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SCIENCE 10 1st Quarter, A.Y. 2024-2025 ⓒ Charlize Cassandra S. Carreon Do not copy, cite, or distribute without permission of the author. Epicenter is the location on the...

SCIENCE 10 1st Quarter, A.Y. 2024-2025 ⓒ Charlize Cassandra S. Carreon Do not copy, cite, or distribute without permission of the author. Epicenter is the location on the surface of the earth directly above TECTONIC PLATES where the earthquake starts The earth’s crust is divided into 12 major plates which are moved in MOUNTAIN BELTS various directions The plate motion causes them to Mountains are usually formed when collide, pull apart, or scrape against two plates collide and push the each other. Earth’s crust upwards Each type of interaction causes tectonic features The word “Tectonic” refers to the PHIVOLCS deformation of the crust as a Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology consequence of plate interaction ★ Plates are made of rigid Key Roles lithosphere, which is made up ○ Monitoring and Prediction – of the crust and the upper part continuously monitor volcanic of the mantle activity, earthquake ★ Below the lithosphere is the occurrences, and sea-level asthenosphere changes ○ Warning and Alert Systems – PLATE MOVEMENTS issue timely warnings and alerts to government agencies, local Plates of the lithosphere are moved authorities, and the public around by the underlying hot mantle develop and maintain convection cells early warning systems ○ Risk Assessment and Mitigation – conduct hazard VOLCANOES assessments to identify areas prone to volcanic eruptions, Often found at the edges of these earthquakes, and tsunamis plates provide Commonly seen in divergent recommendations for boundaries mitigation plans ○ Public Education and EARTHQUAKE EPICENTERS Awareness – conduct educational campaigns to increase public awareness about Earthquakes happen when plates hazards and how to respond to push against each other. These are them seen in transform boundaries SCIENCE 10 1st Quarter, A.Y. 2024-2025 ⓒ Charlize Cassandra S. Carreon Do not copy, cite, or distribute without permission of the author. provide training to disaster management personnel NDRRMC ○ Research and Development – National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management conduct research to improve Council understanding of volcanic, seismic, and tsunami processes ★ Key Roles: develop new ○ Policy Formulation and technologies for Coordination – develops monitoring and national disaster risk reduction prediction and management plans and policies Specific Actions: Coordinates the efforts of different government Volcanic 1. Monitors active volcanoes for agencies, private sector, Eruptions signs of unrest and civil society disaster 2. Issues eruption alerts and management warnings ○ Disaster Preparedness – 3. Provides guidance on conducts disaster risk evacuation and preparedness assessments and vulnerability 4. Studies volcanic hazards like analyses lava flows, ashfall, and pyroclastic flows Implements preparedness programs, Earthquakes 1. Monitors seismic activity to including training and identify earthquake-prone capacity building areas Ensures availability of 2. Issues earthquake intensity maps and damage resources and equipment assessments for disaster response 3. Provides information on ○ Disaster Response – activates earthquake preparedness and emergency response building codes mechanism during disasters Coordinates relief and Tsunamis 1. Monitors sea level changes to detect potential tsunamis rescue operations 2. Issues tsunami warnings and Provides immediate advisories assistance to affected 3. Conducts tsunami populations inundation modeling to ○ Disaster Recovery and identify vulnerable areas Rehabilitation – leads recovery and rehabilitation efforts Assists in the restoration of damaged SCIENCE 10 1st Quarter, A.Y. 2024-2025 ⓒ Charlize Cassandra S. Carreon Do not copy, cite, or distribute without permission of the author. infrastructure and livelihoods PLATE BOUNDARIES Supports the rebuilding of disaster-resilient communities A plate boundary is the edge or boundary where two tectonic plates ★ Specific Actions meet. Since the earth’s crust is divided into several plates, they interact at their boundaries whenever they move Coordination of 1. Acts as the central which may cause various geological Response command and control activities. center for disaster response operations 2. Deploys rescue and CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES relief teams to affected areas 3. Coordinates the The tectonic plates collide distribution of relief goods With two tectonic plates that collide and services towards each other, one plate eventually slides beneath the other Resource 1. Manages the allocation ○ This process is called Allocation of resources for disaster response and recovery subduction 2. Coordinates with donors ○ The leading edge of the and partners for additional subducted plate will eventually support reach the mantle causing it to melt and turn into magma Damage 1. Conducts rapid damage Assessment assessments to determine Converging oceanic plates will cause the extent of the disaster formation of trenches. 2. Provides information to support relief and recovery ★ TYPES OF CONVERGENT efforts BOUNDARIES Public 1. Disseminates Information information about the 1. Oceanic-Continental disaster situation Convergence – the most 2. Provides guidance to common type of convergence in the public on safety which the denser oceanic plate precautions and is forced beneath the less dense emergency procedures continental plate This process is called subduction As the oceanic plate sinks into the mantle, it melts and generates magma, SCIENCE 10 1st Quarter, A.Y. 2024-2025 ⓒ Charlize Cassandra S. Carreon Do not copy, cite, or distribute without permission of the author. which rises to the surface DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES and forms volcanoes along the edge of the continent The tectonic plates pull apart A deep ocean trench Creates a new crust as magma rises to often forms at the the surface subduction zone This either happens at mid ocean e.g. The Andes Mountains ridges (seafloor spreading) or at rifted in South America, The continental margins Cascade Range in North Earthquakes are common; as magma America rises from the Earth’s mantle to the surface, it solidifies and creates a new 2. Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence crust – two oceanic plates collide with one usually older, colder, and ★ TYPES OF DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES denser than the other where this denser plate subducts 1. Oceanic Divergent Boundaries beneath the less dense plate Mid-ocean ridges: the As the subducted plate most common type of melts, magma rises to the divergent boundary surface, forming a chain These are underwater of volcanic islands called mountain ranges formed a volcanic island arc by the upwelling of A deep ocean trench magma as tectonic plates forms at the subduction move apart zone e.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge, e.g. The Aleutian Islands, East Pacific Rise The Japanese Islands 2. Continental Divergent 3. Continental-Continental Boundaries Convergence – two continental Continental Rifts: the plates collide and neither one continental crust is pulled subducts, instead the plates apart by divergent forces crumple and fold resulting the Over time, these rifts can creation of massive mountain evolve into new ocean ranges basins. This process is e.g. East African Rift accompanied by intense Valley, The Red Sea earthquakes e.g. The Himalayas, The Alps SCIENCE 10 1st Quarter, A.Y. 2024-2025 ⓒ Charlize Cassandra S. Carreon Do not copy, cite, or distribute without permission of the author. ★ KEY FEATURES OF DIVERGENT divergent boundary, resulting in BOUNDARIES the uplifting of ocean floors ○ Seafloor Spreading: The process of creating new oceanic crust at 2. Ridge-Trench Boundaries – these divergent boundaries occur when a trench meets a ridge ○ Mid-ocean Ridge: Underwater and it creates a boundary where the mountain ranges formed by the creation (new) and destruction (old) of upwelling of magma the crust are happening close to one ○ Rift Valleys: The product of another continental crust stretching and Trench is a deep elongated breaking apart cavity bordering a continent or ○ Volcanic Activity: Common due an island arc, formed when one to the upwelling of magma tectonic plate slides beneath the ○ Shallow earthquakes: Frequent other but generally less intense than Ridge is the underwater those at convergent boundaries mountain range that criss-cross the oceans TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES 3. Trench-Trench Boundaries – two subduction zones are connected A plate boundary where the motion of The denser and older plate is the plates is predominantly horizontal subducted beneath the lighter and the two plates are sliding past plate and deep into the mantle, each other. causing the seafloor and the Natural or human-made structures outermost crust (lithosphere) to that cross a transform boundary are bend offset, split into pieces and carried in opposite directions Rocks that line the boundary are THE LAYERS OF THE EARTH pulverized as plates grind along, creating a linear fault or undersea The earth is divided into three main canyon layers, namely the crust, the mantle, and the core ★ TYPES OF TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES Understanding the different layers of the Earth helps us learn about what 1. Ridge-Ridge Boundaries – two mid the earth is made of, how it is ocean ridges are connected by a structured, and how it behaves transform fault. convection currents in the mantle beneath the oceanic crust and create magma where two tectonic plates meet at a SCIENCE 10 1st Quarter, A.Y. 2024-2025 ⓒ Charlize Cassandra S. Carreon Do not copy, cite, or distribute without permission of the author. DENSITY The crust is the least CRUST dense layer of the earth, with an average density of about 2.7-3.0 grams per The outermost layer of the Earth cubic centimeter. It is the thinnest layer, ranging from about five (5) to seventy (70) kilometers in thickness MANTLE It is the layer we live on and where all of Earth’s land and water are found The layer beneath the crust It is the thickest layer 1. Continental Crust – the thicker layer of the Earth’s crust found under the 1. Upper Mantle – this includes a partially continents molten layer called the asthenosphere, About thirty-five (35) kilometers which allows the tectonic plates above thick it to move 2. Oceanic Crust – the thinner layer of 2. Lower Mantle – this is more solid and the Earth’s crust found under the less mobile due to intense pressure ocean basins About seven (7) kilometers thick STATE The mantle is mostly solid, but it can flow very slowly over long periods of time, THICKNESS The crust varies in similar to how silly putty thickness. Oceanic crust is behaves. about 5-10 kilometers COMPOSITION It is made up of iron and thick, while the magnesium rich silicate continental crust can be rocks. up to 30-50 kilometers thick. TEMPERATURE Temperatures in the mantle range from about COMPOSITION The crust is made up of 400°C near the crust to solid rocks and minerals. over 4,000°C near the Oceanic crust is core. composed mainly of basalt, while continental DENSITY The mantle’s density crust consists of lighter increases with depth, rocks like granite. ranging from about 3.3 to 5.7 grams per cubic TEMPERATURE At the surface, centimeter. temperature varies widely; at the bottom of the crust, temperatures can reach about 200-400°C SCIENCE 10 1st Quarter, A.Y. 2024-2025 ⓒ Charlize Cassandra S. Carreon Do not copy, cite, or distribute without permission of the author. Composed of solid iron and nickel CORE The core is the innermost layer of the STATE The inner core is solid due to the immense pressure Earth, situated beneath the mantle at the center of the Earth. 1. Outer Core – a liquid layer composed COMPOSITION It is composed mainly of of mainly molten iron and nickel. iron and nickel, but in a It has a thickness of 2,300 solid state kilometers SIZE The inner core has a Below the mantle lies the outer radius of about 1,220 core which is a layer of liquid kilometers. metal surrounding the inner core. TEMPERATURE Estimated to be about 5,400°C to 6,700°C, similar This layer plays a crucial role in to the surface of the Sun. generating Earth’s magnetic field DENSITY The inner core is the densest part of the Earth, with a density of about STATE The outer core is liquid, 12.6−13.0 grams per cubic primarily composed of centimeter iron and nickel, with small amounts of other elements. THICKNESS The outer core extends EARTH AS A SYSTEM from about 2,900-5,150 kilometers below the ★ Understanding the layers of the Earth earth’s surface. helps us appreciate our planet as a TEMPERATURE Temperatures in the outer complex, dynamic system. Each layer core range from about interacts with the others, influencing 4,400°C to 6,100°C processes from the deepest parts of the planet to the surface where we live. DENSITY The outer core has a By studying these layers, scientists can density of about 10-12 grams per cubic better understand earthquakes, centimeter. volcanoes, the Earth's magnetic field, and even the history and future of our planet. As we continue to explore and 2. Inner Core – the inner core is the solid, learn about Earth's interior, we gain a central part of the Earth. deeper appreciation for the intricate Has a radius of about 1,220 processes that make our planet unique kilometers and habitable.