khilafat Question Muslim League Support to Congress The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement Spread of the Movement People’s Response Government Response The Last Phase of the Movement Why Gandhi Withdrew the Movement Evaluation of Khilafat Non-Cooperation Movement Summary (xvi) 329 332 332 333 333 334 335 336 337 337 338 339 341 343 344 331 345 345 346 347 347 348 348 350 351 353 353 354 355 356 Contents Chapter 17 Emergence of Swarajists, Socialist Ideas, Revolutionary Activities and Other New Forces Swarajists and No-Changers Genesis of Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party Swarajists’ Arguments No-Changers’ Arguments Agree to Disagree The Swarajist Manifesto for Elections Gandhi’s Attitude Swarajist Activity in Councils Constructive Work by No-Changers Emergence of New Forces: Socialistic Ideas, Youth Power, Trade Unionism Spread of Marxist and Socialist Ideas Activism of Indian Youth Peasants’ Agitations Growth of Trade Unionism Caste Movements Revolutionary Activity with a Turn towards Socialism Revolutionary Activity During the 1920s Why Attraction for Revolutionary Activity after Non-Cooperation Movement Major Influences In Punjab-United Provinces-Bihar In Bengal Official Reaction Ideological Rethinking Summary Chapter 18 Simon Commission and the Nehru Report Appointment of the Indian Statutory Commission Indian Response Police Repression Impact of Appointment of Simon Commission on the National Movement The Simon Commission Recommendations Nehru Report (xvii) 357 357 357 358 358 358 359 359 360 362 362 363 364 364 364 364 365 365 365 366 366 369 371 371 373 375 375 376 378 379 379 380 Contents Main Recommendations The Muslim and Hindu Communal Responses Amendments Proposed by Jinnah Nehru Report Found Unsatisfactory Summary Box Dr Ambedkar and the Simon Commission Chapter 19 Civil Disobedience Movement and Round Table Conferences The Run-up to Civil Disobedience Movement Calcutta Session of Congress Political Activity during 1929 Irwin’s Declaration (October 31, 1929) Delhi Manifesto Lahore Congress and Purna Swaraj January 26, 1930: the Independence Pledge Civil Disobedience Movement—the Salt Satyagraha and Other Upsurges Gandhi’s Eleven Demands Why Salt was Chosen as the Important Theme Dandi March (March 12–April 6, 1930) Spread of Salt Law Disobedience Impact of Agitation Extent of Mass Participation Government Response—Efforts for Truce Gandhi-Irwin Pact Evaluation of Civil Disobedience Movement Karachi Congress Session—1931 Congress Resolutions at Karachi The Round Table Conferences First Round Table Conference Second Round Table Conference Third Round Table Conference Civil Disobedience Resumed During Truce Period (March–December 1931) Changed Government Attitude After Second RTC Government Action Popular Response (xviii) 381 381 383 384 384 378 385 385 385 386 386 387 387 388 389 389 390 390 391 396 396 397 398 399 400 400 401 401 403 406 407 407 407 408 408 Contents Communal Award and Poona Pact Main Provisions of the Communal Award Congress Stand Gandhi’s Response Poona Pact Impact of Poona Pact on Dalits Gandhi’s Harijan Campaign and thoughts on Caste Ideological Differences and Similarities between Gandhi and Ambedkar Summary Chapter 20 Debates on the Future Strategy after Civil Disobedience Movement The First Stage Debate Nehru’s Vision Nehru’s Opposition to StruggleTruce-Struggle Strategy Finally, Yes to Council Entry Government of India Act, 1935 Main Features Evaluation of the Act Nationalists’ Response The Second Stage Debate Divided Opinion Gandhi’s Position Congress Manifesto for Elections Congress’ Performance Summary Chapter 21 Congress Rule in Provinces Gandhi’s Advice Work under Congress Ministries Civil Liberties Agrarian Reforms Attitude Towards Labour Social Welfare Reforms Evaluation Summary (xix) 408 409 410 410 411 411 412 414 418 420 420 421 421 422 423 423 425 426 427 427 428 428 429 429 430 430 430 430 430 432 433 433 434 Contents UNIT 8 TOWARDS FREEDOM AND PARTITION (1939–1947) Chapter 22 Nationalist Response in the Wake of World War II Congress Crisis on Method of Struggle Haripura and Tripuri Sessions: Subhash Bose’s Views Gandhi and Bose: Ideological Differences Non-Violence versus Militant Approach Means and Ends Form of Government Militarism Ideas on Economy Religion Caste and Untouchability Women Education Second World War and Nationalistic Response Congress Offer to Viceroy CWC Meeting at Wardha Government Attitude and Congress Ministries’ Resignation Government’s Hidden Agenda August Offer Responses Evaluation Individual Satyagraha Gandhi Designates Nehru as his Successor Cripps Mission Why Cripps Mission Was Sent Main Proposals Departures from the Past and Implications Why Cripps Mission Failed Summary Chapter 23 Quit India Movement, Demand for Pakistan, and the INA Quit India Movement Why Start a Struggle Now (xx) 435 435 435 436 440 440 441 442 445 445 447 449 449 452 453 453 453 455 455 458 458 459 459 460 461 461 461 462 462 464 466 466 466 Contents The ‘Quit India’ Resolution Gandhi’s General Instructions to Different Sections Spread of the Movement Extent of Mass Participation Government Repression Estimate Gandhi Fasts Famine of 1943 Rajagopalachari Formula The Formula Objections Desai-Liaqat Pact Wavell Plan Why the Government was Keen on a Solution Now The Plan Muslim League’s Stand Congress Stand Wavell’s Mistake The Indian National Army and Subhas Bose Origin and First Phase of the Indian National Army Summary Chapter 24 Post-War National Scenario Two Strands of National Upsurge Change in Government’s Attitude Congress Election Campaign and INA Trials Election Campaign for Nationalistic Aims Congress Support for INA Prisoners The INA Agitation—A Landmark on Many Counts Three Upsurges—Winter of 1945–46 Three-Stage Pattern Evaluation of Potential and Impact of the Three Upsurges Congress Strategy Election Results Performance of the Congress (xxi) 467 467 468 470 470 471 471 472 472 472 473 473 473 474 474 474 475 475 475 476 479 481 481 481 483 483 484 484 485 485 487 488 488 488 Contents Muslim League’s Performance Significant Features of Elections The Cabinet Mission Why British Withdrawal Seemed Imminent Now On the Eve of Cabinet Mission Plan Cabinet Mission Arrives Cabinet Mission Plan—Main Points Different Interpretations of the Grouping Clause Main Objections Acceptance and Rejection Communal Holocaust and the Interim Government Changed Government Priorities Interim Government Obstructionist Approach and Ulterior Motives of the League Birth and Spread of Communalism in India Characteristic Features of Indian Communalism Reasons for Growth of Communalism Evolution of the Two-Nation Theory Summary Box Wavell’s ‘Breakdown Plan’ 489 489 489 489 491 491 491 493 493 494 495 495 495 496 497 497 498 504 508 494 Chapter 25 Independence with Partition 510 Attlee’s Statement of February 20, 1947 510 main points of Attlee’s Statement 510 Why a Date Fixed by Government for Withdrawal511 Congress Stand 511 Independence and Partition 511 Mountbatten as the Viceroy 512 Mountbatten Plan, June 3, 1947 512 Indian Independence Act 514 Problems of Early withdrawal 515 Integration of States 515 Inevitability of Partition 516 Why Congress Accepted Partition 516 Gandhi’s Helplessness 519 Summary 519 Box Plan Balkan 515 (xxii) Contents UNIT 9 INDIA UNDER BRITISH RULE: GOVERNANCE AND OTHER ASPECTS Chapter 26 Constitutional, Administrative, and Judicial Developments Contents Constitutional Development between 1773 and 1858 The Regulating Act of 1773 Pitt’s India Act of 1784 The Act of 1786 The Charter Act of 1793 The Charter Act of 1813 The Charter Act of 1833 The Charter Act of 1853 The Act for Better Government of India 1858 Developments after 1858 till Independence Indian Councils Act 1861 Indian Councils Act 1892 Indian Councils Act 1909 Government of India Act 1919 Simon Commission Government of India Act 1935 Evolution of Civil Services in India Cornwallis’ Role Wellesley’s Role Charter Act of 1853 Indian Civil Service Act of 1861 Statutory Civil Service Congress Demand and Aitchison Committee Montford Reforms 1919 Lee Commission (1924) Evaluation of Civil Services under British Rule Evolution of Police System in Modern India Military Under the British Development of Judiciary in British India Reforms under Warren Hastings (1772–85) Reforms under Cornwallis (1786–93)— Separation of Powers (xxiii) 520 520 521 521 522 523 523 523 524 525 526 526 526 527 527 528 530 530 532 532 533 533 533 534 534 534 535 535 536 538 540 541 541 Contents Reforms under William Bentinck (1828–33) Later Developments Evaluation Positive Aspects of Judiciary under the British The Negative Aspects Major Changes in Administrative Structure after 1857 Genesis of Administrative Changes: New Stage of Colonialism Administration: Central, Provincial, Local Central Government Provincial Government Local Bodies Summary Chapter 27 Survey of British Policies in India Administrative Policies Divide and Rule Hostility Towards Educated Indians Attitude Towards the Zamindars Attitude Towards Social Reforms Underdeveloped Social Services Labour Legislations Restrictions on Freedom of the Press White Racism Revenue Policies Hastings’ System Permanent Settlement Ryotwari System Mahalwari System Overall Impact of the British Land revenue Systems British Social and Cultural Policy in India Characteristics of New Thought Schools of Thought Indian Renaissance Dilemma Before the Government Role of Christian Missionaries British Retreat British Policy Towards Princely States (xxiv) 542 542 543 543 543 543 543 544 544 546 547 551 553 553 553 553 554 554 554 555 556 556 557 557 558 559 562 564 565 566 566 567 567 567 568 568 Contents British Foreign Policy in India Summary Chapter 28 Economic Impact of British Rule in India Deindustrialisation—Ruin of Artisans and Handicraftsmen One-Way Free Trade No Steps towards Modern Industrialisation Ruralisation Impoverishment of Peasantry Emergence of Intermediaries, Absentee Landlordism, Ruin of Old Zamindars Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture Famine and Poverty Commercialisation of Indian Agriculture Destruction of Industry and Late Development of Modern Industry Nationalist Critique of Colonial Economy British Policies Making India Poor Growth of Trade and Railways to Help Britain One-Way Free Trade and Tariff Policy Effect of Economic Drain Economic Issue a Stimulant to National Unrest Stages of Colonialism in India First Stage Second Stage Third Stage Summary Box Economic Drain Chapter 29 Development of Indian Press Early Regulations Struggle by Early Nationalists to Secure Press Freedom Vernacular Press Act, 1878 Repression against Nationalist Journalists Continues During and After the First World War (xxv) 569 570 571 571 571 572 572 572 573 574 574 574 575 578 579 579 581 581 582 582 583 584 585 586 578 587 587 588 589 590 592 Contents During the Second World War Summary Chapter 30 Development of Education Under Company Rule A Humble beginning by Charter Act of 1813 Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy Lord Macaulay’s Minute (1835) Efforts of Thomson Wood’s Despatch (1854) After the Crown Takeover Hunter Education Commission (1882–83) Indian Universities Act, 1904 Government Resolution on Education Policy—1913 Sadler University Commission (1917–19) Education Under Dyarchy Hartog Committee (1929) Sargent Plan of Education Development of Vernacular Education Development of Technical Education Evaluation of British Policy on Education Summary Box Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937) Chapter 31 Peasant Movements 1857–1947 Peasantry Under Colonialism A Survey of Early Peasant Movements Indigo Revolt (1859–60) Pabna Agrarian Leagues Deccan Riots Changed Nature of Peasant Movements after 1857 Weaknesses Later Movements The Kisan Sabha Movement Eka Movement Mappila Revolt Bardoli Satyagraha (xxvi) 593 593 594 594 595 595 595 596 596 597 597 598 599 600 602 602 604 607 608 608 609 606 610 610 611 611 611 612 613 613 614 614 615 615 616 Contents The All India Kisan Congress/Sabha Under Congress Ministries Peasant Activity in Provinces During the War Post-War Phase Balance-Sheet of Peasant Movements Summary 617 617 617 618 619 620 521 Chapter 32 The Movement of the Working Class Early Efforts During Swadeshi Upsurge During the First World War and After The AITUC The Trade Union Act, 1926 Late 1920s Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929) Under Congress Ministries During and After the Second World War After Independence Summary 622 622 623 624 624 625 625 625 626 626 626 626 UNIT 10 INDEPENDENCE AND AFTER Chapter 33 Challenges before the Newborn Nation First Day of Independent India First Government after Independence Challenges Radcliffe’s Boundary Award and the Communal Riots Challenges before the Boundary Commission Regions Most Affected by Riots Challenges Associated with Division of Resources Division of Civil Government Division of Finances Division of Defence Personnel and Equipment Assassination of Gandhi Rehabilitation and Resettlement of Refugees East Punjab (xxvii) 627 627 627 628 629 629 630 631 632 633 633 634 634 635 635 Contents Bengal Delhi Pact on Minorities Centres of Refugee Settlements in India Communists and Independence Why Communists were Sceptical about Independence Shift from Antagonistic Strategy to Constitutional Democracy Chapter 34 The Indian States I. The Company’s Struggle for Equality from a Position of Subordination (1740–1765) II. Policy of Ring Fence (1765–1813) III. Policy of Subordinate Isolation (1813–1857) IV. Policy of Subordinate Union (1857–1935) Curzon’s Approach Post-1905 V. Policy of Equal Federation (1935–1947): A Non-Starter VI. Integration and Merger Plebiscite and Army Action Gradual Integration Chapter 35 Making of the Constitution for India Background Constituent Assembly Formation Two Constituent Assemblies: India and Pakistan Evaluation of the Assembly for India After Independence Work : Committees and Consensus Box Drafting Committee Chapter 36 The Evolution of Nationalist Foreign Policy From 1880 to First World War: Anti-imperialism and Pan-Asian Feeling World War I (xxviii) 636 636 637 637 638 639 640 640 641 641 642 642 643 644 644 645 645 647 647 650 650 651 652 653 653 653 656 657 658 Contents 1920s and 1930s—Identifying with Socialists After 1936—Anti-Fascism After Independence Panchsheel and Non-Alignment Boxes Historical Perspective on Panchsheel Five Criteria of Non-alignment Chapter 37 First General Elections Groundwork for the Elections The Election Commission Legislation for Polls Independent India Goes to the Polls for the First Time Challenges Parties in the Fray for the Lok Sabha Conduct of Elections Results Box First General Elections: Winners Chapter 38 Developments under Nehru’s Leadership (1947–64) Political Developments Debate over National Language Linguistic Reorganisation of the States Growth of Other Political Parties An Undemocratic Deed Concept of Planning for Economic Development Progress of Science and Technology Social Developments Developments in Education Social Change under Nehru Foreign Policy Relations with Neighbours India and Pakistan India and China India and Nepal India and Bhutan India and Sri Lanka (xxix) 658 659 659 660 661 663 665 665 665 666 666 667 668 669 670 671 672 673 673 674 676 681 681 683 684 684 685 685 686 686 687 689 689 689 Contents Chapter 39 After Nehru. . . 690 The Lal Bahadur Shastri Years 690 (June 1964 – January 1966) Early Life 691 Political Journey after Independence 691 Economic Ideas 693 Foreign Relations 697 The Indo-Pak War 698 Shastri’s Death 701 Indira Gandhi: the First Phase 701 (January 1966 – March 1977) Early Life 701 Political Journey after Independence 702 Developments in the Political System 714 Socio-Economic Policies 723 Tackling Economic Problems 726 The Indo-Pak War of 1971 and the Birth 729 of Bangladesh Foreign Policy and Relations with other Countries737 The Smiling Buddha 739 The Janata Party Years 741 (March 1977 – January 1980) Morarji Desai the First Non-Congress 741 Prime Minister Fresh State Assembly Elections 741 New President of India 742 Downslide of the Janata and Rise 742 of Congress (I) Charan Singh the Prime Minister 744 Who Never Faced Parliament Fresh Lok Sabha Elections and End of 745 Janata Party Rule Legacy of the Janata Rule 745 Social Changes and Movements 749 Indira Gandhi: the Second Phase 750 (January 1980 – October 1984) Economy 750 Foreign Relations 751 Unrest in States 753 (xxx) Contents Punjab Turmoil and Operation Blue Star Legacy The Rajiv Years (October 1984 – December 1989) Problems at the Very Outset The 1985 General Elections Tackling the Tensions in States Positive Steps taken on the Domestic Front The Negative Side Agrarian Unrest Foreign Relations General Elections of 1989 The V.P. Singh Years (December 1989 – November 1990) Kashmir Situation Worsens Implementation of the Mandal Commission Report Mandal to Mandir: the Rath Yatra and Fall of the Government The Chandra Shekhar Government (November 1990 – June 1991) Troubled Economy Elections of 1991 The Narasimha Rao Years (June 1991 – May 1996) Economic Reform Panchayati Raj and Nagarpalika Acts Handling Security Issues and Space Tech Foreign Policy Negative Aspects Kashmir General Elections of 1996 Rise of the Dalit Voice Between 1996 and 1999: Three Prime Ministers Vajpayee’s Short-Lived Term as Prime Minister United Front Government: Deve Gowda and I.K. Gujral General Elections NDA Years (March 1998 – October 1999) Pokhran II: Operation Shakti The Lahore Summit Kargil War NDA: Second Stint (October 1999 – May 2004) Economic and Social Steps (xxxi) 753 756 757 757 759 760 762 765 768 769 772 773 773 774 776 777 777 778 779 779 781 782 782 783 785 786 786 787 788 788 790 790 791 792 792 793 793 Contents Terrorist Trouble and Relations with Pakistan Relations with the US Kashmir Elections The Downside Significance of NDA 2004 General Election The UPA Years (May 2004 – May 2009; May 2009 – May 2014) UPA Government: First Term 2009 Election and UPA Back in Power The 2014 General Election The NDA Government (May 2014 – May 2019) Digital India: a Step Forward in e-Governance Socio-Economic Policies and Programmes of Importance Security Foreign Relations Social Situation General Election and Return of the NDA Factors behind the NDA Victory 794 795 795 795 796 796 797 797 801 812 814 815 815 825 829 832 836 837 APPENDICES 1. Personalities Associated with Specific Movements 840 Swadeshi Movement 840 Non-cooperation Movement 845 Civil Disobedience Movement 849 Quit India Movement 852 2. Governors-General and Viceroys of India: 855 Significant Events in their Rule 3. Indian National Congress Annual Sessions 864 4. Socio-Religious Reform Movements 869 (late 18th to mid-20th century) 5. Famous Trials of the Nationalist Period 876 6. Caste Movements 878 7. Peasant Movements 880 8. Newspapers and Journals 883 (xxxii) UNIT 1 Sources and Approaches Chapters 1 and 2 CHAPTER 1 Sources for the History of Modern India An abundance of historical material is available for studying India from the mid-18th century to the mid-20th century. In constructing the history of modern India, priority needs to be given to the archives. Archives refer to a collection of historical records and documents, usually primary source documents, i.e., those documents that have been created as a necessary part of some activity—administrative, legal, social, or commercial. They are unique/original documents, not consciously written or created to convey information to a future generation. An important part of archives relating to modern India are the official records, i.e., the papers of government agencies at various levels. 1 2 2 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India The records of the East India Company provide a detailed account of trading conditions during the period 1600–1857. When the British crown took over the administration, it also kept a large variety and volume of official records. These records help historians to trace every important development stage-by-stage and follow the processes of decision-making and the psychology of the policymakers. The records of the other European East India companies (the Portuguese, Dutch, and French) are also useful for constructing the history of the 17th and 18th centuries. They are primarily important from the point of view of economic history, but much can be gathered from them about the political set-up as well. There are also many contemporary and semicontemporary works such as memoirs, biographies, and travel accounts which give us interesting as well as useful glimpses into the history of the 18th and early 19th centuries. Newspapers and journals made their appearance in the later part of the 18th century, and they provide very valuable information on almost all aspects of the Indian society, especially in the 19th and 20th centuries. Other sources of modern Indian history include oral evidence, creative literature, and paintings. Archival Materials There are four categories of official records: (i) central government archives; (ii) state government archives; (iii) records of intermediate and subordinate authorities; and (iv) judicial records. Apart from these, there are private archives and archival sources available abroad. Central Government Archives The National Archives of India, located in New Delhi, contains most of the archives of the Government of India. These provide authentic and reliable source materials on varied aspects of modern Indian history. The records with the National Archives come under various groups, representing Sources for the History of Modern India ✫ 3 different branches of the secretariat at different stages of its development. This happened as the work of the East India Company was distributed among various branches—public or general, revenue, political, military, secret, commercial, judicial, education, etc.—and a separate set of records was kept for each of these branches or departments. With the appointment of James Rennell as the first Surveyor General of Bengal in 1767, the Survey of India began to scientifically map the unknown regions of the country and its bordering lands. The records of the Survey of India as well as the journals and memoirs of the surveyors provide valuable information not only on geographical matters but also on contemporary socio-economic conditions and other important historical aspects. The proceedings of the public, judicial, and legislative departments provide ample data for studying the social and religious policies of the colonial government. The government’s policies on education and the growth of the education system during the colonial rule are mentioned in the educational records of the central archives. The papers bearing on the emergence of the nationalist movement were part of the public series of the home department records, but in 1907, a new series of records—Home Political—was started to deal exclusively with political and communal issues. The records of the Reforms Office are very useful for an analytical study of the constitutional developments from 1920 to 1937. Archives of the State Governments The source material in the state archives comprise the records of: (i) the former British Indian provinces; (ii) the erstwhile princely states which were incorporated in the Indian Union after 1947; and (iii) the foreign administrations other than those of the British. Apart from these, the records of those Indian powers which were taken over by the British, for instance, the archives of the Kingdom of Lahore (popularly known as Khalsa Darbar records from 1800 to 1849), are important source material. Another important collection of 4 4 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India the pre-British public archives in India is the Peshwa Daftar housed in the Alienation Office, Pune. It forms the most valuable single source for the study of Maratha history for a period of almost a century before the fall of the Peshwas. For studying the history of the princely states of Rajasthan, viz., Jaipur, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Udaipur, etc., the archives of these states, now housed in the Rajasthan State Archives at Bikaner, are valuable. Similarly, the history of Dogra rule from 1846 in Jammu and Kashmir can be studied in the valuable collection of state papers housed at Jammu. The other significant archives of the princely states are those of Gwalior, Indore, Bhopal, and Rewa, all in Madhya Pradesh; Travancore and Cochin in Kerala; Mysore in Karnataka; and Kolhapur in Maharashtra. Archives of Three Presidencies The early records of Fort Williams (Bengal Presidency) were lost during the sack of Calcutta in 1756, but the archives of the Bengal presidency after the British victory at Plassey have survived more or less in a complete series, which are partly available in the National Archives of India and partly in the State Archives of West Bengal. The records of the Madras Presidency begin from AD 1670 and include records of the Governor and Council of Fort St. George. In these records, there is plenty of information bearing on the rise of the English East India Company as a political power in the south and in the Deccan, including the Anglo-French struggle and the English conflicts with other Indian powers. The archives of Bombay Presidency, housed in the Maharashtra Secretariat Record Office, Mumbai, are extremely useful in studying the history of Western India—Maharashtra, Gujarat, Sindh, and the Kannada-speaking districts of the erstwhile Bombay Presidency which were incorporated in Mysore in 1956. Archives of Other European Powers The archives related to the Portuguese preserved in Goa, mainly belonging to the period from 1700 to 1900, are Sources for the History of Modern India ✫ 5 valuable for the history of Portuguese possessions in India. The orders and dispatches from Lisbon received in Goa and the responses and reports dispatched from India to Portugal constitute the most significant historical material among the Portuguese archives. The Dutch records of Cochin and Malabar are in the Madras Record Office and those of Chinsura in the state archives of West Bengal. The French archives of Chandernagore and Pondicherry (now Puducherry) were taken to Paris by the French authorities before they relinquished these settlements. The archives of the Danish possessions were also transferred to Copenhagen when the Danes sold Tranquebar and Serampore to the English East India Company in 1845. The remaining Danish records, mainly relating to Tranquebar (1777–1845), are now housed in the Madras Record Office. Judicial Records Housed in the Madras Record Office, the archives of the Mayor’s Court at Fort St. George, beginning from AD 1689, are the earliest available judicial archives. The pre-Plassey records of the Mayor’s Court at Fort Williams have been lost, but those for the years 1757–73 are kept in the record room of the Calcutta High Court, along with the archives of the Supreme Court of Bengal (1774–1861). Similarly, the records of the Mayor’s Court at Bombay established in 1728 are available in the Maharashtra Secretariat Record Office, which also has the custody of the archives of the Bombay Recorder’s Court and the Supreme Court. Apart from containing the proceedings and minutes, this category of records contains copies of wills, probates, and letters of administration which are useful for genealogical studies and for investigations pertaining to the state of society and economic conditions in the respective regions. Published Archives The most significant archival publications are the Parliamentary Papers which include many excerpts from the records of the East India Company and the Government of India under the 6 6 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India Crown. The reports of the parliamentary select committees; various royal commissions constituted on specific subjects like education, civil reforms and famines, and the parliamentary debates on the Indian empire are indispensable. The proceedings of the Indian and provincial legislatures, the weekly gazettes published by the central and the provincial governments, and collections of laws and regulations issued from time to time also serve as useful source material for historical research. Private Archives Private archives comprise papers and documents of individuals and families of note, who played a significant role in the development of modern India. The papers of eminent leaders of the nationalist movement and the records of organisations like the Indian National Congress are housed in the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library in New Delhi. The archives of banks, business houses, and chambers of commerce are extremely helpful in the study of economic changes. Foreign Repositories A vast body of historical material related to the history of modern India is available in the repositories of erstwhile imperialist powers, who ruled in different parts of the Indian subcontinent as well as in some other countries. In England, the India Office Records, London and the records kept in the British Museum are very valuable. The India Office Records possesses various important documents: the minutes of the Courts of Directors and the General Court of the East India Company and various committees constituted from time to time; the minutes and correspondence of the Board of Control or the Board of Commissioners for the Affairs of India; and the records of the Secretary of State and the India Council. The British Museum possesses collections of papers of British viceroys, secretaries of states, and other high-ranked civil and military officials who were posted in India. The archives of the missionary societies, for instance, of the Church Missionary Society of London, provide insight Sources for the History of Modern India ✫ 7 into the educational and social development in pre-independent India. The Archives Nationale, Paris, and the Archives of the French Ministries of Foreign Affairs, Colonies and War, have records that throw light on the history of French possessions as well as the socio-political conditions. The records of the Dutch East India Company is available in Rijksarchief, The Hague, and that of the Danish and Portuguese are kept in Copenhagen and Lisbon, respectively. Apart from the archives of the European nations, the archives preserved in Pakistan are of utmost importance. The West Pakistan Record Office, Lahore, Record Office, Peshawar, records available in Sind, etc., give information about the regional history of the Indian subcontinent besides shedding light on India’s relations with Afghanistan, Iran, and other neighbouring countries in the colonial era. Biographies, Memoirs, and Travel Accounts Many travellers, traders, missionaries, and civil servants who came to India have left accounts of their experiences and their impressions of various parts of India. An important group among these writers was that of the missionaries who wrote to encourage their respective societies to send more missionaries to India for the purpose of envangelising its inhabitants. In this genre, Bishop Heber’s Journal and Abbe Dubois’s Hindu Manners and Customs, provide useful information on the socio-economic life of India during the period of decline of the Indian powers and the rise of the British. Some of the famous British travellers who wrote travel accounts were—George Forster, Benjamin Heyne, James Burnes (Narrative of a Visit to the Court of Sinde), Alexander Burnes (Travels Into Bokhara), C.J.C. Davidson (Diary of the Travels and Adventures in Upper India), and John Butler (Travels and Adventures in the Province of 8 8 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India Assam). Famous non-British travellers who wrote about India include Victor Jacquemont (Letters from India: Describing a Journey in the British Dominions of India, Tibet, Lahore, and Cashmere During the Years 1828, 1829, 1830 1831.), Baron Charles (Travels in Kashmir and the Punjab), and William Moorcroft. These travel accounts are indispensable and generally reliable sources for constructing the history of modern India, especially as they supplement the official papers. Newspapers and Journals Newspapers and journals of the 19th and 20th centuries, published in English as well as in the different vernacular languages, form an important and authentic source of information for the construction of the history of modern India. The first attempts to publish newspapers in India were made by the disgruntled employees of the English East India Company who sought to expose the malpractices of private trade. For instance, in 1776, William Bolts, being censured by the Court of Directors for private trading, resigned from the Company and announced his intention to publish a newspaper. The official response to Bolts’ scheme was strong and his plan ended before materialising. In 1780, James Augustus Hickey published the first newspaper in India entitled The Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General Advertiser. Hickey’s press was seized within two years, owing to his outspoken criticism of government officials. Afterwards, many publications appeared such as The Calcutta Gazette (1784), The Madras Courier (1788), and The Bombay Herald (1789). The newspapers and journals of the early period primarily aimed at catering to the intellectual entertainment of the Europeans and Anglo-Indians. From the second half of the 19th century, many powerful newspapers appeared, edited/published by distinguished and fearless journalists. Interestingly, nearly Sources for the History of Modern India ✫ 9 one-third of the founding fathers of the Indian National Congress in 1885 were journalists. Some of their publications were: The Hindu and Swadesamitran under the editorship of G. Subramaniya Iyer; Kesari and Mahratta under Bal Gangadhar Tilak; Bengalee under Surendranath Banerjea; Amrita Bazaar Patrika under Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh; Sudharak under Gopal Ganesh Agarkar; Indian Mirror under N.N. Sen; Voice of India under Dadabhai Naoroji; and Hindustan and Advocate under G.P. Varma. The Tribune and Akhbar-i-Am in Punjab; Indu Prakash, Dnyan Prakash, Kal, and Gujarati in Bombay; and Som Prakash Banganivasi and Sadharani in Bengal were other noted newspapers of the time. Indian nationalists and revolutionaries living abroad published newspapers and journals—Indian Sociologist (London, Shyamji Krishnavarma), Bande Matram (Paris, Madam Cama), Talwar (Berlin, Virendranath Chattopadhyay), and Ghadar (San Francisco, Lala Hardayal)— to infuse a feeling of nationalism among Indians living abroad. Newspapers depict almost all aspects of life in colonial India from around the 1870s onwards. From the 1920s onwards, newspapers tracked the major events during the freedom struggle. However, newspaper accounts cannot be seen as unprejudiced or completely objective. The accounts that were published in a newspaper in London by the proBritish Raj people were bound to be different from the report in an Indian nationalist paper. Oral Evidence Oral history refers to the construction of history with the help of non-written sources, for instance, personal reminiscence. Oral sources allow historians to broaden the boundaries of their discipline and corroborate their findings from other sources of history. However, many historians remain sceptical of the veracity of oral history. 10 10 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India Creative Literature The most significant outcome of the Indo-European contact was the literary genre of the novel which emerged in the latter half of the 19th century. The first important writer of that period was the Bengali novelist, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (1838-94). His novels are mostly historical, the best known among them being Anandamath (1882), noted for its powerful lyric ‘Vandemataram’ and depiction of the Sanyasi Revolt (1760s). His last novel Rajasimha can be called the grand finale to his remarkable career. Iccharam Suryaram Desai (1853–1912) was a fine scholar of medieval Gujarati literary history. His first novel Hind ane Britannia was one of the earliest Indian novels with political overtones. Tamil writers like Girija Devi and Ramatirthammal, who wrote Mohana Rajani (1931) and Dasikalin Mosavalai (1936) respectively, also made the novel an effective vehicle of social experience. G.V. Krishna Rao’s Keelubommalu (The Puppets, 1956) in Telugu was concerned with the moral aspects and behaviour of the rural people. Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (1910– 1994) was one of the eminent writers in Malayalam whose famous novel Balyakalasakhi (The Childhood Friends, 1944) was a tragic tale of love. Similarly, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai became prominent for his two extremely well-written works in Malayalam, Tottiyude Makan (Son of a Scavenger, 1948) and Chemmeen (Shrimps, 1956). Despite having different educational backgrounds and social outlooks, all these writers shared a strong sense of realism and deep interest in the life of the marginalised and oppressed sections of the society. These novels give a picture of the social milieu of the days they relate to. Painting Some information on the socio-economic, political, and cultural life during the colonial period can be obtained from the paintings of that period. The Company Paintings, also Sources for the History of Modern India ✫ 11 referred as ‘Patna Kalam’ emerged under the patronage of the East India Company. They picturise the people and scenes as they existed at the time. Trades, festivals, dances, and the attire of people are visible in these works. Company paintings continued to be popular in the 19th century until the introduction of photography in India in the 1840s. The pictorial images produced by the British and Indians—paintings, pencil drawings, etchings, posters, cartoons, and bazaar prints—are especially important records of the great revolt of 1857. The British pictures offer images that were meant to provoke a range of different emotions and reactions. Some of them commemorate the British heroes who saved the English and repressed the rebels. Relief of Lucknow, painted by Thomas Jones Barker in 1859, is one such example. Another painting of this period, In Memoriam by Joseph Noel Paton, recorded in painting two years of the revolt of 1857. One can see English women and children huddled in a circle, looking helpless and innocent, seemingly waiting for the inevitable—dishonour, violence, and death. These paintings of the mutiny period are important for the historian to interpret and understand the worldviews of the British and the Indians regarding this major event. Kalighat painting that came to the fore in Calcutta in the 19th century depicted not only mythological figures but also ordinary people engaged in their everyday lives. The latter pictures captured the social changes taking place in the Calcutta of the time. These paintings made a comment on the social evils of the time; some of these paintings satirised certain modes adopted by the people of the time. In the last decades of the 19th century, a new art movement emerged, which received its primary stimulus from the growing nationalism in India. Artists like Nandalal Bose and Raja Ravi Varma were representatives of this new trend. In the rise of the Bengal School led by Abanindranath Tagore (nephew of Rabindranath Tagore), E.B. Havell (who joined the art school in Calcutta as principal), and Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy (son of an important Tamil political 12 12 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India leader in Sri Lanka) played a vital role. Though many of the paintings of this new trend primarily focused on themes of Indian mythology and cultural heritage, they are important sources for studying the modern art movement in India and for the art historians. Summary Sources of Modern Indian History Archival Materials consist of public, private, and foreign repositories Public Archives include the archives of the Governments of India, archives of state governments, archives of the three Presidencies of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, and judicial records. Private Archives Papers and documents of individuals and families of note who played a significant role in the development of modern India. Foreign Repositories Indian office Records in London, Record Office, Lahore, etc. Biographies and Memoirs Accounts of travellers, traders, missionaries and civil servants during the 18th and 19th centuries as well as memoirs written by Indian leaders during the Independence movement. Newspapers and Journals Published in India as well as abroad. Others Oral tradition, creative literature, painting CHAPTER 2 Major Approaches to the History of Modern India Looking at how histories are written is part of the study of the intellectual history of the period under discussion and can provide a variety of ideas and explanations. The starting point in the history of a society, therefore, has to be a familiarity with its historiography—the study of historical interpretation. This provides recognition of the intellectual context of history, instead of seeing history as just a narration of events. The modern history of India, for the convenience of understanding, can be read broadly under four historiographic approaches—the Colonial (or the Imperialist), Nationalist, Marxist, and Subaltern—each with its own distinct characteristics and modes of interpretation. However, there are other approaches—Communalist, Cambridge, Liberal and Neo-liberal, and Feminist interpretations—which have also influenced historical writing on modern India. View The production of histories of India has become very frequent in recent years and may well call for some explanations… The reason is a two-fold one: changes in the Indian scene requiring a reinterpretation of the facts and changes in the attitudes of historians about the essential elements of Indian history. —Percival Spear 13 14 14 ✫ A Brief History of Modern India Colonial Approach For the major part of the 19th century, the Colonial School occupied a high position in India. The term ‘colonial approach’ has been used in two senses. One relates to the history of the colonial countries, while the other refers to the works which were influenced by the colonial ideology of domination. It is in the second sense that most historians today write about the colonial historiography. In fact, the practice of writing about the colonial countries by the colonial officials was related to the desire for domination and justification of the colonial rule. Hence, in most such historical works, there was criticism of indigenous society and culture. Simultaneously, there was praise for the Western culture and values and glorification of the individuals who established the colonial empires. The histories of India written by James Mill, Mountstuart Elphinstone, Vincent Smith, and many others are pertinent examples of the colonial historiographical trend. Certain characteristics common to most of the works of these historians are the following: (i) ‘Orientalist’ representation of India; (ii) the opinion that the British brought unity to India; (iii) the notions of Social Darwinism—the English considered themselves superior to the ‘natives’ and the fittest to rule; (iv) India viewed as a stagnant society which required guidance from the British (White Man’s burden); and (v) establishing Pax Britannica to bring law and order and peace to a bickering society. Nationalist Approach The nationalist approach to Indian history can be described as one which tends to contribute to the growth of nationalist feelings and to unify people in the face of religious, caste, or linguistic differences or class differentiation. This approach Major Approaches to the History of Modern India ✫ 15 looks at the national movement as a movement of the Indian people, which grew out of the growing awareness among all people of the exploitative nature of colonial rule. This approach developed as a response to and in confrontation with the colonial approach. It should be noted that the nationalist historians of modern India did not exist before 1947. Before 1947, nationalist historiography mainly dealt with the ancient and medieval periods of Indian history. However, in the last quarter of the 19th century, a detailed and scientific critique of colonialism for the adverse economic