Miami-Dade Fire Rescue High-Rise Fires SOP PDF

MIAMI-DADE FIRE RESCUE DEPARTMENT Standard Operating Procedure Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Originated By: OPERATIONS Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES P...

MIAMI-DADE FIRE RESCUE DEPARTMENT Standard Operating Procedure Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Originated By: OPERATIONS Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES Published Date: 6/16/22 Danny Cardeso, Assistant Fire Chief Review Date: 6/16/22 4.01 PURPOSE: To provide a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for response to and operations at high-rise fires. Miami-Dade Fire Rescue (MDFR) Personnel will be intimately familiar with SOP I-B-9 Fireground Procedures, as only occupancy- specific information and guidance are presented in this SOP. 4.02 GENERAL: High-rises can be designed as residential, commercial, or mixed-use occupancies. Fires in these structures present great life safety hazards and logistical challenges as the need for resources can rapidly escalate in a working high-rise fire that can be complicated by the potential for both multiple victims and removal of multiple occupants. The high-rise structures addressed in this SOP are buildings greater than 75’ and are generally greater than six (6) stories tall. Structures that are greater than 40 stories in height are considered “ultra high-rises.” Based on age of the building’s construction, the requirements for fire protection systems will vary. 4.03 RESPONSIBILITY: It is the responsibility of the Assistant Fire Chief of Operations or designee to review and update this procedure. 4.04 DEFINITION(S): Auto-Exposure – When fire travels from the compartment floor of origin to the floor above. Fire venting out of a window directly exposes the compartment window above; and fire spreads into that unit by way of direct flame impingement, radiant, and/or convection heat. Balconies are particularly vulnerable to auto-exposure due to the combustibility of patio furniture. Base – Staging area remote from a fire building for apparatus and personnel; generally, a street or parking lot. Companies located in Base are not ready for immediate deployment to upper floors of a high-rise building. Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES Blind Shaft Elevators (a.k.a. Express Elevators) – Elevators that bypass lower floors to serve upper floors (e.g., 1st - 21st floor with no stops in between). A blind shaft does not have hoistway doors on floors where the express elevator does not make a stop. Bus Duct – A sheet metal enclosure that houses copper bus bars. Bus ducts are used instead of heavy cable in conduit. Rather than cutting and splicing cable, bus ducts are modular and are bolted together to run horizontally and vertically from main electrical panels on lower floors to mechanical rooms and electric meter rooms on upper floors. Churn Pressure – The highest pressure developed by building fire pumps when no water is flowing except for discharge from casing relief valves which keep pumps from overheating. A pump’s churn pressure can be observed on its discharge pressure gauge or the maximum pump pressure on its specification plate. This net pressure does not consider incoming city water main pressure. Example: If specification plate max pressure is 200 psi, and there is 60 psi intake, then total churn pressure is: 200 psi + 60 psi = 260 psi. Determining a fire pump’s churn pressure will give an indication of the approximate pressure that the pumpers will have to supply FDCs if fire pump(s) fail. Combination Sprinkler/Standpipe System – A fire protection system in which the sprinklers are supplied by standpipe risers. Compartmentalization – The subdividing of floor areas by fire resistive partitions or the separation of an area into smaller spaces or compartments. This can include a hotel room, residential occupancy, or any other protected area of refuge. Crossover Floors – High-rise buildings may be divided into individual “towers.” Traversing from one tower to another is only possible on designated crossover floors. Curtain Wall – A term used to describe a non-load bearing exterior wall of a building whose purpose is to keep out the weather and seal the building. These walls are usually made of glass, aluminum, or lightweight masonry panels attached to the structure through connections at the floors or columns of the building. These walls may create a vertical path for fire travel via the structural voids in between the curtain wall and the structure. Elevator Control Firefighter – A firefighter designated to operate the elevator in Phase 2 (firefighter’s service) mode and remain in control of the elevator prior to the implementation of Lobby Control. The elevator must be operated in firefighter’s service. The firefighter will be equipped with elevator key, radio, irons, water extinguisher, fire personal protective equipment (PPE), self- contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), flashlight, and grease pencils for crew 2 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES accountability. Control of the elevator is maintained throughout the entire operation. Express Drain Riser – A 3” vertical pipe that runs parallel to standpipes used to drain and test systems. They typically have a 2½” female connection on every other floor for the purpose of flow testing standpipe outlets. Fire Command/Control Rooms – Buildings over 75’ are required to have a Fire Command Center. Components there can vary with the age of a building and code requirements that were in effect at the time. Basic components include the fire alarm control panel and the system’s voice command (PA) system, which is designed to make announcements to residents in the entire building or only on selected floors. Fire Department Connection (FDC) – Fire hose inlet connections that supply a sprinkler, standpipe, or combination sprinkler/standpipe system. An FDC is utilized to raise pressure in the system with fire department pumpers when pressure in the municipal water supply or the building’s fire pump is insufficient. FDCs can be free-standing (typically near the street in front of a building) or mounted directly on a building’s exterior wall. Piping for FDCs is connected to the discharge piping of the building’s fire pump(s). A one-way check valve to keep water from flowing out of an FDC is held closed by pressure in the system. In order for a fire department pumper to actually flow water into an FDC, it must exceed system pressure that is keeping the check valve in the FDC piping closed. Fire Pump Test Header/Connection – A manifold, consisting of 2½” fire hose discharge valves, for the purpose of testing a building’s fire pumps. A test connection will have a 2½” discharge for every 250 gpm of its rated capacity; hence, a 1,000-gpm fire pump would have four 2½” discharges. Fire Service Access Elevators (FSAEs) – Elevators found in new construction exceeding 120’ in height that are specifically designed for use by firefighters. Firefighter Area of Refuge – An apartment or condo unit between the fire compartment and the Attack Stairwell where personnel could take refuge in the event they are driven back by wind-driven fire and cannot escape back to the Attack Stairwell. Caution: A firefighter area of refuge must be on the same side of a hallway as the fire compartment. Head Pressure – Also referred to as back pressure, elevation pressure, and gravity pressure. Head pressure is the weight exerted at the base of a column of water. A one-foot column of water will exert.434 pounds per square inch (psi) at its base. As a practical matter,.434 is rounded to.5 psi. The average height of floors in residential high-rise buildings is 10’, thus we commonly calculate head 3 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES pressure at 5 psi per floor. Since the height of floors in commercial high-rise buildings can be as high as 14’, calculate head pressure at 6 psi per floor. Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) – Systems used to heat, cool, and circulate air within a structure. Some HVAC systems include smoke removal and pressurization to limit the spread of smoke but are not, in and of themselves, an HVAC system. High-Rise Accessory Bag – A shoulder bag used for carrying tools and equipment that are typically needed for buildings equipped with a standpipe. This bag shall contain the minimum equipment to facilitate standpipe operations, to include an in-line pressure gauge, 2½” gate valve, spanner and valve wheel wrench, grease pencils, door chocks, pigtail (short section of 3” hose), drain elbow, and an L-HASP. Jockey Pump – A small centrifugal pump located next to a building’s fire pump that maintains static pressure in sprinkler and standpipe systems. A jockey pump can compensate for minor pressure fluctuations that would otherwise cause the fire pump to start. To prevent overheating, jockey pumps should be shut off when shutting off a building’s fire pumps. L-HASP (Livingstone Hose Anchor Suspension Plate) – Device designed to fit between male and female hose couplings to support the weight of water when performing vertical hose evolutions without forming a flow-restricting kink. It is designed as an option to utilize on high-rise fires where standpipes have failed. Lobby Control – A unit established at a high-rise incident for logistical support of the operation. This position supervises personnel accountability, elevators, stairways, building systems, and evacuation. Manual Wet Standpipes – Buildings that do not exceed 75’ in height are permitted to have a manual wet standpipe system that relies on water main pressure or a small fire pump to supply sprinklers but does not have enough pressure to supply a hoseline. A pumper apparatus must supply the FDC to support firefighting activities. Neutral Pressure Plane (NPP) – Occurs in high-rises of sufficient height. In cold weather, outside air naturally moves into the building below the NPP then warms up and rises above the NPP. Conversely, in hot weather, outside air tends to flow into a building and is cooled by air conditioning, causing air to sink below the NPP. Below the NPP, pressure is at equilibrium, causing neutrality in air movement. The NPP is affected by fire-generated heat currents, stack effect, temperature differentials, and wind speed. 4 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES Occupant Area of Refuge – A designated area for occupants who cannot self- evacuate by stairwell; can be a separate room close to the stairwells or landings large enough to accommodate wheelchairs. Plenum – In commercial high-rises, a plenum is the space between the ceiling and the floor above that is used for HVAC air return, running utility pipes/lines, sprinkler branch lines and zone valves, etc. This concealed space has the potential for fire spread above the heads of unsuspecting personnel. Pressure Reducing Valve (PRV) – Standpipe hose outlet and sprinkler floor control valves that keep both static and residual (flow) pressure from exceeding 175 psi for hose outlets and 165 psi for sprinklers. Pressure Restricting Device (PRD) – A device attached to a conventional standpipe outlet valve that limits pressure to 100 psi when flowing by restricting the waterway or limiting how far the valve can be opened. PRDs have no effect on static pressure. PRDs can only be used when system pressure does not exceed 175 psi. PRDs can be removed or circumvented by firefighters needing more pressure. Reflex Time (a.k.a. Lead Time) – Is the time it takes a company to begin operations on the fire floor after arrival on scene. This time is also a factor for later-arriving companies that are given assignments in support of the initial operation. Region 7 Key – A key for recalling and operating elevators in “firefighter’s service”. The State of Florida is divided into emergency response regions. Monroe, Miami-Dade, Broward, Palm Beach, Martin, St. Lucie and Indian River Counties are in Region 7. Building owners are required to have one key per elevator for a maximum number of three (3) secured in “Supra Max”/elevator key lock box in elevator lobby for buildings greater than five (5) stories. Additionally, all MDFR units are in possession of one key, located on the MDFR unit’s main key bundle. The key is identified with the engraving “FFSK7” on the head of the key. Scrub Area – The entire area on the face of the structure that can be effectively reached by an aerial ladder without repositioning the apparatus. The aerial apparatus turntable should be centered in the middle of the desired coverage area. For rear-mount aerial apparatus, this area is usually maximized when backing into position. Smoke Control System – A system that controls the movement of smoke and air in a building. It can be made up of multiple components using several different methods to achieve a tenable environment long enough for all occupants to egress the building. 5 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES Smoke Stratification – The process in which hot smoke begins to cool and lose its buoyancy during ascent within a structure. If this occurs, the smoke will collect on a floor or level beneath the top floor. This is more likely to occur with cool smoke and/or very tall buildings. Smokeproof Stairs – A stairway with open-air balconies or vented vestibules designed to prevent smoke in a hallway of an office suite from entering the stairwell. The most common smoke-proof stair in South Florida is a stairway with an open balcony/vestibule. Stack Effect – The vertical airflow within buildings caused by the temperature- created density between the building interior and exterior or between two interior spaces. It is affected by the air tightness of the building and the temperature gradient between the interior and exterior of the building. Positive stack effect is the movement of air upward and occurs when it is colder outside than it is inside. Negative stack effect is the movement of air downward and occurs when it is colder inside than it is outside. Staging – Location for the standby of uncommitted equipment, personnel, and other resources, generally two floors below the fire floor. Supervisory Signal – An alarm condition caused by activating a tamper switch by closing a valve in a fire suppression system. Additionally, some fire alarm systems initiate a supervisory signal rather than an alarm signal when a smoke detector is activated in HVAC ductwork. Transfer Switch – A transfer switch, typically located in a panel next to the fire pump controller, senses a loss of electrical power in the electric service, starts the building’s emergency generator, transfers generator power to the fire pump, and prevents generator power from back-feeding into the power grid. Trouble Signal – An alarm condition, indicated by a yellow light, indicating an electrical fault in the alarm circuits such as “Trouble: ground fault pull station, 14th floor, east stairwell.” With the exception of the problem circuit or initiation device, the alarm system will continue to operate normally. Ultra-High-Rise – Buildings greater than 40 stories. Well Stretch – Evolution where the hose is stretched vertically up the open shaft or “well” present in many staircases. The “well” in a staircase is the open vertical space that permits a vertical stretch of hose without danger of kinking. This gives personnel the ability to reach the 4th and 5th floor with a single length of hose. 4.05 PROCEDURE: I. SIGNIFICANT CONSTRUCTION FEATURES 6 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES A. Overall Design (core construction vs. traditional construction) 1. Core construction is when the building is designed with all the primary vertical structures (i.e., stairs, elevators, etc.) grouped together in the center of the building. Hallways service each side of the core. Exits are not remote from each other and can be simultaneously blocked by smoke and fire. Core construction methods that move the core from the center to other locations, usually to the sides of the building, are known as side core construction. 2. Traditional construction provides elevators and stairs at separate locations on each floor. Stairs are generally located at the ends of each floor; and, depending on the overall length of the floors, there may be additional stairs in the center. Elevators are generally located in the center with service elevators and additional passenger elevators located elsewhere as needed. B. Wall and Roof Construction 1. Residential high-rise buildings in MDFR’s response areas are generally of concrete construction to include exterior walls. Interior walls are drywall with at least a 30-minute fire resistance rating. Commercial high-rise buildings are also of concrete structural construction and will typically have larger un-partitioned areas which will allow rapid and unobstructed fire spread. 2. Generally, roofs are constructed using concrete then topped with a waterproof covering such as insulated panels and a single-ply membrane. 3. Roofs of high-rise buildings are congested with HVAC equipment and cell phone antennas, making helicopter evacuation of occupants who flee to the roof extremely dangerous or impossible. C. Open and Enclosed Hallways 1. The majority of high-rises in Miami-Dade County are constructed with enclosed hallways. However, some high- rises may be constructed with either fully or partially open hallways. Complete or partial open-hallway buildings allow smoke to dissipate rather than contaminating hallways and 7 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES stairwells, creating a more favorable environment for deploying or managing hose. 2. Open-hallway high-rises are seldom greater than 10 stories and may allow hoselines to be hoisted and pumped directly from apparatus, avoiding the need to use a standpipe system. D. Plenum 1. Not every high-rise will be designed with a plenum. However, those that do provide a ready means for horizontal fire and smoke spread as well as an accumulation area for highly flammable products of combustion. 2. In center core constructed buildings, plenum spaces can allow fire to wrap the core. Prior to advancing out of the stairwell, firefighters must check the plenum just outside the stairwell door. E. Floor Design and Configuration 1. Floor areas of residential high-rises are highly compartmentalized into hotel rooms, apartments, and condominium units. Conversely, floor areas of commercial high-rise office buildings are largely undivided. Offices and workstations can be divided into cubicles and partitions (these configurations may vary from floor to floor), creating confusing maze-like floor plans. Lack of compartmentalization can allow fires to grow to a volume necessitating multiple hoselines and possibly portable master stream devices. 2. Floor Plans a. Firefighters are trained to navigate in heavy smoke by familiarizing themselves with the floor below the fire floor. Although there are some exceptions, all units above the first floor of residential high-rise buildings will typically be configured in the same manner. In many residential buildings, locating the fire unit, choosing the Attack Stairwell, and determining the length of hose can be accomplished by familiarization with the floor below. Firefighters cannot gain this frame of 8 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES reference in commercial high-rise buildings because each floor is configured differently, with office suites and workstations arranged to meet the needs of individual tenants. b. Kitchens and bathrooms are typically arranged so that plumbing pipes are in a straight column from floor to floor. Stacked kitchens and bathrooms and the possibility of unsealed poke-throughs make it essential to examine apartments directly above and below the unit where fire or smoke was reported. F. Electrical Distribution, Meters, and Shutoff Locations 1. In residential buildings, there will be a circuit breaker panel in each apartment. Additionally, each apartment will have its own electrical meter and main circuit breaker in electric meter rooms. Meter rooms can be located in the basement, on the ground floor, on every floor, every other floor, or every third floor. Meter rooms are generally stacked in-line over one another, which may create a pathway for smoke, fire, and water to travel. NOTE: It is imperative that all efforts be made to not allow water into these meter rooms. 2. Electric current in high-rise buildings follows this basic pathway: High voltage from the electrical power grid is “stepped down” (reduced) by transformers in an electrical vault that is located either inside or outside the building. Electric current then flows from the vault to the building’s main electrical panel and is distributed by bus ducts to mechanical areas and meter rooms. NOTE: It is not uncommon to find FPL (Florida Power & Light) vaults on the upper floors of high-rise buildings. This is to compensate for the loss of voltage as the vertical distance from the main FPL vault increases. FPL vaults are not meter rooms and are secured with a proprietary FPL lock. Only FPL personnel are in possession of the key. To avoid arc flash or electrocution, firefighters should not attempt to force a door to an FPL vault until authorized by FPL personnel. 9 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES G. HVAC Systems 1. It is important to determine what effect the HVAC system is having on the fire. Do not arbitrarily shut down this system. A building engineer/maintenance person should be found to verify that the system is operating in a fashion that confines smoke/fire spread and aids in ventilation. This person is extremely valuable and should remain with the Lobby Control Officer for the duration of the incident. 2. By design in residential buildings (hotels, motels, condos, etc.), air in the living units does not intermingle with the air supply in the hallways. Caution: Shutting down the HVAC system will eliminate pressure in the ductwork which can become a pathway for smoke to spread from floor to floor and/or hallway into living units, which may hamper a protect-in-place strategy. 3. Commercial high-rise buildings typically have central air conditioning throughout the entire building, whereas residential buildings have it only in hallways and other public areas. Upon activation, it is common for smoke detectors in HVAC ductwork to initiate a shutdown of fans and dampers. 4. To aid in exhausting smoke, some HVAC systems in commercial buildings can be manipulated to increase the amount of fresh air entering a building and the amount of contaminated air exiting the building. Like residential buildings, it is essential to locate building engineer or maintenance personnel and keep them with the Lobby Control Officer for the duration of the incident. H. Basements 1. Basements and/or lower level floors are common in hotel- type occupancies. These floors generally contain much of the building’s machinery rooms, maintenance shops, receiving departments, etc. In most cases, these floors are below grade at the front of the structure but are at grade level along one of the sides and/or rear. 2. Floor layouts are generally unlike any of the floors occupied by residents and may contain materials and fire loads not otherwise found in the structure. 10 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES I. Internal Parking Garages 1. New parking garages in high-rise buildings are generally required to be equipped with a combination sprinkler/standpipe system, and manual wet standpipe systems are also very common (see section I.K.3.). Older buildings may or may not have sprinklers/standpipes depending upon when they were built. Fire department personnel must be prepared to hand-lay long stretches of hose to reach vehicle fires in remote parts of the garage. 2. During overhaul, be sure to check for smoke, carbon monoxide (CO) readings, and fire extension into enclosed portions of the building. J. Stairwells 1. Stairs are usually one of four types: return, scissor, wrap- around, and access. Unless smokeproof stairs are present, all stairwells will serve as “chimneys” for heat and smoke. Stairwells in fully sprinklered buildings can be as much as 400’ apart. This is a “trade-off” allowed by building code for having sprinkler protection, and may necessitate extremely long hose stretches. 2. Return stairs are the most common and are named so because they cause you to ascend/descend to a half- landing and “return” to continue the ascent/descent to the next floor. The doors leading out to the floors remain in the same position on each floor. Also, there may or may not be a well hole or shaft in the center of the stairs. When present, this well hole allows for vertical stretching of hose, requiring fewer lengths. NOTE: Depending on the height of the floors, return stairs can have more than one half-landing, necessitating longer hose stretches and additional personnel to manage it. 3. Scissor stairs provide a straight run from one floor to another and only change direction at each floor. The door leading out to the floors alternates location on each floor as determined by the length of the “run” and can be as much as 30’ apart. They are most common in commercial high-rise buildings and will be located in the center core. Two adjacent flights of stairs connect the same floors in 11 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES opposite directions crossing each other like a scissor, hence the name. Scissor stairs, however, present problems for firefighters because they can cause confusion with orientation of the fire floor in relation to the stairwell. Firefighters should familiarize themselves with two floors below the fire floor. 4. Wrap-around stairs “wrap around” an elevator or open shaft. The open shaft will again allow a vertical hose stretch, while the elevator shaft will necessitate the use of 50’ of hose per floor. 5. Access stairs are not egress stairs. They are generally designed to serve one or two floors within the same space or occupancy inside the high-rise, and are not enclosed. These stairs provide for easy vertical fire extension. When two or more floors are interconnected by access stairs, firefighters can be misled as to the location of the fire floor because smoke detectors on upper floors may be activated from lower-floor smoke/fire. 6. Smokeproof towers prevent smoke in a hallway from following occupants into stairwells. Residential high-rise buildings in South Florida commonly have at least one smokeproof towers consisting of open-air landings that lead to an enclosed stairwell. The open landing permits smoke to vent directly to the outside rather than entering the stairwell. Where present, they usually have enclosed vestibules, similar to an air lock, which occupants pass through before entering an enclosed stairwell. These vestibules are connected by ductwork to a smoke shaft which vents on the roof. The shaft may create an area of low pressure that can draw smoke/heat towards firefighters attempting to advance a hoseline from a smokeproof stairwell. NOTE: For the purposes of efficient occupant evacuation and coordinated fire attack, stairs must be designated as Attack, Ventilation, and Evacuation Stairwells when possible. Consideration should be given to positively pressurizing evacuation and attack stairs. Opening a door that leads to the fire floor will contaminate an otherwise tenable staircase. The attack crew must be sure that no occupants are still entering or present in the staircase on the floors above and below due to reverse stack effect. Likewise, stairwells chosen to direct smoke must be free of occupants prior to doing so. 12 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES Smokeproof stairs generally do not require this type of designation and coordination. The main issue with occupants evacuating through the same stairs utilized for attack is the trip hazard presented by the hose and potential delay in hose advancement as the attack team contends with the people exiting in the limited space provided in the stairwell. K. Fire Protection 1. In residential buildings, due to compartmentalization, it is best practice to instruct occupants to stay in their units and await further instructions. 2. Buildings over 75’ are required by code to have Fire Command/Control Rooms in or near the lobby. They are commonly locked, but a key should be available in the elevator key box. These rooms typically contain some or all of the following equipment: a. Main fire alarm annunciator/control panel. b. Panel which provides elevator status and the ability to recall them as well as determine location. c. Smoke control and management systems. d. Controls which may unlock stairwell doors that may not have automatically unlocked upon activation of the alarm system. e. Due to the unreliability of portable radios, fire code requires the installation of a bi-directional amplifier (a repeater to strengthen fire department radio signals). Some buildings over 75’ may also be equipped with hardwire communications systems consisting of the following: i. Cabinets containing portable handsets that can be plugged into phone jacks in stair landings, elevator lobbies, and even some elevator cars. ii. Microphone and controls for building voice control (PA) systems. 13 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES iii. A landline telephone enabling direct line communication from the Fire Command Room and the Fire Alarm Office (FAO). 3. Standpipe Systems a. Class 1 Standpipe Systems are designed for Fire Department (FD) use and larger hose streams. They contain 2½” outlets and no occupant-use hose cabinets. The standpipe outlets will be located in the stairwells. b. Class 2 Standpipe Systems are designed for occupant use. They provide 1½” outlets with occupant-use hose cabinets. These cabinets and their outlets are in the hallways. These outlets are not designed for FD use. c. Class 3 Standpipe Systems are designed for both occupant and FD use. Two basic designs require providing the 2½” outlets in the stairwells in addition to the hose cabinets in the hallways or providing only the hallway hose cabinets equipped with a 2½” outlet reduced to 1½”. d. Combination Sprinkler/Standpipe Systems – Multi- story buildings commonly have automatic sprinkler systems that are supplied by standpipes. Water flow to sprinklers on each floor is commonly controlled by zone or floor isolation valves that are located above standpipe hose outlets and can be identified by a smaller diameter piping. Combination systems can be looped, supplied by two or more standpipes, or controlled by isolation valves on alternating stair landings (e.g., odd number floors may be controlled by valves in the east stairwell and sprinklers on even number floors may be controlled by valves in the west stairwell). e. Pressure Reducing Valves (PRVs): i. Pressure reducing standpipe hose outlet valves keep both static and flow discharge pressure from exceeding 175 psi. Sprinkler zone (floor) control valves can also be of the pressure reducing type to prevent both 14 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES static and flow pressure from exceeding 175 psi. The pressure reducing effect of PRVs varies with the height at which they are installed. For example, a PRV on the third floor would reduce pressure more than one located on the twentieth floor. Due to reduced head pressure, it is common to find conventional valves on upper floors. The most accurate identifying feature of a PRV is that there are no threads visible on the valve’s floating stem when looking into its outlet. ii. There are two basic categories of PRVs: factory set and field adjustable. Field adjustable PRVs can be adjusted by firefighters to increase their discharge pressure; however, this requires a 3/8” steel rod or a 1-1/16” deep well socket (tools not ordinarily carried by MDFR companies). NOTE: Currently, field-adjustable PRVs are rare in MDFR’s jurisdiction. iii. PRVs can interfere with delivering adequate discharge pressures when they malfunction due to internal corrosion, lack of maintenance, being adjusted incorrectly, or being installed at the wrong floor level. iv. Early recognition of PRVs is critical because they are designed and adjusted for very specific inlet pressures, typically predicated on a fire pump’s churn pressure. EXAMPLE: Say a standpipe outlet PRV located on the first floor is designed for an inlet pressure of 275 psi, the fire pump’s churn pressure and an outlet pressure of 100 psi. If the inlet pressure is below 275 psi the outlet pressure will be lower than 100 psi and may be insufficient to supply a hoseline. Buildings equipped with PRVs generally require FDCs to be supplied at higher pump discharge pressures than buildings with conventional standpipe outlet valves, even if a fire is on a lower floor. Buildings equipped with PRVs 15 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES are required by code to have signs posted next to FDCs indicating the proper inlet pressure. NOTE: PRVs, if located on lower floors, cannot be used as an inlet in the event of FDC damage or vandalism. If there are no functioning FDCs and first-floor standpipe outlets are PRVs, the alternative is to pressurize the system by pumping into the building’s fire pump test header. This will require firefighters to gain entry into the fire pump room and open a valve to the test header. f. Pressure Restricting Devices (PRDs): i. PRDs in pre-1993 buildings with system pressures not exceeding 175 psi are attached to conventional standpipe outlets to keep discharge pressures from exceeding 100 psi. PRDs limit discharge pressure by limiting the amount of flow from a standpipe outlet. They have no effect on static pressure and can be easily removed or circumvented by firefighters. g. Hose Outlet Locations i. Standpipe outlets in high-rise buildings may be located at half-landings in stairwells with return stairs. h. Zoned Standpipe Systems i. To limit system pressures, buildings several stories tall commonly have standpipe systems divided into zones. In some buildings, both low-zone and high-zone pumps are located on the same lower floor and operate in series: Low-zone pumps supply the low zone and discharge into the intake of the high-zone pumps, essentially doubling the discharge pressure in the high zone riser. ii. In other buildings, the low-zone pump supplies the low zone and supplies the high-zone pump located on the lowest floor 16 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES of the high zone. Buildings with low- and high-zone standpipes are required to have individual FDCs supplying each zone and are required by code to be identified by signs which indicate the zone and demand pressure required for that zone. i. Manual Wet Standpipes i. Buildings that do not exceed 75’ in height are permitted to have a manual wet standpipe system that relies on water main pressure or a small fire pump to supply sprinklers, but will not supply a hoseline without a fire department apparatus pumping the FDC. When performing suppression activities, pumping the FDC is required. j. Construction Standpipes i. Buildings, while under construction, are required by code to have only one functioning standpipe regardless of the footprint of the building. This could require hand-stretching several hundreds of feet of hose to reach a fire. Construction standpipes in MDFR’s jurisdiction are required to be wet; not to support fire suppression activities, but to detect open valves and disconnected pipe joints. Construction standpipes are required to be capped at the floor below the highest finished floor. Again, when performing suppression activities in such instances, it is required that the FDC be supplied by a fire department apparatus. 4. New high-rise structures have sprinkler systems that provide coverage for the entire building. Additionally, some older high-rise buildings have been retrofitted with partial systems. However, be prepared to encounter older high- rise buildings that are not sprinklered, which should be emphasized on pre-incident plans. 17 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES 5. Fire pumps are engineered to provide the required pressures to the upper-most floors as mandated by National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 20 standards. a. Building fire pumps are centrifugal-type pumps that are powered by an electric motor or a diesel engine. Pumps driven by electric motors must be connected to a standby generator by means of an emergency transfer switch, typically located in a panel next to the fire pump controller. A transfer switch works by sensing a loss of electrical power, starting the building’s emergency generator and transferring generator power to the fire pump. Once running on generator power, this prevents electricity from back-feeding into the power grid. b. Diesel engines that drive fire pumps do not have radiators. To keep them at proper operating temperature (approximately 180 degrees), diesel pumps require a continuous flow of water through their heat exchanger to a floor drain in the fire pump room or drain immediately outside the pump room. Water for the heat exchanger is supplied by the fire pump through piping where it connects to the heat exchanger at the front of the engine. In the event that the heat exchanger is not receiving water, there is an emergency bypass line that runs parallel to and a few inches above or below the primary cooling line which can supply the heat exchanger by opening valves on the bypass line. c. The proper operation of these pumps must be verified by personnel assigned to Lobby Control or as designated by the Incident Commander (IC). Personnel assigned to the fire pump room may have to manually start a fire pump at its controller or manually crank-start a diesel pump. Once the pump is running, ensure that valves on the suction and discharge sides of the pump are open, and note the pump’s discharge pressure. This will be an indication of the pressure that will have to be supplied to the FDC in the event of pump failure. NOTE: In non-sprinklered buildings, personnel assigned to the fire pump room may find the pump not running because there has not yet been a drop 18 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES in system pressure. Once firefighters begin flowing water from the standpipe outlet, the pressure will drop in the system, and the pump will turn on. If the pump is not running and there is an anticipation of flowing water, a firefighter in the control room can switch the fire pump controller mode switch from “A” (automatic) to “H” for hand/manual and press a start button. If this fails, open a valve on the water line going into the bottom of the controller; this will drop the pressure in the system, causing the pump to start. 6. Smoke Control/Management Systems a. Residential and commercial high-rise buildings constructed in the past few decades have pressurized stairwells and elevator shafts to keep them from filling with smoke. Smoke control systems can consist of an elaborate array of fans, ductwork and dampers, and a control panel in the Fire Command Room. Although smoke control systems vary from building to building, they basically function by exhausting smoke from the fire floor and pressurizing stairwells, elevator shafts, and floors above and below the fire floor. Smoke control systems are designed and programmed to operate automatically, but fans and dampers can be operated manually at the control panel. II. PERSONNEL HAZARDS Hazards at these incidents generally involve: A. Operating in enclosed hallways with high heat and dense smoke. B. Wind-driven fires on upper floors. C. Positive and negative stack effects which may cause significant smoke displacement above or below the actual fire floor. D. Exertion and injury from ascending to upper floors with heavy equipment/PPE. E. Entanglement hazards from drop-down ceilings and utility wiring (cable, electric, telecommunications, etc.). 19 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES F. Localized collapse within well-involved structures. Complete collapse may occur in rare instances where significant fire compromises portions of structures not designed to withstand such conditions. G. Malfunctioning elevators which may fail/stall, trapping firefighters or unexpectedly arriving at the fire floor or at smoke-filled floors above the fire. H. Fall hazards from elevator shafts, balconies, buildings under construction, interior stairs, etc. I. Interior and exterior falling debris. J. Malfunctioning or damaged standpipe systems resulting in insufficient operating pressures. K. Running out of SCBA air in heavy smoke conditions while operating in large apartment or extensive hallways, particularly if conditions require immediate SCBA use prior to even reaching fire unit(s), as in the case of smoke-charged stairwells in a building with inoperable elevators. L. Poor radio communications, particularly as personnel progress deeper into structures. Radio transmissions may improve by switching to “simplex,” however this should be reserved only when absolutely necessary due to Fire Rescue Dispatchers (FRDs) not being able to hear or record transmissions. M. Buildings under construction or demolition can present extreme hazards which may consist of open shafts, missing stairs, inoperable standpipe systems, large open spaces, high winds, weak structural components, and faulty or non-existent fire suppression systems. III. APPARATUS ARRIVAL ORDER, PLACEMENT, AND FUNCTIONS A. First-Arriving Apparatus (Rescue or Suppression) 1. Regardless of apparatus type, the first arriving unit must conduct a thorough size-up, transmit an initial radio report, and establish command procedures as directed in SOP I- B-9 Fireground Procedures and Policy and Procedure (P&P) III-E-26 Incident Command System (ICS). A high- rise building may contain a working fire with little or no 20 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES indication from the exterior. An assignment will not be slowed to routine or downgraded until physical confirmation by MDFR personnel of the situation and conditions present on the involved floor(s). NOTE: Despite reports from non-fire department personnel of a false alarm or that the fire is minimal or extinguished, first-arriving units should proceed with all appropriate hose and equipment until a unit verifies that no fire/smoke hazard exists. 2. It is essential that the first-arriving unit(s) locate and define the fire problem and report this information over the radio. The information relayed by the first-arriving unit(s) will determine, to a large extent, the success of the overall fire operation. 3. The first unit should take actions to: a. Secure entry gates in the open position if there is not a full-time gate attendant. b. Appropriately position apparatus to not block specific incoming units, i.e. leave sufficient operating space for Ladders, Aerials, or Platforms. c. Identify significant hazards to personnel; isolate and mitigate as time/resources permit. In some cases, this may involve simply posting a firefighter at the hazard to prevent further exposure. d. Locate the annunciator panel to determine the location of activated pull stations, water flow, smoke/heat detectors, etc. Scroll down the annunciator’s display for previous alarms. When silencing the system to decrease noise levels, there must be an announcement via the PA system to advise occupants of Fire Department presence investigating an alarm; make no mention of fire yet. e. Obtain as much information as possible from building representatives and present conditions to include determining: i. Location and extent of the fire. 21 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES ii. If evacuation procedures have been implemented. iii. Best access stairs to reach the fire floor. iv. Status of all occupant elevators and establishing which provides safe access to the fire area. f. Proactively request additional resources early, taking into account reflex time. Consider time of day, traffic conditions, road construction, out-of- service units, specific MDFR support units responding from a distance, etc. 4. Considerations for requesting additional resources and/or alarms include: a. Any indication or confirmation of a fire in an older non-sprinklered multi-level structure. b. Smoke or fire visible from the exterior. c. Several reported calls of trapped occupants. d. Reports of any type of explosion; consider damage to a rooftop boiler or short circuit in the bus duct. e. Malfunctioning or completely out-of-service elevators. f. Smoke presenting in the lobby and stairwells from fire reported on upper floors. g. At the first indication of a large number of injured occupants, request the appropriate level Multiple Casualty Incident (MCI). Upgrade resources if elderly or non-ambulatory civilians are involved. Consider requesting Transit buses for possible immediate shelter and/or relocation. h. For intracoastal or beach-side structures, consider MDFR Fireboat(s) for water supply or better master stream access. 22 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES i. Significant smoke conditions may require enhanced ventilation from positive pressure ventilation (PPV) equipment, such as typhoon fans requested through HazMat or fan trailers requested through Support. B. First-Arriving Rescue 1. The first-arriving Rescue must arrive on the scene prepared to engage in firefighting activities. Only if there is a need to provide immediate patient care will a Rescue deviate from such tasks. If patient care is priority, then the Rescue must announce this on the radio so that replacement Rescues can be dispatched. 2. Position Rescue apparatus close to the scene for fireground operations, but also in a manner that will allow for unimpeded egress should patient transport be necessary. Be sure not to block incoming Suppression units that may require closer access to the building. C. First-Arriving Suppression 1. The primary function of this unit should be to locate and determine the extent of the fire and take actions/deploy resources in accordance with Section IV, Tactical Considerations. 2. The Officer-in-Charge (OIC) must determine if exposure protection (interior and exterior) will be the best course of initial action. 3. The first-arriving Engine/Tanker apparatus should position in a fashion to facilitate personnel carrying equipment into the high-rise structure. This may involve drivers to “drop off” personnel and equipment close to the building, but then position for hoseline deployment and advancement, supplying the FDC, and/or operating top-mounted master. 4. The first-arriving Aerial/Ladder/Platform apparatus should position in a fashion that maximizes the use of the aerial device for both laddering and master stream applications. Stretching of hoselines and/or FDC hook-up from these apparatus should be a secondary consideration when spotting these trucks. 23 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES 5. The apparatus should be spotted to allow the driver to supply the FDC with two 3” lines. Inability to supply the FDC, such as damaged female couplings, blocked access, etc., must be relayed to the IC and the attack hose team immediately; and actions should be taken to supply the system via a first floor outlet or test header if PRVs are present. 6. Placing the initial hoseline into service to attack the fire is often the most important function of this crew; controlling the fire typically saves more lives than any other action taken on the fireground. Nothing should deter the first- arriving suppression from placing the initial attack line into service, except an imminent rescue need. Even then, the suppression officer must determine whether extinguishing the fire is still the best course of action. If an imminent rescue is to be performed, the situation must be reported immediately via radio so that the second-arriving suppression unit can assume the task of placing the initial attack line in service. 7. Once the hoseline has controlled the fire, attention must be placed on conducting a primary search if it is not underway or complete. Due to the limited size of most apartments, the hose crew can often conduct the primary search of the involved fire apartment. 8. Standard Starting FDC Pressure – unless posted at FDCs, the FDC should be pumped at the following as a rule of thumb: a. 150 psi for fire on floors up to the 10th floor b. 200 psi for fire on floors 11 to 20 c. 250 psi for fire on floors 21 to 30 d. 300 psi for fire on floors 31 to 40 NOTE: The only way to determine proper operating pressure is to flow the attack line while reading the in-line gauge and judging the quality of the stream. 9. To accurately calculate elevation (a.k.a. head pressure), multiply by 5 psi per floor for old residential or 6 psi per floor for new residential and commercial. 24 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES 10. In the event of a building’s fire pump failure or a building with PRVs, a fire department apparatus pumping an FDC must exceed the head pressure of the entire height of the standpipe to force open the one-way check valve just to get water into the system. 11. With regard to older buildings, be careful not to over- pressurize standpipe systems in order to prevent rupturing of pipes or seals at pipe joints. In buildings without PRVs, calculate FDC pressures at minimum up to the fire floor and maybe a level or two above. D. Second-Arriving Suppression 1. Water supply needs for even a routine apartment fire generally exceed the booster tank capacities of the first two suppression units. Therefore, the second-due suppression must conduct a water supply evolution unless directed otherwise by the IC. Exceptions to this rule apply if: a. The first suppression is an aerial positioning for ladder use and not supplying the FDC. b. The first suppression has already or is in the process of supplying itself. c. The second-arriving suppression is an aerial apparatus; and/or unforeseen situation where the IC determines this apparatus and/or crew is better utilized elsewhere. 2. The hydrant supply evolution of forward, reverse, or split lay will be dependent upon several incident-particular factors. When possible, the supply evolution should not position hose or apparatus in a fashion that unduly blocks access to later-arriving apparatus. 3. Upon the completion of the water supply evolution, or if simultaneously possible, this crew should equip themselves with the hose and equipment that will prepare them to assist the first attack crew with: a. Advancing and/or extending the initial attack line. 25 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES b. Placing a second attack line into service. c. Beginning or assisting with the search of the fire apartment, adjacent units, or the fire floor. d. Checking for extension and preliminary overhaul. e. Beginning horizontal natural ventilation only as directed by the IC. f. Second-arriving driver/operator assists first driver/operator with FDC hook up utilizing two 3” lines. g. Later-arriving apparatus drivers can be considered to: i. Ensure that post indicator valves and OS&Y valves on the building’s backflow prevention device are open. ii. Enter the fire pump room and check fire pump discharge pressure gauge and maximum (churn pressure) on the pump specification plate. iii. Confirm that the pump is operational and manually start it as needed. iv. Confirm that the fire pump’s suction and discharge valves are open. NOTE: Drivers may have to coordinate with Lobby Control or building representatives to obtain keys in order to access pump rooms. E. Third-Arriving Suppression 1. In the absence of specific orders from Command, this unit should stand by at the nearest appropriate water source and prepare for a supply evolution. However, this should have been accomplished by the second-arriving suppression unless there was an imminent need for another task. When a water supply has been established, this crew should remain flexible to assume any of the following functions as directed by the IC: 26 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES a. Assignment to the fire floor to assist with attack, search, or ventilation. b. Assignment to floors above to engage or assist in attack, search, or ventilation. c. A 360/walk-around if not already done. This may have to be modified for large structures. d. Pressurization of stairwells with PPV fans. e. Creating a secondary means of egress when possible. f. Assume Lobby Control functions. g. Overall structure ventilation coordinated with the attack crew(s) and occupant egress. h. Placement of ground and/or aerial ladders. i. Patient care duties under a Medical Group or Branch. j. Salvage and overhaul. k. Establish a staging area two or more floors below the fire. l. Report to upper floor staging areas for logistical support (i.e., additional equipment, SCBA cylinders) and/or stand by as tactical reserve or immediate relief of operating companies. F. Later-Arriving Units 1. These units will generally be assigned to assist with those tasks listed above that are currently underway or begin those that have not been initiated and are in need of completion. 2. One of these companies should be prepared to assume NFPA 1500 compliant Rapid Intervention Crew (RIC) functions if they are not already assigned to another crew. 27 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES a. RICs should stage two or more floors below the fire floor for immediate activation as needed. Upon arrival to this location, teams should immediately familiarize themselves with specific apartment number locations and layouts. b. When operating in large structures with extensive hallways and multiple stairwells, the IC may consider creating additional RICs to stage in multiple locations on upper floors to reduce reflex time. RICs will need to bring additional equipment to include SCBA cylinders. Refer to SOP I-B-16 Rapid Intervention Crew (RIC). 3. Duties for drivers of later-arriving suppression companies: a. Be prepared to don PPE and SCBA to accompany their crew for deployment on upper floors. b. Gather positive pressure fans and spare SCBA cylinders from all apparatus and bring them to the front lobby entrance. c. If assigned to duties away from the apparatus for prolonged periods, ensure that it is parked in a safe, secure location that does not impede other vehicular traffic. G. Later-Arriving Rescues 1. The first-arriving rescue will likely be committed to fire suppression or Lobby Control activities. Later-arriving Rescues should be prepared to assume medical or rehab duties. NOTE: Structures with a high occupancy of elderly or physically impaired residents will require more resources than normal for possible evacuation/treatment of smoke inhalation or burn victims. 2. To reduce reflex time, consider sending subsequent- arriving Rescue personnel with EMS equipment, stretchers, and stair chairs to stage in a forward position (likely two floors below the fire) to immediately receive patients, including injured Fire Department personnel. 28 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES IV. TACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS A. Command and Control 1. Due to the potential for unseen fire conditions and long reflex times, incoming units should not be directed to stage outside of a high-rise complex. All units on the initial dispatch should anticipate being given an assignment immediately upon arrival. 2. High-rise fires may become an MCI due to a large number of possible victims. The IC should consider the creation of appropriate Medical Groups (Triage, Treatment, and Transport) as needed. 3. Police will play a critical role in occupant and vehicular traffic control, as well as scene preservation. When security has been breached in one or multiple units, utilize police in a manner that controls and verifies occupant re- entry to prevent possible theft. 4. Generally, a working apartment fire in a high-rise will require the immediate assignment of three companies to the fire floor. Assigning the first two suppressions and first rescue to the fire floor will provide sufficient personnel to begin attack and searches on that floor. 5. The IC must be prepared to combine units in order to successfully complete manpower-intensive tasks such as initial attack line deployment. Ensure adequate tactical reserve is available in Staging in order to quickly relieve personnel on assigned tasks. Attempting fire attack without such reserve can result in a dangerous interruption in suppression activities. 6. When multiple crews are operating on the same floor, the IC should establish Divisions that correspond with floor numbers (i.e., 9th floor = Division 9). Once created, a Division Supervisor to manage operating crews should be assigned. Typically, this will be assigned to a Battalion Chief, but the IC can designate any officer. 7. Established Division or Group responsibilities may overlap, creating the need to coordinate efforts. 29 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES Example: A smoke condition on multiple floors and stairwells may necessitate the establishment of a Ventilation Group to oversee this task. However, the initial ventilation of the fire floor and/or fire apartment may fall under the Division Supervisor on the fire floor. A similar condition may exist with search duties. Likewise, if the needs for ventilation and/or search are confined to a limited number of floors, there may be little need to establish a Group if the Division Supervisor(s) are in place. 8. The Staging Area should be located two or more floors below the fire for tactical reserve, RIC, Rehab, and other resources. A Staging Manager will be assigned to keep track of personnel and resources located in this area. This Staging Area inside the building is not to be confused with Base, which is an exterior area for resources not available for immediate deployment. 9. Initial arriving Battalion Chiefs may establish a Command Post in their vehicle or in the lobby. Determination of this location is based on fire location, structural stability, lobby conditions, weather, view of the incident, and communications. 10. A working fire in a high-rise frequently requires more resources than are dispatched on the initial alarm. The IC is encouraged to request a second alarm as soon as the need is anticipated. Often, this is as soon as a true working fire is discovered. 11. The second-arriving Battalion Chief should be prepared to proceed to upper floors in full PPE after communicating with the IC. This Chief should assume a position on the fire floor or floor below as needed to maximize effectiveness in controlling operations and personnel accountability. 12. Additional Battalion Chiefs should be assigned as follows in order of priority: Divisions/Groups, Safety Officer(s), and Planning Section Chief. 13. Once determined that there are sufficient hoselines for fire attack/exposure protection, the next priority as it pertains to equipment is delivery of SCBA cylinders. Personnel ascending to upper floors should carry at least two SCBA cylinders and drop them off at Staging. 30 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES 14. Hose, tools, and equipment not in use by firefighters must not be placed in stairwells due to tripping hazards and potentially falling down well openings. Secure unused equipment in a safe location two or more floors below. B. Strategy 1. An offensive strategy is generally the mode of operation at high-rise fires unless the fire has already progressed to a point of structural instability, volume of fire exceeds our suppression capability, or wind causing blow torch conditions. NOTE: A stream from an engine-mounted deck gun can reach as high as the 15th floor. When appropriate, consider an exterior transitional attack to quickly knock down fire in conjunction with an interior attack. This can be accomplished by the driver of one of the initial attack apparatus. 2. When a defensive strategy is employed, and the fire is above the reach of exterior streams, the IC is faced with five (5) defensive options: a. Operate portable master stream devices from the relative safety of the stairwells. b. Allow the fire to burn out. This may be a viable option if the fire is on the top floor. If there are multiple floors between the top floor and fire floor, this may not be an option if structural integrity is in question. c. Apply defensive streams from balconies, adjacent buildings, or ground level from apparatus-mounted devices. d. Attack the fire indirectly by directing streams through walls breached in adjoining apartments. e. If available, lower a Bresnan nozzle from above and position it in front of visible fire. 3. Due to the inherent dangers of vacant/abandoned structures, a careful risk vs. benefit analysis should be 31 Rev. 6/16/22 Volume: I STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Chapter: B RESPONSE PROCEDURES Subject: 4 HIGH-RISE FIRES conducted prior to interior operations. Accordingly, companies performing search and rescue must determine if occupants are safer in their units rather than evacuated into smoke-filled environments. 4. In the event of potential structural compromise, total evacuation may be required. Establishment of collapse or no-entry zones and/or flanking positions must be considered. C. Rescue 1. The presence of occupants in danger is the priority at high-rise fires. It is critical to determine occupant status and take appropriate action to protect them. Assume all structures are occupied until determined otherwise. 2. Due to building construction features, fire protection system activation, and inherent limitations when evacuating high-rise structures, a “protect in place” strategy is generally recommended, particularly if hallways or stairwells are filled with smoke. 3. After beginning attack on the fire, an aggressive primary search that first targets the bedrooms and means of egress of the fire compartment will give any trapped occupants the greatest chance of survival. Due to the limited size of most apartments, the initial hose team can generally complete the primary search of the fire apartment. Thermal i