Modern India E-Book PWIAS PDF

UDAAN PRELIMS WALLAH (STATIC) MODERN INDIA QUICK AND COMPREHENSIVE REVISION SERIES FOR PRELIMS 2024 Published By: Physicswallah Private Limited Physics Wallah Publication ISBN: 978-93-6034-761-1 MRP: 249/- Mobile App: Physics Wallah (Available on Play Store) Website: https://www.pw.live;https://pwonlyias.com/ Email: [email protected] Rights All rights are reserved with the Publisher Disclaimer A team of PW OnlyIAS experts and faculties with a deep understanding of the subject has worked hard for the creation and curation of this book. While the content creators, editors and publisher have used their best efforts in preparing these books. The content has been checked for accuracy. As the book is intended for educational purposes, the author shall not be responsible for any errors contained in the book. The publication has designed the content to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered. 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This book adopts a multi-faceted approach to mastering and understanding the concepts and equipping the students with the knowledge for this competitive exam. The main objective of the study material is to provide short, crisp, concise and high-quality content to our students. BOOK FEATURES z Holistic coverage of topics, strictly as per exam syllabus. z One-stop solution for prelims based, subject-wise coverage. z Diagrams and Timelines for quick understanding and revision. z Quick Revision Module for the UPSC Prelims examination. z Every topic is structured in headings and bullets for easy understanding of the students. CONTENTS 1. ADVENT OF EUROPEANS AND z The Anglo-Maratha Struggle for CONSOLIDATION OF BRITISH Supermacy........................................................................10 First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)...................... 11 POWER 1 Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05).................. 11 Why Europeans Wanted to Come to India..............1 Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19).................... 11 z The Portuguese................................................................ 1 z The Conquest of Sindh.................................................11 z The Dutch........................................................................... 3 z The Conquest of Punjab..............................................12 z The English........................................................................ 3 Consolidation of Punjab under The Sikhs............ 12 z The Danes (Denmark)................................................... 4 Ranjit Singh and The English...................................... 12 z The French......................................................................... 4 First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46).............................. 13 z India on The Eve of British Conquest...................... 6 Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49)......................... 13 Challenges Before The Mughals..................................6 z Extension of British Paramountcy z Rise of Regional States.................................................. 7 Through Administrative Policy.................................13 Hyderabad...............................................................................7 The Policy of Ring Fence............................................... 13 Awadh.......................................................................................7 Subsidiary Alliance.......................................................... 13 Bengal.......................................................................................7 Mysore......................................................................................7 Doctrine of Lapse............................................................ 14 Kerala........................................................................................7 z Relation of British India with The Jats....................................................................................7 Neighboring Countries.................................................14 The Sikhs................................................................................7 Anglo-Bhutanese Relations.......................................... 14 The Marathas.......................................................................7 Anglo-Nepalese Relations............................................ 14 Rohilkhand and Farrukhabad........................................8 Anglo-Burmese Relations............................................ 14 z Key Features of the Regional States........................ 7 First Burma War (1824-26)........................................ 14 Developments in Art, Architecture and Culture......8 Second Burma War (1852)......................................... 15 Language & Literature......................................................8 Third Burma War (1885)............................................ 15 z Expansion and Consolidation of Anglo-Tibetan Relations................................................ 15 British Power in India 8 Anglo-Afghan Relations................................................ 15 Causes of British Success in India...............................8 British Conquest of Bengal............................................8 2. PEOPLE’S RESISTANCE AGAINST Chronology of Rulers in Bengal...................................8 THE BRITISH BEFORE 1857............... 16 The Battle of Plassey (1757).........................................8 Mir Jafar’s Rule of Bengal................................................9 z Civil Uprisings.................................................................16 The Battle of Buxar (1764).............................................9 Sanyasi Revolt (1763-1800) [Bihar & Bengal]......16 z Mysore's Resistance to the Company....................... 9 Revolt of Moamarias (1769-99) [Assam].............. 16 Mysore Before The British.............................................9 Poligars’s Revolt (1795–1805) [Tamil Nadu]...... 16 First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69)........................ 10 Paika Rebellion (1817) [Odisha]............................... 16 Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)................... 10 Ahom Revolt (1828)[Assam]...................................... 17 Third Anglo-Mysore War (1792).............................. 10 Wahabi Movement (1830–61) [Bihar, Bengal, Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799).........................10 North West Frontier Province, Punjab].................. 17 Post Tipu Mysore.............................................................. 10 Kuka Movement (1840–72) [Punjab].................... 17 z Other Civil Uprisings....................................................17 Balshastri Jambhekar (1832-1840)......................... 28 Revolt in Midnapore and Dhalbhum Paramahansa Mandali (1849).................................... 28 (1766-74) [Bengal]......................................................... 17 Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule...................................... 28 Civil Uprisings in Gorakhpur, Basti and Gopal Baba Walangkar (1840–1900)...................... 29 Bahraich (1781) [Uttar Pradesh].............................. 17 Kisan Faguji Bansod (1879–1946)........................... 29 Revolt of Raja of Vizianagaram (1794) Vitthal Ramji Shinde (1873–1944).......................... 29 [Andhra Pradesh]............................................................. 17 Gopal Hari Deshmukh (1823–92)............................ 29 Revolt of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856–95)............................ 29 (1797-1805) [Kerala]..................................................... 17 Servants of India Society (1866–1915)................. 29 Revolt of Diwan Velu Thampi (1808–09) [Travancore]........................................................................ 17 Social Service League..................................................... 30 Ramkrishna Movement.................................................. 30 z Tribal Revolts..................................................................18 Swami Vivekananda (Narendranath Dutta) Pahariyas Rebellion (1778) [Raj Mahal Hills]..... 18 (1862–1902)....................................................................... 30 Revolt of Tilka Manjhi [Santhal Pargana]............. 19 Dayananda Saraswati or Mulshanker Jungle Mahal Revolt or Chuar Uprisings (1824–83)............................................................................ 30 (1776) [Chota Nagpur].................................................. 19 Seva Sadan (1908)........................................................... 31 Santhal Rebellion (1855-56) [Bihar]....................... 19 Dev Samaj (1887)............................................................. 31 Khond Uprisings (1837-56)........................................ 19 Dharma Sabha (1830).................................................... 31 Tana Bhagat Movement (1914-15) Bharat Dharma Mahamandal (1902)...................... 31 [Chotanagpur Region].................................................... 19 Radha Swami Movement (1861)............................... 31 Birsa Munda Revolt (1890s-1901) [Singhbhum & Ranchi]................................................... 20 Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Movement (1888)............................................................ 31 Tribal Movements of the North East....................... 21 Vokkaliga Sangha (1905).............................................. 32 3. THE REVOLT OF 1857......................... 22 Justice Movement (1917)............................................. 32 Self-Respect Movement (1920s)............................... 32 z The Beginning................................................................22 Madras Hindu Association (1892)........................... 32 z Causes of the Revolt......................................................22 z Temple Entry Movement z The Spread of the Revolt..........................................23 (1924, 1931, 1936, 1938)...........................................32 z Analysis of the Revolt...................................................23 Indian Social Conference (1887)............................... 32 Wahabi/Waliullah Movement (18th Century).... 32 4. SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM Titu Mir’s Movement (1831)....................................... 32 MOVEMENTS 25 Faraizi Movement (1819)............................................. 32 Ahmadiyya Movement (1889).................................... 33 z Introduction.....................................................................25 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-98).............................. 33 z Improving the Position of Women..........................25 Deoband School (1866)................................................. 33 Abolition of Sati................................................................ 25 Parsi Reform Movements (1851).............................. 33 Preventing Female Infanticide.................................... 25 Sikh Reform Movements............................................... 33 Widow Remarriage........................................................ 25 Theosophical Movement............................................... 34 Controlling Child Marriage........................................... 25 Education for Women..................................................... 26 5. BEGINNING OF MODERN Women’s Organizations................................................. 26 NATIONALISM IN INDIA 35 Other Legislations............................................................ 26 z Reforms to Counter Caste Discrimination............27 z Factors in the Growth of Modern Nationalism..... 35 Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833)......................... 27 z Political Associations before the Indian Later Brahmo Samaj....................................................... 27 National Congress..........................................................35 Prarthana Samaj (1867)................................................ 27 Zamindari Association (1837)................................... 35 Young Bengal Movement Bengal British India Society (1843)........................ 35 (Late 1820s-Early 1830s)............................................. 28 British Indian Association (1851)............................ 35 Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1850)......................... 28 East India Association (1866).................................... 36 vi Indian Association of Calcutta 10. NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT (Indian National Association) (1876)..................... 36 AND KHILAFAT ISSUE 52 All-India Conference (1883)........................................ 36 Madras Mahajan Sabha (1884).................................. 36 z Background......................................................................52 Bombay Presidency Association (1885)................ 36 z Formation of Khilafat Committee............................52 Pre-Congress Campaigns............................................. 36 z Shift Towards Militancy...............................................52 z Gandhi’s Involvement...................................................52 6. INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS z Congress’ Stand and Muslim League’s (FOUNDATION & THE MODERATE Support..............................................................................52 PHASE) 37 z The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement............52 z Formation of the Indian National Congress.........37 z Government Response.................................................53 z Congress Presidents.....................................................37 z Last Phase of the Movement......................................53 z Diverse Views on the Incident..................................53 z Moderate Phase (1885-1905)...................................37 z Major Demands of Moderate Leaders....................38 11. EMERGENCE OF SWARAJISTS, 7. EXTREMIST PHASE............................ 39 SOCIALIST IDEAS AND REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES 55 z Factors for Rise of Extremism...................................39 z Swarajists and No-Changers......................................55 z The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement (1903–1905)....................................................................39 Swarajists............................................................................. 55 Swarajist Manifesto for Elections (1923).............. 55 z Spread of Movement and Congress’s No-Changers....................................................................... 55 Position.............................................................................40 Compromise and Evolution......................................... 55 z Moderate vs. Extremist Views...................................40 Gandhi’s Position.............................................................. 55 Extremist Programme and New forms Swarajist Activity in Councils..................................... 55 of Struggle............................................................................ 40 Achievements and Drawbacks.................................... 55 Significance of Swadeshi Movement........................ 40 No-Changer’s Constructive Work.............................. 55 z The Surat Split...............................................................41 z Emergence of New Forces in 1920s India.............56 z Morley-Minto Reforms.................................................41 Spread of Marxist and Socialist Ideas..................... 56 z Revolutionary Activities in India.............................42 z Revolutionary Activity.................................................57 Causes and Strategies..................................................... 42 Punjab-UP-Bihar............................................................... 57 Bengal.................................................................................... 42 Kakori Robbery (August 1925).................................. 57 Maharashtra........................................................................ 43 Saunders’ Murder (Lahore, December 1928)..... 57 Punjab.................................................................................... 43 Bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly (April 1929)........................................................................ 57 8. FIRST WORLD WAR AND Action Against the Revolutionaries.......................... 57 NATIONALIST RESPONSE................. 45 Execution.............................................................................. 57 z Home Rule Movement..................................................45 Bengal during the 1920s............................................... 58 z Lucknow Session............................................................46 Chittagong Group and Surya Sen.............................. 58 z Lucknow Pact..................................................................47 12. SIMON COMMISSION AND 9. MAKING OF GANDHI......................... 49 THE NEHRU REPORT.......................... 59 z South Africa Episode (1893-1914)..........................49 z Simon Commission........................................................59 z Gandhi in India...............................................................49 z Nehru Report..................................................................60 z Rowlatt Act.......................................................................50 z Muslim and Hindu Communal Responses............60 z Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.........................................50 Delhi Proposals by Muslim League (1927).......... 60 z Hunter Committee.........................................................50 Hindu Mahasabha’s Stance.......................................... 61 vii Compromises and Dilemmas during the 14. POST-CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE Nehru Report...................................................................... 61 MOVEMENT 69 Amendments Proposed by Jinnah (1928)............ 61 z The First Stage Debate.................................................69 Jinnah’s Fourteen Points (March 1929)................. 61 Acceptance of Council Entry....................................... 69 Rejection of Nehru Report........................................... 61 Gandhi’s Resignation...................................................... 69 Electoral Success and Congress 13. CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT Accommodation................................................................ 70 AND ROUND TABLE z The Government of India Act, 1935........................70 CONFERENCES 62 Federal Level...................................................................... 70 Provincial Level................................................................. 70 Political Activity in 1929............................................... 62 Evaluation and British Strategy................................. 70 Irwin’s Declaration (October 31, 1929)................. 62 Nationalists’ Response................................................... 71 Delhi Manifesto (November 2, 1929)..................... 62 z Second Stage Debate within The Congress..........71 Lahore Congress and Purna Swaraj Divided Opinion................................................................ 71 (December 1929)............................................................. 62 Gandhi’s Position.............................................................. 71 z Civil Disobedience Movement...................................63 Congress Rule in Provinces......................................... 71 Gandhi’s Eleven Demands............................................ 63 Work Under Congress Ministries.............................. 71 Dandi March (March 12–April 6, 1930)................ 63 Post-Resignation Events................................................ 72 Spread of Salt Law Disobedience.............................. 63 15. NATIONALIST RESPONSE IN Regional Movements during Civil Disobedience............................................................ 63 THE WAKE OF WORLD WAR II 73 Gandhi-Irwin Pact/Delhi Pact (1931)..................... 65 z Congress Crisis on Method of Struggle..................73 Comparison with Non-Cooperation Subhash Bose’s Views.................................................... 73 Haripura Congress Session [Gujarat]...................... 73 Movement............................................................................ 65 Tripuri Congress Session [Madhya Pradesh]....... 73 z The Round Table Conferences..................................65 Formation of Forward Bloc.......................................... 73 First Round Table Conference.................................... 65 Second World War and Nationalistic Second Round Table Conference............................... 66 Response.............................................................................. 73 Third Round Table Conference.................................. 66 Congress Offer to Viceroy............................................. 74 Resumption of Civil Disobedience Movement.... 66 CWC Meeting at Wardha............................................... 74 CWC Resolution on Fascist Aggression.................. 74 Changed Government Attitude after Government’s Response and Second RTC.......................................................................... 66 Congress Ministry’s Resignation............................... 74 Communal Award and Poona Pact........................... 67 Government’s Hidden Agenda.................................... 74 Round Table Conferences and Gandhi’s The Congress Working Committee (CWC) Opposition........................................................................... 67 Meeting (October 1939)................................................ 75 Main Provisions of Communal Award.................... 67 Congress Ramgarh Session [Jharkhand].............. 75 Gandhi’s Response and Poona Pact (1932)......... 67 z August Offer (August 1940).......................................75 Poona Pact (1932)........................................................... 67 British Government’s August Offer.......................... 75 Responses............................................................................ 75 Joint Electorates and Its Impact................................ 67 Evaluation............................................................................ 75 z Gandhi's Harijan Campaign and z Individual Satyagraha..................................................75 Thoughts on Caste.........................................................67 z Cripps Mission (March 1942)....................................76 Harijan Campaign (1933-1934)................................ 67 Cripps Mission Proposals............................................ 76 Gandhi’s Views on Caste............................................... 68 Significance.......................................................................... 76 z Ideological Differences and Similarities Reasons for Failure of Cripps Mission.................... 76 between Gandhi and Ambedkar...............................68 Deadlock Causes............................................................... 77 viii 16. QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT, z Indian Independence Act, 1947...............................87 DEMAND FOR PAKISTAN, z Integration of States.....................................................87 State People’s Movement (1946–47)...................... 87 AND THE INA...................................... 78 z Quit India Movement....................................................78 19. CONSTITUTIONAL, Wardha Meeting (July 1942)...................................... 78 ADMINISTRATIVE AND Demands............................................................................... 78 JUDICIAL DEVELOPMENTS............... 88 Government’s Response................................................ 78 Underground Resistance and Parallel z Administration...............................................................88 Governments....................................................................... 78 Dual System of Government (1765-1772)............ 88 Parallel Governments During Quit Regulating Act of 1773.................................................. 88 India Movement................................................................ 78 Amendments (1781)....................................................... 88 Mass Participation in Quit India Movement........ 79 Pitt’s India Act of 1784.................................................. 88 z Individual Efforts to Resolve The Act of 1786................................................................. 88 Constitutional Crisis.....................................................79 The Charter Act of 1793............................................... 88 Rajagopalachari Formula (1944).............................. 79 The Charter Act of 1813............................................... 89 Desai-Liaquat Pact........................................................... 79 The Charter Act of 1833............................................... 89 Wavell Plan (1945) and Shimla Conference........ 79 The Charter Act of 1853............................................... 89 z Subhas Chandera Bose.................................................80 The Act for Better Government of Anti-Compromise Conference (March 1940)...... 80 India 1858........................................................................... 89 Shift to Germany............................................................... 80 Indian Councils Act 1861............................................. 89 Berlin Radio Broadcasts................................................ 80 Indian Councils Act 1892............................................. 90 z Indian National Army (INA).......................................80 Indian Councils Act 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms)............................................... 90 17. POST-WAR NATIONAL SCENARIO.... 82 Government of India Act 1919 z Change in the Government’s Attitude....................82 (Montague-Chelmsford Reforms)............................. 90 Government of India Act 1935................................... 91 Congress Election Campaign...................................... 82 INA Trials............................................................................. 82 z Evolution of Civil Services in India.........................91 Three Upsurges (Winter of 1945–46).................... 83 z Pre-Colonial Policing in India...................................92 Bombay Naval Strike....................................................... 83 British Influence on Policing (1770-1775).......... 92 z Election Results..............................................................83 Evolution under British Rule...................................... 92 z The Cabinet Mission.....................................................83 z Pre-1857 Military Structure......................................92 z The Interim Government............................................85 Post-1857 Reorganization............................................ 92 Inclusion of the Muslim League................................ 85 z Pre-Colonial Judicial System 93 Ministers of Interim Government............................. 85 Introduction of Common Law System.................... 93 Leaders from the Muslim League in z Genesis of Administrative Changes the Interim Government............................................... 85 (Post-1857)......................................................................94 z Communalism in India................................................85 Central Administration.................................................. 94 Provincial Administration............................................ 94 18. INDEPENDENCE WITH Local Administration..................................................... 95 PARTITION.......................................... 86 z Evolution of Indian States..........................................96 z Attlee's Statement (February 2, 1947)..................86 Company’s Rise to Political Power from z Congress Acceptance....................................................86 the Position of Subordination (1740–1765)....... 96 z Mountbatten as Viceroy..............................................86 Ring Fence Policy (1765–1813)................................ 96 Mountbatten Plan June 3, 1947................................. 86 Subordinate Isolation Policy (1813–1857).......... 96 z Acceptance of Dominion Status and The Era of Subordinate Union (1857–1935)....... 96 Partition Plan..................................................................87 Post-1905 Developments.............................................. 96 ix 20. SURVEY OF BRITISH 23. DEVELOPMENT OF POLICIES IN INDIA............................. 97 EDUCATION...................................... 108 z Administrative Policies Post-1858..........................97 z Evolution of Education in Colonial India...........108 z Labour Legislations......................................................97 Company Rule and Initial Educational Initiatives................................................ 108 z Agrarian Impact of British Policies.........................97 Charter Act of 1813 108 Warren Hasting’s Revenue System........................... 97 Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy: Permanent Settlement................................................... 98 19th Century Debates................................................. 108 Ryotwari System.............................................................. 98 Lord Macaulay’s Minute (1835)............................. 108 Mahalwari System............................................................ 99 Thomson’s Village Education (1843-53)............ 108 z British Social & Cultural Policy Till 1813.............99 Wood’s Despatch (1854)............................................ 108 Characteristics of New Thought................................ 99 Post-Wood’s Despatch Developments.................. 109 Schools of Thought.......................................................... 99 Hunter Education Commission (1882–83)....... 109 Role of Christian Missionaries................................. 100 Indian Universities Act, 1904.................................. 109 British Retreat................................................................. 100 Government Resolution on Education British Foreign Policy in India................................ 100 Policy................................................................................... 109 Sadler University Commission or Calcutta 21. ECONOMIC IMPACT OF University Commission (1917–19)....................... 110 BRITISH RULE IN INDIA................... 101 Education Under Dyarchy.......................................... 110 Deindustrialisation, Which Led to the Ruin Hartog Committee (1929)......................................... 110 of Artisans and Handicraftsmen............................. 101 Sargent Plan of Education (1944)......................... 111 Impoverishment of Peasantry................................. 101 Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937)..... 111 Emergence of Intermediaries, Absentee Landlordism, and Ruin of Old Zamindars.......... 101 24. PEASANT MOVEMENTS Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture.... 101 1857–1947........................................ 112 Famine and Poverty..................................................... 101 Causes of Peasant Movements................................ 112 Commercialisation of Indian Agriculture........... 101 Consequences of Peasant Movements................. 112 Destruction of Industry and Late z Survey of Early Peasant Movements....................112 Development of Modern Industry......................... 101 Indigo Revolt (1859–60).......................................... 112 z Colonial Economy as Criticized by Pabna Agrarian Leagues............................................. 112 the Nationalists...........................................................102 Deccan Riots (1874).................................................... 112 British Policies and Economic Critique............... 102 Peasant Movements after 1857.............................. 113 Critique of Trade and Railways............................... 102 z Peasant Movements in 20th-Century..................113 One-Way Free Trade and Tariff Policy................. 102 The Kisan Sabha Movement (1918–1921)........ 113 Consequence of Economic Drain............................ 102 Awadh Kisan Sabha (October 1920).................... 113 z Stages of Colonialism................................................102 Eka Movement (1921–1922)................................... 113 First Stage......................................................................... 102 Mappila Revolt (1921)................................................ 113 Second Stage.................................................................... 103 Bardoli Satyagraha (1926–1928)........................... 114 Third Stage....................................................................... 103 All India Kisan Congress/Sabha (1936–1937).................................................................. 114 22. DEVELOPMENT OF z Peasant Mobilization Across INDIAN PRESS.................................. 104 Indian Provinces.........................................................114 z Historical Journey of Indian Press.......................104 Kerala.................................................................................. 114 Introduction..................................................................... 104 Andhra Pradesh.............................................................. 114 Regulations and Press Evolution............................ 104 Bihar 114 Summary of Newspapers/Journals....................... 105 Punjab................................................................................. 114 x z Post-War Phase............................................................115 Sir George Barlow (1805–07)................................. 119 Tebhaga Movement in Bengal.................................. 115 Lord Minto I (1807–13)............................................. 119 Telangana Movement................................................... 115 Lord Hastings (1813–23).......................................... 119 Summary of Various Peasant Movements......... 115 Lord Amherst (1823–28).......................................... 119 Lord William Bentinck (1828–35)....................... 119 25. THE MOVEMENT OF Lord Metcalfe (1835–36)........................................... 120 THE WORKING CLASS...................... 117 Lord Auckland (1836–42)........................................ 120 z Evolution of the Indian Working Lord Ellenborough (1842–44)................................ 120 Class Movement...........................................................117 Lord Hardinge I (1844–48)...................................... 120 Introduction..................................................................... 117 Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856).................................. 120 Industrial Exploitation................................................ 117 Lord Canning (1856–57).......................................... 120 Colonial Influence.......................................................... 117 z Viceroys 120 Efforts and Attitude of Early Nationalists Lord Canning (1858–62).......................................... 120 (Moderates)...................................................................... 117 Lord Elgin I (1862–63)............................................... 120 z Rise During the Swadeshi Movement..................117 Lord John Lawrence (1864–69)............................ 120 z Working Class Movement........................................117 Lord Mayo (1869–72)................................................. 120 The First World War and Its Aftermath............. 117 Lord Northbrook (1872–76).................................... 120 Birth of AITUC (All India Trade Lord Lytton (1876–80)............................................... 120 Union Congress) - 1920............................................. 118 The Trade Union Act, 1926..................................... 118 Lord Ripon (1880–84)............................................... 120 Communist Influence and Legislative Lord Dufferin (1884–88)........................................... 121 Restrictions - Late 1920s........................................... 118 Lord Lansdowne (1888–94)................................... 121 Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929)............................. 118 Lord Elgin II (1894–99)............................................. 121 Post-1931 and Congress Ministries...................... 118 Lord Curzon (1899–1905)........................................ 121 Second World War and Post-Independence..... 118 Lord Minto II (1905–10).......................................... 121 Lord Hardinge II (1910–16)..................................... 121 26. GOVERNOR GENERAL AND Lord Chelmsford (1916–21)................................... 121 VICEROY DURING BRITISH Lord Reading (1921–26).......................................... 121 INDIA................................................. 119 Lord Irwin (1926–31)................................................ 121 z Governor of Bengal (Before 1773).......................119 Lord Willingdon (1931–36)..................................... 122 Robert Clive (1754-1767)......................................... 119 Lord Linlithgow (1936–44)...................................... 122 z Governors-Generals...................................................119 Lord Wavell (1944–1947)......................................... 122 Warren Hastings (1773-1785)................................ 119 Lord Mountbatten (1947–1948)............................ 122 Lord Cornwallis (1786–93)...................................... 119 Sir John Shore (1793–98).......................................... 119 27. IMPORTANT CONGRESS Lord Wellesley (1798–1805)................................... 119 SESSION............................................ 123 xi Advent of Europeans and 1 Consolidation of British Power The Portuguese were the first ones to come, but it Chronology of Important Portuguese was the British who were able to capture vast Indian Figures in India territories and make themselves the leading power of the industrial age. z Vasco Da Gama Arrived in India in 1498, led by a Gujarati pilot Why Europeans Wanted to Come to India named Abdul Majid, and got a friendly reception z To re-establish direct contact between Europeans from the Zamorin (ruler of Calicut), through and Indians and reduce dependence on Arab Muslim which he was able to gain huge profits from the intermediaries. pepper trade. z Easy accessibility to Indian commodities like spices, Came to India again in 1501 and set up a trading calicoes, silk and precious stones, which were in factory at Cannanore. high demand worldwide. Vasco Da Gama visited India three times - 1498, 1501 z The Spirit of the Renaissance, combined with advances and 1524. He died in Cochin in 1524, three months in Shipbuilding, and Navigation, made all Europeans after his arrival. eager to explore the seas and reach the East. z Pedro Alvarez Cabral z During this period in Europe, economic development He embarked on a voyage to trade for spices and advanced rapidly in many regions. established a factory in Calicut in September This economic prosperity heightened the demand 1500. for oriental luxury goods, particularly spices used Conflict arose when the Portuguese factory in for cooking and preservation. Calicut was attacked, leading to casualties among the Portuguese. In retaliation, Cabral seized Arab THE PORTUGUESE merchant ships, causing significant loss of life, confiscating cargo, and burning the ships. Calicut Why did The Portuguese Become The First was bombarded by Cabral. To Reach India? Despite the conflict, Cabral later successfully z Portugal had assumed leadership of Christendom negotiated favourable treaties with local rulers in in its resistance against Islam, thus they wanted to Cochin and Cannanore. expand their domination across geographies. z Francisco De Almeida z Prince Henry of Portugal, also known as the In 1505, the King of Portugal appointed Francisco ‘Navigator’ was given a bull by Pope Nicholas V De Almeida as governor of India. in 1454, conferring on him the right to explore the Almeida’s mission was to consolidate the oriental shores as far as India. Portuguese position, destroy Muslim trade, and z In 1497, pursuant to the Treaty of Tordesillas seize Aden, Ormuz, and Malacca. He was advised (1494), Portugal and Spain divided the non-Christian to build fortresses at Anjadiva, Cochin, Cannanore, world by an imaginary line in the Atlantic, 1,300 miles and Kilwa. west of the Cape Verde Islands. Portugal was granted Faced opposition from the Zamorin and a threat the right to claim and occupy territories to the east from the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt. Egyptians, of the line, while Spain could do so for territories to supported by Venetian merchants, raised a fleet the west. This division set the stage for Portuguese to counter Portuguese interference. In 1507, a ventures into the waters around India. Portuguese squadron was defeated in a naval z In 1487, Bartholomew Dias rounded the Cape of battle off Diu by combined Egyptian and Gujarat Good Hope and sailed up the eastern coast of Africa, navies, resulting in the death of Almeida’s son. mistaking it to be India. However, it was in May 1498, Almeida avenged the defeat in 1508 by crushing that the Portuguese finally landed in India. the two navies. Almeida aimed to make the Portuguese the master Administration of India Under Portuguese of the Indian Ocean, implementing the Blue Water Policy (Cartaze system). Geographical expanse of territories under Portuguese control z Alfonso de Albuquerque z Important regions under their control were Goa, Succeeded Almeida as Portuguese Governor in Mumbai, Daman & Diu, as well as trading posts India and is considered to be the real founder of down South combined with military posts on the Portuguese power in the East. Eastern coast, such as San Thome in Chennai, and Successfully established bases at Ormuz, in Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu. Malabar, in Malacca as well as in the Red Sea z Cities like Mangalore, Calicut, Cannanore and Cochin to maintain Portuguese control over the Indian became important trade centers for the Portuguese. Ocean. In the 16th Century, Hooghly in West Bengal became He introduced a ‘permit system’ for other ships. a very important settlement. Acquired Goa from Sultan of Bijapur in 1510, Structure of Administration which became the first Indian territory under z The viceroy was the head of administration and had European control since Alexander the Great. a term of three years. The viceroy was supported by [UPSC 2022] the Secretary as well as a Council in later years. Introduced new crops like Tobacco and Cashew z Vedor da Fazenda was the second most important nut, or better plantation varieties of coconut. official who was responsible for revenues, cargoes and Bitter persecution of Muslims due to Portuguese dispatch of fleets leadership of Christendom. z Captains, assisted by ‘factors’, had control over Albuquerque abolished sati and encouraged Fortresses under Portugal. Portuguese men to marry locals. Portuguese Religious Policy settlers in Goa and the North Province z Wanted to promote Christianity across all their became landlords, introducing new crops and territories and persecute Muslims. infrastructure. z Portuguese were initially tolerant towards Hindus, but z Nino Da Cunha later they persecuted Hindus to promote conversions. He became governor of Portuguese interests in z Jesuits Rodolfo Aquaviva and Antonio Monserrate India in November 1529. were sent to Mughal emperor Akbar’s court in 1580 Shifted the Portuguese government headquarters and were treated with respect. However, Portuguese from Cochin to Goa in 1530. hopes of converting Akbar never became a reality, even after successive attempts. Bahadur Shah of Gujarat sought help from the Portuguese during his conflict with Humayun in Political Relations with the Mughals 1534. He ceded the island of Bassein with its z Akbar and Jahangir treated Jesuits with respect, dependencies and promised a base in Diu to the leading to good relations in the initial years. Portuguese. z In 1608, British Captain William Hawkins came to Relations soured when Humayun withdrew from Jahangir’s court and won his favour, as seen in being Gujarat in 1536. Conflict arose as inhabitants of granted trading facilities. This made the Portuguese the town fought with the Portuguese. Bahadur retaliate against the British, their new competitor in Shah aimed to raise a partition wall, leading to the Indian Ocean. negotiations with the Portuguese. z Portuguese acts of piracy also irritated the Mughal In 1537, during the negotiations, the ruler of government, which strained the relations. Gujarat was invited to a Portuguese ship and killed. z Under the reign of Shah Jahan, the Portuguese lost all the advantages that they enjoyed in the Mughal court Da Cunha aimed to increase Portuguese influence since the time of Emperor Akbar. in Bengal, settling Portuguese nationals with z They monopolized the manufacture of salt, built a Hooghly as their headquarters. custom house of their own, and started enforcing the Favourable Conditions for The Portuguese levy of duty on tobacco strictly. z Portuguese engaged in a cruel slave trade, purchasing z Except for Gujarat, which was ruled by Mahmud or seizing Hindu and Muslim children and raising them Begarha, all other parts of India were under fragmented as Christians. They seized two slave girls of Mumtaz kingdoms and did not have a strong navy. Mahal during their activities. z The Arab merchants did not have the organization and z In response, Shah Jahan ordered Bengal governor unity of the Portuguese. Qasim Khan to take action against the Portuguese. z The Portuguese also had canons on their ships, giving A Mughal siege of Hooghly began on June 24, them a military advantage. 1632, resulting in its capture three months later. 2 Advent of Europeans and Consolidation of British Power Factors Behind The Decline of The z Other important Dutch factories were in Surat (1616), Bimlipatam (1641), Karaikal (1645), Portuguese Chinsura (1653), Baranagar, Kasimbazar (near z The rise of powerful dynasties in Egypt, Persia as well Murshidabad), Balasore, Patna, Nagapatam as in North India made them lose their competitive (1658), and Cochin (1663). advantage in the initial years. z They carried Indigo manufactured in the Yamuna z Religious policies such as conversion by force Valley and Central India, textiles and silk from Bengal, antagonized both Muslim and Hindu rulers. Gujarat and the Coromandel, saltpetre from Bihar, and z The notoriety of the Portuguese as sea pirates, opium and rice from the Ganga Valley. combined with excessive use of violence, led to z The Dutch monopolized trade in black pepper and resentment among local rulers. spices. They were also interested in silk, cotton, z Later, Portugal shifted its focus to Brazil for its indigo, rice and opium. colonizing activities, which led to the neglect of Indian territories. Now Brazil became the economic center of The Decline of The Dutch the overseas empire of Portugal as against Goa earlier. z The Dutch were not interested in empire-building, they wanted to focus on trade. z The Union of Spain and Portugal led to an increased focus on Spain’s wars with England and Holland, z Anglo-Dutch Rivalry, as seen in events like the thereby making a loss of the Portuguese monopoly Amboyna Massacre (1623, Indonesia), later over India inevitable. transcended to their Indian territories. z Other colonial powers, such as the Dutch and the z Both the parties came to a compromise in 1667 English, now had knowledge of the sea route to India by which the British agreed to withdraw all their claims on Indonesia, and the Dutch retired from neutralizing the first mover advantage of Portugal. India to concentrate on their more profitable trade in Significance of The Portuguese Indonesia. z Portugal’s ascent initiated the European Era of z In the third Anglo-Dutch War, Dutch forces captured English ships in the Bay of Bengal. The English domination against regional powers holding their eventually retaliated and won the Battle of Hooghly own earlier. in 1759 during the 7 years war. z The Portuguese were the first foreign naval power to z The Battle of Hooghly (1759), also known as the come to India. They had cannons on their ships, which Battle of Bidara and Battle of Chinsurah marked a helped them monopolize trade using tools of violence. crushing blow to Dutch ambitions in India and led to z They showcased military innovation through the the ascent of the British. use of body armour, matchlock men and guns from their ships. They also used the Spanish model THE ENGLISH to organize their infantry which was later followed by the French, the English as well as the Marathas using z Queen Elizabeth I issued a charter with rights similar strategies. of exclusive trading to the company named the z Improved shipbuilding techniques helped them ‘Governor and Company of Merchants of London navigate the seas across seasons. trading into the East Indies’ with exclusive trading rights in the East Indies on 31 December 1600, which z The Portuguese created Royal arsenals, Dockyards and was later indefinitely extended. had a regular system for pilots which ensured optimal z Captain Hawkins came to the court of Jahangir performance of their navy in the Indian Ocean. in 1609 with the aim of establishing a factory and gaining trade concessions. THE DUTCH z In 1611, the English began trading at Masulipatnam and established a factory there in 1616. The Arrival and The Spread of The Dutch z Captain Thomas Best defeated the Portuguese z Cornelis de Houtman was the first Dutchman to in 1612 off the coast of Surat, leading to Jahangir reach Sumatra and Bantam in 1596. granting permission to the English to establish a z East India Company of the Netherlands was formed factory at Surat in 1613. in 1602 with powers to trade, take possession of z Sir Thomas Roe, an accredited ambassador of James territory as well as engage in war when needed. I, arrived in 1615 and stayed until February 1619. z The Dutch founded their first factory in Masulipatnam Though unsuccessful in concluding a commercial (in Andhra) in 1605. They captured Nagapatam near treaty with Jahangir, Roe secured several privileges, Madras (Chennai) from the Portuguese and made it including the permission to set up factories at Agra, their main stronghold in South India. Ahmedabad, and Broach. [UPSC 2021] Advent of Europeans and Consolidation of British Power 3 Key Areas under British control z Serampore near Calcutta was the most important Danish settlement at the time. z ‘Golden Farman’ was issued by the Sultan of Golconda in 1632 to give the British the privilege z The Danes were more interested in missionary of trading freely in Golconda. activities instead of commercial or political interests. z Bombay was given as a dowry gift to King Charles II, who later gave it to the East India Company on THE FRENCH an annual payment of 10 pounds in 1668. Later, The French were the last Europeans to arrive in India Bombay became the headquarters of the Western with the purpose of trade. Presidency. z Compagnie des Indes Orientales (French East India z In 1639, the ruler of Chandragiri (representatives Company) was established by minister Colbert in of Vijayanagara Empire) gave permission to build a 1664 during the reign of Louis XIV. The company fortified factory at Madras which later became Fort got a 50 year monopoly on French trade in Indian & St George and replaced Masulipatnam as English Pacific oceans as well as other concessions. headquarters in South India.[UPSC 2022] z First French Factory in India was established by z The English extended their trading activities to the Francois Caron in Surat in 1667. Mercara, a Persian east and started factories at Hariharpur in the who accompanied Caron, founded another French Mahanadi delta and at Balasore (in Odisha) in 1633. factory in Masulipatnam in 1669 after obtaining a patent from the Sultan of Golconda. z In Bengal, Shah Shuja allowed English to trade in return for an annual payment. Later, factories were z In 1673, The French obtained permission from Shaista set up at Hooghly (1651), Kasimbazar, Patna. Khan, the Mughal subahdar of Bengal, to establish a township at Chandernagore near Calcutta. William Hedges tried to build a fortified settlement but failed. z Francois Martin was granted the site of Pondicherry Job Charnock was successful in negotiations by Bijapur in 1674 by Sher Khan Lodi. Later, and signed a treaty that allowed an English Pondicherry became the nerve center of the French in factory in Sutanuti in 1691. India. In 1698, the English succeeded in getting the z Other important French trade centers were Mahe, permission to buy the zamindari of the three Karaikal, Balasore which helped their expansion villages of Sutanuti, Gobindapur, and Kalikata into India. (Kalighat) from their owners. z The Dutch captured Pondicherry in 1693 but later, The fortified settlement was named Fort William it was restored to the French under the Treaty of in the year 1700 when it also became the seat Ryswick. of the eastern presidency (Calcutta) with Sir z Later, the French Company was reorganized under the Charles Eyre as its first president. stewardship of governors Lenoir and Dumas between z Farrukhsiyar’s Farmans of 1715: In 1715, John 1720 and 1742. Surman secured three farmans from Mughal emperor The Carnatic Wars: Anglo-French Struggle Farrukhsiyar, granting the Company privileges in Bengal, Gujarat, and Hyderabad. Farmans were for Supremacy regarded as Magna Carta of the Company First Carnatic War (1740-48) These included exemption from additional customs z Carnatic was the name given by the Europeans to duties in Bengal, permission to issue dastaks, rent the Coromandel Coast and its hinterland. It was an more lands around Calcutta, and freedom from extension of the Anglo-French War in Europe caused duties in trade in Hyderabad. by the Austrian War of Succession. In Surat, the Company was exempted from all z Ended in 1748 with the signing of the Treaty of Aix-La duties for an annual payment of 10,000 rupees. Chapelle, which brought the Austrian War to a close The Company’s coins minted at Bombay were and handed back Madras to the English. recognized throughout the Mughal empire. z The First Carnatic War was marked by the Battle of St. Thome, where a small French army under Captain THE DANES (DENMARK) Paradise defeated the forces of Anwaruddin, the Nawab of Carnatic, and Mahfuz Khan. This victory z The Danish East India Company was established highlighted the effectiveness of a disciplined army in 1616, and they founded their first factory at and the importance of naval force in the Anglo-French Tranquebar near Tanjore in 1620. conflict in the Deccan. 4 Advent of Europeans and Consolidation of British Power Second Carnatic War (1749-54) z Dupleix was also the originator of the practice of z Dupleix, the French Governor who was successful subsidiary alliance in India as he placed a French in the First Carnatic War, tried to increase French army at Hyderabad. influence in South India. z Dupleix was recalled in 1754 due to initial defeats z The war was caused by the succession struggles of the French in the Second Carnatic War. This is after the death of Nizam-ul-Mulk (founder of an seen as a historical blunder that led to eventual independent kingdom of Hyderabad), wherein, The English domination. French supported the claims of Muzaffar Jang Weaknesses of Dupleix and Chanda Sahib in the Deccan and Carnatic, z He did not act quickly enough, often lost a lot of respectively, while the English sided with Nasir Jang time in thinking and hoping for things to happen and Anwaruddin. instead of doing them z Battle of Ambur (1749): In 1749, Muzaffar Jang, z Autocratic behavior of Dupleix led to quarrels Chanda Sahib, and the French defeated Anwaruddin within the French at the Battle of Ambur. Muzaffar Jang became the z He did not have any military experience nor did he subahdar of Deccan, and Dupleix was appointed fight on the ground. Thus he had ideas far removed governor of Mughal territories south of the River from ground realities. Krishna. z Robert Clive, an English company agent, captured Why did The French Lose Out To The Arcot in 1751 to relieve pressure on Trichinopoly. British? Despite a 53-day siege, Chanda Sahib failed to retake Arcot. In 1752, Muhammad Ali executed Chanda z The English company was a private enterprise with Sahib. Dupleix was recalled in 1754 due to financial less government control, whereas the French company losses, and Godeheu succeeded him. The English and was a state concert and was constrained by delays, French agreed not to interfere in native disputes and and government policies. retained their occupied territories. z The superiority of the English navy helped them cut off the sea link between France and its possessions Third Carnatic War (1756-63) in India. Started as a result of the Seven Years’ War in Europe z The British never neglected their commercial interests which had its effects on Anglo-French rivalry in India. during expansion, thus they always had funds to fight z Battle of Wandiwash (1760): The decisive battle of the wars. On the other hand, The French company was the Third Carnatic War was won by the English on financially strapped as a result of the subordination January 22, 1760, at Wandiwash (or Vandavasi) in of their commercial interest to territorial ambition. Tamil Nadu. General Eyre Coote of the English totally z The British always had superior military routed the French army under Count Thomas Arthur commanders, such as Sir Eyre Coote, and Robert de Lally and took Bussy as a prisoner. Clive, whereas the French only had Dupleix as a sound z This battle led to the emergence of The English as the military strategist. supreme European power in the Indian subcontinent. z The Treaty of Peace of Paris (1763) did restore to Reasons Behind The English Success as the French their factories but their political influence Against Other European Powers disappeared after the war. z English East India Company was a private company Dupleix controlled by a Board of Directors, unlike competitors, z Took charge as Director-General of French which were state-owned and feudalistic. colonies in India in 1741. He also had taken charge z The Naval Superiority of the British helped them of Pondicherry earlier where he became wealthy due defeat the Portuguese as well as limit the expansion to private trade. Known as an able administrator, of other competitors in the Indian Ocean. he built fortifications around Pondicherry z The Industrial Revolution in England enhanced z Muzaffar Jang, Mughal Emperor and Subahdar of productivity through machines like the steam Deccan, conferred the title of ‘Nawab’ on Dupleix. engine, and the power loom and helped England z During the Carnatic wars, he became known due maintain its hegemony. to his strategic acumen and protected French z British soldiers were well trained and served under interests under the protection of the Nawab able leadership, which helped the English defeat z The first European to meddle in the internal bigger armies in battle. affairs of the Indian emperors was Dupleix. After z Political stability in Britain supported its commerce, his candidates, Muzzaffar Jang for Hyderabad whereas other countries like France were mired in and Chanda Sahib for Carnatic won, they made revolutions and violence. significant concessions to Dupleix. Advent of Europeans and Consolidation of British Power 5 z Compared to Spain, Portugal, or the Dutch, Britain z Jahandar Shah (1712-13) was less fervently religious and less motivated to Became emperor with the help of Zulfikar Khan, propagate Christianity. Because of this, the subjects who was later appointed as prime minister. He of its rule accepted it far more than they did other instituted the Izara system to strengthen the colonial powers. empire’s finances. z The Bank of England, the world’s first Central bank, Jahandar Shah abolished Jaziya. helped the English make use of the debt market to get money. Thus, the Company always had the z Farrukhsiyar (1713-1718) money to defeat its rivals. In comparison, the French He came to power as a result of killing Jahandar eventually went bankrupt trying to compete with Shah with the help of the Sayyid Brothers (Abdulla Britain financially. Khan and Hussain Ali), who later became Wazir & Mir Bakshi in his court. INDIA ON THE EVE OF BRITISH CONQUEST He followed a policy of religious tolerance as seen The powerful Mughals began to decline in the first half in steps like abolishing Jaziya and pilgrimage tax of the eighteenth century. Aided the ascent of the British unknowingly by z The reign of Aurangzeb (1658–1707) marked the granting them Farmans of 1717. beginning of the end of Mughal authority in India. Later in 1719, the Sayyid Brothers dethroned z Later, during Muhammad Shah’s rule, the independent Farrukhsiyar with the help of Peshwa Balaji states of Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh, and Punjab were Vishwanath. Thus, Farrukhsiyar became the first established. Mughal emperor to be killed by his nobles. z The Marathas started to push for the succession to the z Rafi-ud-Darajat (1719): He had the shortest reign imperial throne as a number of regional chiefs started amongst all Mughal rulers to declare their independence. z Rafi-ud-Daula (1719): Took the title ‘Shah Jahan II’. Challenges Before The Mughals He was placed on the throne by the Sayyid Brothers, who had concentrated power over themselves. External Challenges z Muhammad Shah Rangeela (1719-48) z Nadir Shah’s Invasion (1738-39): Defeated Mughal He killed the Sayyid Brothers by taking the Army in Battle of Karnal (1739) and captured help of Nizam-ul-Mulk, who later founded the Muhammad Shah (Mughal Ruler). independent state of Hyderabad. The Peacock Throne, the Kohinoor diamond and Faced defeat by Nadir Shah in the Battle of Karnal multiple valuable items were taken away from the Mughals. (1739) and was later imprisoned. Nadir Shah gained the strategically important z Ahmad Shah Bahadur (1748-1754) Mughal territory to the west of the Indus including Seen as an incompetent ruler who left the state Kabul. Thus, India once again became vulnerable affairs in the hands of Udham Bai, the ‘Queen to the attacks from the north-west. Mother’. Udham Bai was given the title of ‘Qibla- z Ahmad Shah Abdali’s Invasions i-Alam’ later. Delhi was captured in 1757 and an Afghan z Alamgir II (1754-1759) caretaker took reigns to watch over the Mughal He was a son of Emperor Jahandar Shah. Emperor. Ahmed Shah Abdali, the Iranian invader, reached Abdali recognised Alamgir II as the Mughal Delhi in January 1757. During his reign, the Battle emperor and Najib-ud-Daula (Rohilla chief) as of Plassey was fought in June 1757. Alamgir II was the Mir Bakhshi who was to act as agent of Abdali. assassinated. The Third Battle of Panipat, 1761 saw Abdali z Shah Alam II (1760-1806) come back to India and defeat the Marathas who His reign saw two decisive battles i.e. Third Battle had taken control of Delhi under the leadership of of Panipat (1761) and Battle of Buxar (1764) Raghunath Rao. Treaty of Allahabad (1765) was signed after the Weak Rulers After The Death of Aurangzeb Battle of Buxar in which following terms were imposed:

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