Introduction To Educational Research For Social Sciences PDF

AN INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH FOR SOCIAL SCIENCES PART 1 WHAT IS RESEARCH ? Research = solve problems that have no known solution in the current context. Research is NOT learning from books, papers, news reports, experts…. Anything that can be learned, by definition, is not a research. Se...

AN INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH FOR SOCIAL SCIENCES PART 1 WHAT IS RESEARCH ? Research = solve problems that have no known solution in the current context. Research is NOT learning from books, papers, news reports, experts…. Anything that can be learned, by definition, is not a research. Searching online is NOT a research. Why do research ? Understand the world Solve the problems Improve existing solutions WHAT IS RESEARCH? Abstract Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Bibliography Appendix Definition of research  Research is a scientific way of answering questions.  Research is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon that we are concerned or interested.  Educational Research is all about addressing an issue or asking and answering a question or solving a problem related to education. 3 INQUIRY METHODS IN RESEARCH  POSITIVIST Numerical analysis and emphasizes the accuracy of research evidence.  INTERPRETATIVE Using verbal descriptive data, observation/ interview. Examines in depth the characteristics of the subjects.  CRITICAL To improve social conditions of mankind. The findings are valid if the researchers can improve the social situations. (Chua,2012) Steps of conducting scientific Method Identifying the problem/area of interest. Generate Research Objectives/Questions. Formulating a hypothesis. Developing the research plan. Collecting and analyzing the data. Accept/reject hypothesis. Interpreting results and forming conclusions.  Research classification System 1 Basic research Applied research System 2 Quantitative research Qualitative research System 3 Experimental research Non-experimental research  System 1 BASIC RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH Developing and testing theories Central purpose is to solve and hypotheses that are immediate problem. intellectually challenging. Improved products or processes. Pure, fundamental research. Always done on the basis of basic Discovery of new knowledge; research. theoretical in nature. Takes many years for the results of basic research to find some practical utility.  System 2 QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE Structured approach Non numerical data Numerical, measurable data Observations of a natural setting Clearly stated questions In-depth descriptions of situations. Testing hypothesis Interpretive and descriptive Large samples Ethnography Statistical analysis Phenomenology variables Discourse analysis Grounded theory DECIDE ON YOUR RESEARCH APPROACH Experimental/ quasi Quantitative Correlational Survey Causal comparative Descriptive qualitative Ethnography Qualitative Phenomenology Grounded theory Case study Mixed- Combine both methods methods  System 3 EXPERIMENTAL NON EXPERIMENTAL Independent variable and Causal- comparative Dependent variable Descriptive Cause and Effect Correlational Extraneous variable controls Historical Control group vs Experimental group  The effect of time management program on students’ academic achievement. EXPERIMENTAL GROUP CONTROL GROUP Expose to time management program No treatment Serve as a baseline Random assignment control vs experimental Independent and dependent variable Cause and effect An overview of Research Designs Action research Experimental Correlational Causal comparative Descriptive qualitative Ethnography Survey Historical Case study Can You suggest a title for this study…  Criteria for a good research title Should be feasible (can be done). Interesting, novel, ethical and relevant. What, why, when, who, how ? Identify your research area Research Research Objectives Research title problem Research Questions  Teachers and school are facing Research problem the problem of disruptive behaviour among secondary school students. To examine the contexts of disruptive behaviour among secondary school students Research Objective (RO). (RO)/Question(RQ) What are the contexts of destructive behaviour among secondary school students? (RQ) The Contexts of Disruptive Research Title Behaviour Among Secondary School Students Research Isolation in the online learning problem environment To examine the students’ perceptions on the Research social presence in the online learning Objective environment (RO) (RO)/Question What are the students’ perceptions on the (RQ) social presence in the online learning environment?(RQ) The Issues and Challenges Research Title in an Online Learning Environment. End of Chapter 1 Part 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PART 2 Steps in identifying Research Problem Identify a Identify the Outline areas Choose a Narrow your Research purpose of of interest topic topic problem your study Always start with a PROBLEM  Analogy – Problem Statement In Research i. State the ideal situation - I am supposed to be healthy to live a fulfilled life. ii. State the current situation - however I am not well at all iii. State measures that have been put in place over time to solve the problem- I have taken different medications including…, I have even tried herbal medicines and alternative. iv. State the persistence of the problem - yet, I have not felt any better, instead it is increasing. v. State the effects of the problem - I can’t concentrate , I can’t eat very well, I can’t sleep very well (these are the effects on the person), effects on others may include: my sickness constrains my family members etc. vi. State the reason for the research - I feel that this sickness may be severe or even kill me if I don’t find lasting solutions to it. I feel that a way of finding solutions to it by consulting a specialist about my sickness. vii) State the gap in knowledge - although people have similar cases to my own but they have often used different methods to treat their own sicknesses, but I feel that using this method will make a more significant difference from the methods previously used by others. viii) Conclude your statement - it is because of all I have said that I came to you for a solution to my problem.  Identifying Research Problem QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE Measure variables Learn about views of individuals Assess the impact of these Assess a process over time. variables on an outcome Generate theories based on Test theories participant perspectives Apply result to large people Obtain detailed information about a few people or research sites.  How to write Statement of the Problem Five tips i. Topic ii. The research problem iii. Justifications of or the importance of the problem as found in past researches and practices. iv. The deficiencies in our existing knowledge about the problem. v. The audiences that will benefit from the study of the problem.  i)Topic Opening sentences are significant – attract readers. State the topic in the title and introduce it in the first sentence. Example : Inhibitors to implementing a problem solving Approach to teaching Elementary Science: Case study of a Teacher in Change (Mary Lee Martens, 2012) Research Problem : The problem solving mode of teaching elementary science now recommended in many states implies change for many group of professionals including teachers, administrators, and other individuals charge with implementing educational policy. Teacher however…… The first sentence = narrative hooks  Statistical data (more than 79 percent….)  A provocative question (Why do school policies banned handphones?)  A clear need for research (School suspension is drawing increased attention among scholars in teacher education)  The intent or purpose of the study (The intent of this study is to examine how clients….)  ii) The Research Problem Narrow down the topic to a specific research problem/issue. Research problem is an educational issue, concern or controversy that the researcher is interested to investigate. Single sentence or couple of sentences What types of research problem? Practical research problem vs research-based research problem. APPLYING DEDUCTIVE METHOD  iii) Justification of The Importance of The Problem Citing evidences from other researchers or experts. Citing evidences from experiences others have had. Citing evidence from personal experiences. iv) Deficiencies in What we Know Summarize our present state of knowledge (from research and practice). A Deficiency in the evidence means past literature and practical experiences of the researchers do not adequately address the problem. Deficiency in research may require a need to extend/replicate. Deficiency in practice means that the educators have not yet identified good and workable solutions.  v) Audiences Consists of individuals and groups who will read and potentially benefit from the research study. Flow of ideas in a “Statement of the Problem” Subject area Topic E.g. : Ethical issue in colleges A concern/issue/needs solutions Research problem E.g. : Ethical violations among students Evidence from literature/practical experiences justification E.g. : Past literature has not identified these violations Flow of ideas in a “ Statement of the Problem” In this body of literature, what is missing/what do we need to know more E.g. : we need a description that identifies and categorizes these Deficiencies violations Relating the discussion to the audiences E.g. : provides the basis for assessing violations Audiences How to develop Research Objective(RO) and Research Question(RQ)?  Tips to develop RO and RQ PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS TOPIC: What are disruptive behaviours? Disruptive behaviour among What happened? secondary school students. When does it happen? To Whom? When does IT not happen? For whom is it a Problem? Why is it a Problem to them? How can one tell if it is a problem? #useWHQuestions  List of Questions that you need to ask yourself? What is my Research Approach? What is my Research Design? Who will be my sample/ respondents/ participants? Why are these people my sample/ respondents/ participants? Why not others? How will I select them? How do I get access to them? Procedure? What instrument will I use (instrument)? What is my research technique? Why do I select this technique?  Research Objective (RO) & Research Question(RQ) RESEARCH OBJECTIVES RESEARCH QUESTIONS Should be clear, achievable and Tally with RO verifiable RQ gives clearer ideas of your research In the form of actions (verb) E.g. to discover, determine, establish, compare, analyse, evaluate etc. What do we expect to achieve by the end of the research?  Quantitative Research Objectives and Research Questions To examine the factors that affect What are the factors that affect the the level of motivation of the level of motivation of the teachers? teachers. Is there a significant difference in To investigate the difference in motivation level between teachers motivation level between teachers in private and public schools? in private and public schools Is there a significant difference in To compare the level of motivation level of motivation between male of male and female teachers of and female teachers of private and private and public schools public schools?  Qualitative Research Objectives and Research Questions To find out disciplinary problems that What are the disciplinary problems excellent teachers encounter in their encountered by excellent teachers in their classroom. classroom? To investigate the strategies that excellent How do excellent teachers manage the teachers use and implement in the strategies and implement them in classroom in managing their students’ managing their students’ disciplinary disciplinary problems in the classroom. problems in the classroom? To find out excellent teachers’ perspectives concerning management of implemented strategies. What are the perspectives of excellent teachers in managing the implemented To investigate sources of the strategies strategies? used to manage students’ behaviour in the classroom What are the sources of their strategies used to manage students’ behaviour in the classroom?  Hypothesis and Theory Hypothesis A belief or prediction of the final outcome of the research. A concrete, specific statement about the relationships between phenomena. Based on deductive reasoning. Theory A belief or assumption about how things relate to each other A theory establishes a cause and effect relationship between variables with the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena. Based on inductive reasoning.  Null (Ho) and Alternate Hypotheses (Ha) The flow of a Research (Quantitative Approach) TOPIC PROBLEM RO RQ HYPOTHESIS Disruptive Secondary school To examine a Is there a significant HO: There is NO significant difference in behaviour among teachers were difference in the difference in the the level of burnout secondary school burnout due to level of burnout level of burnout between male and female students disruptive between male and between male and teachers due to students’ behaviour among female teachers female teachers destructive behaviour secondary school due to students’ due to students’ HA: There is a significant students. destructive destructive difference in the level of behaviour. behaviour? burnout between male and female teachers due to students’ destructive behaviour End of Chapter 1 Part 2 AN INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PART 3  LET US BEGIN OUR ACADEMIC WRITE UP FOR CHAPTER 1 PRACTICAL GUIDELINES FOR NOVICE RESEACHERS  Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction Introduction to the topic  ELABORATE on the IMPORTANCE, REASONS AND GENERAL PURPOSE of your research (in general).  Last paragraph focusses on the Introduction to Chapter 1 (e.g. subtopics being covered) 1.2 Background of the study Outline the history of the subject matter under investigation Write on the evolution of the research problem Describe specific situation surrounding the research problem-using fact from the literature or empirical observation. Use all obtainable evidences to establish groundwork There is no standard number of pages but should be well focused 1.3 Research Problem Refer to my previous slides (Part 1 and 2) 1.4 Research Objectives (Part 1 and 2) 1.5 Research Questions (Part 1 and 2) 1.6 Research Hypotheses (Part 1 and 2) 1.7 Significant of the study Something new to contribute to knowledge Clarify the possible benefits of the research – to whom  Can be arranged sequentially or itemized 1.8 Scope/ Delimitations of the study Level of coverage (sample, time length, survey item, construct) 1.9 Limitations  Weaknesses of the study – beyond the control of the researchers( inaccuracies of the respondents’ perceptions, the limitations of the instrument, sampling procedure e.g. :purposive sampling) 1.10 Operational definition of Terms Variable is operationalize way in which the attribute is represented for further data processing. How do we measure? What does it mean in our research context? 1.11 Conclusion First paragraph - Summary of Chapter 1 Final paragraph - introduce Chapter 2 (guide the readers to follow the sequence). End of Chapter 1 Part 3  CHAPTER 2 Literature Review Part 1  What is a Literature Review (LR)? LR is a synthesis of journal articles, books and other documents.  LR describes the past and current state of information.  LR organizes the literature into topic and justify a need for a proposed study. Where does LR fit into the story of your research? My RO and RQ The I know …. answers about this mean…. issue The I did ….to answers I find the Found…. answers  Why do I engage with LR? To understand the body of knowledge To identify what’s missing in the body of literature Theoretical underpinning for our research Validity of my research To show how my results add to the body of literature. The use of literature review in research approaches Differences Quantitative Qualitative Amount of literature cited substantial Minimal at the beginning of the study Use of literature at the Justify the need for the Justify the need for the beginning of the study study study Provide a rationale for the direction of the study (RO, RQ and Hypotheses) Use of literature at the end Confirms or disconfirms Supports or modifies of the study prior predictions from the existing findings in the literature literature What is your metaphor?  Hosting a Dinner? Your literature review is like inviting guests for a dinner. It is a familiar territory, company and conversation. You have chosen the guests- only limited number Some are people you have known a long time and who are very important to you. Some are new and exciting and have lots of ideas you want to explore more. There may be some lively debate. You have planned the menu and cooked the food. It’s your night….  Take a “hands on hips” position You need to take a position that is friendly but strong : be prepared to extend your authority on the subject but do not be too aggressive You need to be clear about where YOU stand in the field of your work Take charge Make your ideas and arguments central in your LR writeup Frame discussion as debate, and group those who agree or disagree with the concept separately. Lead the readers of your LR by showing the different positions in the field.  LR will be used throughout your Academic Exercise (AE)/Undergraduate Final Year Project. LR provides a rationale for the study. LR justifies your methodology LR links your discussion to past researches. A basic literature review (Common Mistakes) A bad sample of Literature Review i. Introduction ii. Article 1 iii. Article 2 iv. Book 1 v. Proceedings 1 vi. Article 3 vii. Article 4 viii. Summary and conclusions Where are you…. Hello !  Where are You ? Jones (2003) argues that …..He also Paragraph 1 states…….However, he believes……bla bla bla In a recent article, Yang (2009) outlined a new Paragraph 2 method of ….. And found…… She also found….. Bla bla bla Smith (2007) argues that ….. She also states that Paragraph 3 and that….. Bla bla bla….  Common mistakes Writing a summary of each article one by one, paragraph by paragraph without integrating the material. Writing a history of the field and not identifying the major issues Not having a clearly structure A better literature review Finding Your Voice amongst the literature  A good sample of Literature Review i. Introduction ii. Common Theme/Concept/Topic 1 Article 1 Compare Article 2 Article 3 Contrast iii) Common Theme/Concept/Topic Proceedings 1 gaps Article 2 New direction Article 4 Synthesizing Iv) Summary and Conclusions  Student A: Smith (2000) concludes that personal privacy in their living quarters is the most important factor in nursing home residents' perception of their autonomy. He suggests that the physical environment in the more public spaces of the building did not have much impact on their perceptions. Neither the layout of the building, nor the activities available seem to make much difference. Jones and Johnstone make the claim that the need to control one's environment is a fundamental need of life (2001), and suggest that the approach of most institutions, which is to provide total care, may be as bad as no care at all. If people have no choices or think that they have none, they become depressed.  Student B :  After studying residents and staff from two intermediate care facilities in Calgary, Alberta, Smith (2000) came to the conclusion that except for the amount of personal privacy available to residents, the physical environment of these institutions had minimal if any effect on their perceptions of control (autonomy). However, French (1998) and Haroon (2000) found that availability of private areas is not the only aspect of the physical environment that determines residents' autonomy. Haroon interviewed 115 residents from 32 different nursing homes known to have different levels of autonomy (2000). It was found that physical structures, such as standardized furniture, heating that could not be individually regulated, and no possession of a house key for residents limited their feelings of independence. Moreover, Hope (2002), who interviewed 225 residents from various nursing homes, substantiates the claim that characteristics of the institutional environment such as the extent of resources in the facility, as well as its location, are features which residents have indicated as being of great importance to their independence. Structure of the literature review 1 Introduce the problem and context Highlight the development of major concept (focus on areas of agreement, modification of design, tensions and inadequacies Identify the GAP Sum up and link to your research Structure of the literature review 2 Introduce the problem and context 1st theme focus on areas of agreement, modification of design, tensions and inadequacies 2nd theme focus on areas of agreement, modification of design, tensions and inadequacies 3rd theme focus on areas of agreement, modification of design, tensions and inadequacies Identify the GAP Sum up and link to your research Literature mapping End of Chapter 2 Part 1  cHAPTER 2 Literature Review Part 2  THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK(TF) & CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK(CF)  What Is TF and CF? THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Set of interrelated construct, Created by the researcher from a definitions, and prepositions that variety of conceptual/theoretical presents a systematic view of perspectives phenomena. Researcher's own position on a problem after his exposure to various theories (bearing on the problem). Existing and well developed theory Located in both quantitative and qualitative Establish the main variables and methodology clearly. Located mainly in quantitative  THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Broader concept. Narrower scope. General, less structured, loosely Very specific, definite structure. defined. No ambiguity in definition. Derived from existed theories. Derived from concepts, specific variables that may be identified Provide basic foundation for a in the study. research. Provide structure and paradigm It is the starting point of the for research analysis. discussion, make readers aware of the research situation. It lies in the entire commencement of the study. Theoretical framework Example of Conceptual Framework This conceptual Parenting styles framework was based on Bronfenbrenner's theory Individual Profile Social Level of self interaction esteem Writing a Comprehensive Literature Review  Writing a review 3 Steps process Step 1: Gather and analyse Sources Choose your source/ take note Identify the main aims and contributions of the articles Identify current trends and gaps in research Keep track of where the information is coming from Ask the following questions. What was the main aim of the article? What does the article contribute to your research? What are the interesting points/problems that you can identify?  Step 2: Evaluate the article and synthesize your understandings Evaluate the articles What are the main strengths or limitations of researches identified in the article? What are the most important challenges or new findings relevant to your topic? Organise your thoughts: Draft an outline of your main ideas. Make a note of the important points (refer to LR matrix) Make sure you understand your LR system What are the interesting points/problems/findings that you can identify?  Step 3: Draft and polish your review/write up Transform your ideas and outline of your review How would you like to introduce the topic? Do the ideas tell a coherent story? Does the order of ideas need to be changed? Write, rewrite and polish Transform a cluster of relevant information into a paragraph Divide complex ideas into smaller paragraphs Pay attention to meaning and flow Proofread your final draft carefully  Example of LR matrix RQ 1 :What are the contexts of destructive behaviour among secondary school students Ahmad 2016 Ramdan Chan Pick Rahimah David 2019 2017 2017 2018 Research Approach Research Design Location Situation Context of disruptive behaviour Point 1 Point 2 Point 3  Example of LR matrix RQ 2 : Is there a significant difference in the level of burnout between male and female teachers due to students’ destructive behaviour? Karim 2016 Bakar 2017 Chan Pick 2017 Hamimah 2018 David 2019 Research Approach Research Design Location Situation Different between male and female teachers Point 1 Point 2 Point 3 Several examples for LR matrix  Research Question 1 Title Author Year Objectives Findings limitations  Research Question 2 Title Author Year Objectives Findings limitations  Research Question 3 Title Author Year Objectives Findings limitations End of Chapter 2 Part 2  CHAPTER 2 Literature Review Part 3  LET US BEGIN OUR ACADEMIC WRITE UP FOR CHAPTER 2 PRACTICAL GUIDELINES FOR NOVICE RESEACHERS  Examples of Syntactic borrowing This study builds on and attributes to work in ___________. Although studies in ___________ have examined ________ there has not bees an __________. As such, this study provides additional insight into _________. The analytical focus on __________ contributes to the body of knowledge by _________. This study analyses __________ in the context of _______. Although numerous study (……………………) have identified ______________ little analytical attention has been paid to _______________. I address this issue by demonstrating __________.  Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Theoretical Background 2.3 General Issues of the research topic 2.3.1 RQ 1* (Make your ideas and arguments central & Frame discussion as debate) 2.3.2 RQ 2* (Make your ideas and arguments central & Frame discussion as debate) 2.3.3 RQ 3*(Make your ideas and arguments central & Frame discussion as debate) 2.3.4 RQ 4* (Make your ideas and arguments central & Frame discussion as debate) * The arrangement of the subtopic can be based either on your research RQs or variables measured in your research. 2.4 Conceptual Framework 2.5 Conclusion Conclusion to the chapter, Summary of what has been done in the chapter , Indication of what is to be done in the next chapter Type of citation First citation in text Subsequent Bracketed format- Bracketed format- citations in text first citation in text subsequent citations in text One work by Fry (2009) Fry (2009) (Fry, 2009) (Fry, 2009) one author One work by Fry and Jacklin Fry and Jacklin (Fry & Jacklin, (Fry & Jacklin, two authors (2009) (2009) 2009) 2009) One work by Fry, Jacklin and Fry et al. (Fry, Jacklin & (Fry et al., three authors Jones (2009) (2009) Jones, 2009) 2009) One work by Fry, Jacklin, Fry et al. (Fry, Jacklin, (Fry et al., four authors Pratt and Jones (2009) Pratt & Jones, 2009) (2009) 2009) Type of citation First citation in text Subsequent Bracketed format- Bracketed format- citations in text first citation in text subsequent citations in text One work by Fry, Jacklin, Fry et al. (2009) (Fry, Jacklin, (Fry et al., five authors Pratt, Jones Pratt, Jones & 2009) and Peters Peters, 2009) (2009) One work by six Fry et al. (2009) Fry et al. (2009) (Fry et al., (Fry et al., or more 2009) 2009) authors Group (readily Kementerian KPM (2019) (Kementerian (KPM,2019) identified Pendidikan Pendidikan through Malaysia Malaysia abbreviation) (KPM,2019) (KPM),2019) Groups ( no University of University of (University of (University of abbreviation) Lincoln (2012) Lincoln (2012) Lincoln, 2012) Lincoln, 2012) End of Chapter 2 Part 3 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY PART 1 RESEARCH APPROACHES & RESEARCH DESIGNS  Research Designs QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE Survey Basic qualitative Research Experimental Case study Correlational Phenomenology Causal comparative Grounded theory Ethnography Some examples of Mixed - Method designs Survey It can be used widely Easy to conduct Data can be quickly collected Large sample can be used Direct information Result can be generalized Gather views and opinions of people on certain issues Questionnaires -face to face and non face to face (online)  What is a Survey? Researchers are often interested in the opinions of a large group of people about a particular topic or issue. There are three major characteristics that most surveys possess: 1) Information is collected from a group of people in order to describe some aspect of the population 2) Information is collected by asking questions of the members of the selected group 3) Information is collected from a sample rather than from every member of the population RO – to describe, to explore, to predict. Questionnaires - pilot test Example of Contingency Questions Non-response In almost all surveys, some members of the sample will not respond. Non-response item is due to unclear or questionable forms of wording. Non-response is a serious problem in many surveys. A variety of techniques are employed to reduce this problem (rewards or incentive for completing the surveys). Experimental Control group vs experimental group Independent vs dependent variable Random assignment. True experimental design Quasi-experimental design Respondents are randomly Respondents are not assigned, assigned specific people being studied  Correlational Research Stress level Academic achievement Ali 57 60 Nopal 45 75 Samy 98 40 Siti 37 70 Harris 66 55 Adlan 100 35 Tasneem 8 95 The Nature of Correlational Research Correlational research is also known as associational research. Relationships among two or more variables are studied without any attempt to influence them. Investigates the possibility of relationships between two variables. There is no manipulation of variables in correlational research Correlational studies describe the variable relationship via a correlation coefficient. What is Causal-Comparative Research? Attempt to determine the cause of differences that exist between or among groups of individuals. This is viewed as a form of Associative Research since both describe conditions that already exist - ex post facto. The differences between or among due to either a variable that cannot be manipulated or one that might have been manipulated but for one reason or another, has not been. Studies in medicine and sociology are causal-comparative in nature, as are studies of differences between men and women. Examples of the Basic Causal-Comparative Design  Qualitative Approach Basic qualitative Research Case study Phenomenology Grounded theory Ethnography  What is Qualitative Research? Many researchers are more interested in the quality of a particular activity than in how often it occurs or how it would otherwise be evaluated. Research studies that investigate the quality of relationships, activities, situations, or materials are frequently referred to as Qualitative Research. There is a greater emphasis on holistic description. General Characteristics of Qualitative Research Bogdan and Biklen (1998) describe five general features of Qualitative Research: 1) The natural setting is a direct source and key element 2) Collection is in the form of words or pictures 3) Researchers are concerned with how things occur 4) Construction of a picture while data is being collected vs. knowing what to expect 5) Special interest in the participants’ thoughts Case study In depth study of an individual or group of individuals. It is a systematic inquiry into an event or a set of related events which aims to describe and explain the phenomenon of interest. A case study : i. The focus of the study is to answer “how” and “why” questions. ii. You cannot manipulate the behaviour of those involves in the study. iii. You may want to cover contextual conditions because these are relevant to the study  Phenomenology  To describe ‘lived’ experiences  A study that describe the meaning o several individuals of their lived experiences.  What was the experience?  How did they experience it?  Human experiences through the descriptions provided by the people involved.  It attempts to uncover how human awareness is implicated in the production of a social action, social situation and social world. Grounded theory  Theory generated only from the data collected, not from other sources.  Grounded theory was developed by 2 sociologists, Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss. Their collaboration in research on dying hospital patients led them to write the book Awareness of Dying. In this research, they developed the constant comparative method, later known as Grounded theory.  Theory is grounded/ founded in the data collected.  Ethnographic Wolcott (1966) stated that ethnographic procedures require three things: 1) A detailed description of the culture-sharing group being studied. 2) An analysis of this group in terms of perceived themes or perspectives. 3) Some interpretation of the group by the researcher as to meanings and generalization about the social life of human beings, in general.  Action Research Action research is conducted by one or more individuals or groups for the purpose of solving a problem or obtaining information in order to inform local practice. Action Research is normally not generalizable.  Steps in Action Research There are four steps or stages in Action Research: 1) Identifying the research question 2) Gathering the necessary information 3) Analyzing and interpreting the information 4) Developing a plan of action What is Mixed-Methods Research? Uses both quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study Some specify it further by insisting that the qualitative methods develop a holistic picture of the phenomenon being studied End of Chapter 3 Part 1  1 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY PART 2  2 What is sampling? Sampling is the process of selecting a number of subjects from a population as research respondents (preferably in a way that the individuals are representative of the larger group from which they were selected). A sample is any group on which information is obtained.  3 What is Population? A population refers to all members of a particular group. A target population is the actual population that the researcher would like to generalize.  4 The target population A group of research Subjects Ind A Ind B Ind C Ind D Ind E Ind F Ind G Ind H Ind I Ind J Ind K Ind L A sample is The results are randomly selected generalised to its from a specific population population Ind F Ind C Ind I Ind B Ind G Ind D  Sampling Error 5 The target population A group of research Subjects Ind A Ind B Ind C Ind D Ind E Ind F Ind G Ind H Ind I Ind J Ind K Ind L The sampling process A, B and C A B C Notice that none of the sample is exactly like the population. The difference is known as sampling error  6 ASK THESE QUESTIONS Determine the individuals /sites 1. Who are the individuals that could answer my research questions/hypotheses? 2. What is my unit of analysis? 3.Can the questions and hypotheses be best answered by collecting data from students, teachers, parents, adults, some combination of these individuals or the entire school/ organization?  7 Statistical Significance The terms “significance level” or “level of significance” refers to the probability of a sample statistic occurring as a result of sampling error. Significance levels most commonly used in educational research are the.05 and.01 levels.  8 Two Main Types of Sampling Sampling may be either random or non-random Random sampling is a method of selecting subjects from a population by chance, so that biases do not alter the sample. The 3 most common ways of obtaining this type of sample are: Simple Random Sampling Stratified Random Sampling Cluster Sampling FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UITM PUNCAK ALAM  9 Part of a Table of Random Numbers 011723 223456 222167 032762 062281 565451 912334 379156 233989 109238 934128 987678 086401 016265 411148 251287 602345 659080 059397 022334 080675 454555 011563 237873 666278 106590 879809 899030 909876 198905 051965 004571 036900 037700 500098 046660 063045 786326 098000 510379 024358 145678 560132 345678 356789 033460 050521 342021 727009 344870 889567 324588 400567 989657 000037 121191 258700 088909 015460 223350 667899 234345 076567 090076 345121 121348 042397 045645 030032 657112 675897 079326 987650 568799 070070 143188 198789 097451 091126 021557 102322 209312 909036 342045 FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UITM PUNCAK ALAM  10 Simple Random Sampling  A Simple Random Sampling is a sample selected from a population in such a manner that all members have an equal chance of being selected  The larger the sample size, the more it is likely to represent the population  Any differences that occur are the result of chance (NOT BIAS).  Disadvantages of this method are 1) the difficulty of performing the sampling 2) this method does not ensure that subgroups are present in the sampling in the same proportion as they are in a population  11 Two-Stage Random Sampling This method selects groups randomly and then chooses individuals randomly from these groups. This becomes a combination of a cluster random sampling with individual random sampling. Considered less time consuming but allows for a good representation of the groups at random. FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UITM PUNCAK ALAM  12 Stratified Random Sampling A Stratified Random Sampling is a sample selected so that certain characteristics are represented in the sample in the same proportion as they occur in the population The term strata refers to sub-groups The advantage : It increases the likelihood of representation, especially if the sample size is small The disadvantage is that it requires still more effort on the part of the researcher FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UITM PUNCAK ALAM Selecting a Stratified Sample 13  14 Cluster Random Sampling A Cluster Random Sampling is a sample obtained by using groups as the sampling unit (cluster), rather than individuals This is considered more effective with large numbers of clusters Advantages: more efficient and easier to implement in schools Disadvantage: great chance of selecting a sample that is not representative of the population FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UITM PUNCAK ALAM Random Sampling Methods 15  16 Select a sufficient number of participants to enable the researcher to infer on the population Size – large or small will depend on the research questions, methodology and statistical procedures to be used Quantitative - normally large sample size, e.g. survey Qualitative - normally small sample size, e.g. interviews Quantitative sample normally refers to sample size formulas e.g. Krejcie and Morgan (1970) 17  18 Nonrandom Sampling Methods There are 3 main types of nonrandom sampling methods used in Educational Research A Systematic Sample is a sample obtained by selecting every nth name in a population A Convenience Sample is any group of individuals that is conveniently available to be studied  Not considered representative of the population and should be avoided, if possible A Purposive Sample is a sample selected because the individuals have special qualifications of some sort, or because of prior evidence of representation  Personal judgment is used for selection purposes  Major disadvantage is that the researcher’s judgment could be in error Nonrandom Sampling Method 19 Convenience Sampling 20  21 Sample Size Question? What constitutes an adequate sample size? Depends on time and energy needed. The recommended minimum number of subjects are as follows for the following types of studies:  100 for a Descriptive Study  50 for a Correlational Study  30 in each group for Experimental and Causal-Comparative Study  In qualitative studies, the number of participants in a sample is usually somewhere between 1 and 20. FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UITM PUNCAK ALAM  22 Quan and Qual RANDOM SAMPLING PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING Select representative Select people or sites individuals who can best help me To generalize from understand my sample to population phenomenon. To make claim about To develop a detailed the population understanding. FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UITM PUNCAK ALAM  23 Purposeful sampling When does sampling Occur BEFORE DATA COLLECTION AFTER DATA COLLECTION HAS STARTED  Maximal Variation Sampling- to develop many perspectives.  Extreme Case sampling – to Opportunistic sampling- to take describe troublesome or advantage of whatever case unfolds enlightening cases. Snowball sampling- to locate people  Typical sampling -to describe what or sites to study. is typical to those unfamiliar with the Confirming/Disconfirming sampling – case. to explore confirming or  Theory/ Concept sampling – to disconfirming cases. generate theory or explore a concept.  Homogeneous sampling – to describe subgroup in depth.  Critical sampling – to describe a case that illustrates “dramatically” the situation. FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UITM PUNCAK ALAM  24 End of Chapter 3 Part 2  1 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY PART 3  2 Instrumentation And Research Ethics  3 The researcher has to determine what kind of data they want to collect The device uses to collect data is known as an instrument Data: refers to the information that the researcher obtains from the respondents of the research. Questions arise regarding the procedures and conditions under which the instruments will be administered: oWhere will the data be collected? oWhen will the data be collected? oHow often are the data to be collected? oWho is to collect the data?  4 Research instruments Survey – a set of questionnaire designed specifically to collect data Interview Questions – set of questions prepared to answer ROs and RQs Checklist for observations Checklist for document analyses Research Ethics Development of a questionnaire is governed by research ethics. Should not use other questionnaire without informing the researcher. Should acknowledge the source of the items The items must not have any negative effects on mental and physical states of the respondents. Validity and reliability of the items should be established  5 Useless data i. Administered incorrectly. ii. Administer by someone disliked by respondents, iii. Noisy and inhospitable conditions iv. Respondents/ Participants are exhausted v. Instruction not clear vi. Instruments not valid and not reliable vii. Problem related to instrument- printed material not in a good condition/ online instrument has problem due to internet connection etc.  6 Validity Important consideration in the choice of an instrument to be used in a research investigation The instrument should measure what it is supposed to measure Example : Survey to measure students’ satisfaction on the facilities provided by the University- thus, the items suppose to focus on the facilities, NOT Parenting Styles. Researchers want instruments that will allow them to make valid conclusions on the characteristics of the respondents.  7 Reliability Important consideration, since researchers want consistent results from instrumentation  Consistency gives researchers confidence that the results actually represent the achievement/ characteristics of the respondents/participants  8 Objectivity Refers to the absence of subjective judgments  Complete objectivity is probably never attained, but researchers should try to minimize subjective judgments about their subjects  9 Usability An important consideration in choosing or designing an instrument How easy the instrument will actually be to use? Some of the questions asked which assess usability are: How long will it take to administer? Are the directions clear? How easy is it to score? Do equivalent forms exist? Have any problems been reported by others who used it? Do I need to train my Team for data collection? Getting satisfactory answers can save a researcher a lot of time and energy.  10 Types of items i. Single-choice item ii. Open- ended item iii. Multiple-choice item iv. Multiple-response items v. Rank-ordering item vi. Likert-type item vii. Retrospective post-then-pre Likert-type item viii. Test  11 i) Single-choice item Allows respondents to pick only one choice from a number of choices Example : Please tick ( / ) one answer for each items below: Gender : 1) Male 2) Female State your area of living 1) Urban 2) Rural  12 ii) Open- ended item Requires respondents to state their opinions without having to select a choice or category. Gives their answers freely Example: 1) State your date of Birth : ________________ 2) What is your CGPA : ________________ 3) What is/are your hobby/ies : ___________________ 4) In your opinion, the best teachers are__________________ *could be explained in qualitative analysis  13 iii) Multiple-Choice Items Require respondents to select one or more than one statement with which they agree. Example: 1. The best teacher a. Has good academic qualification b. Has good content knowledge c. Has good pedagogical skills d. Cares his/her students *Question for multiple –choice must be clearly stated based on a specific aspect in order to avoid measurement error  14 iv) Multiple-response Items When the answers are not pre-decided by the researcher. Example: 1) State FIVE(5) factors contributing to your happiness index i. _________________________ ii. _________________________ iii. _________________________ iv. _________________________ v. _________________________  15 v) Rank-Ordering Items Require respondents to arrange a list of choices according to their priority. Arranged in descending order, from highest priority to the lowest (1: first priority, 2: second priority, 3: third priority, 4: fourth priority) Example: 1) Five types of meals you prefer for Iftar Nasi Beryani with Roasted Lamb Curry Maggie KFC Sizzling Mee Nasi Dagang  16 vi) Likert-Type Items Choices in the Likert-type items are arranged following the order of agreement from “Strongly disagree”, “Disagree”, “Agree” and “Strongly agree”. Example : 1 2 3 4 Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly disagree Agree 1 My lecturer assisted me in my lesson 2 My lecturer taught me to be independent  17 vii)Retrospective Post-Then-Pre Likert- Type Items Compare the opinions of the respondents before and after they are exposed to an experience Does not need to collect the data before and after the event Example: The scales of the items are: 1 very low, 2 low, 3 average, 4 high, 5 very high Before RMO Items After RMO 1 2 3 4 5 Your ability to use 1 2 3 4 5 online platforms 1 2 3 4 5 Your digital skills 1 2 3 4 5  18 viii)Test Intelligence test  19 Achievement test  20 Personality inventory  21 Interview Questions Should tally with your ROs and RQs Try to minimize the number/ length of interview questions/session. Example: Interview questions 1 What is you opinion regarding online teaching? 2 What are the difficulties that you are facing while having online session? 3 How do you overcome those problems? 4 Why you are using such techniques in your online class?  22 Focus Group Discussion(FGD) A focus group discussion involves gathering people from similar backgrounds or experiences together to discuss a specific topic of interest. It is a form of qualitative research where questions are. asked about their perceptions attitudes, beliefs, opinion or ideas. It is not a group interview where researcher asks questions and participants individually provide answers. It relies on a group discussion where participants are able to talk to each other. Or want to have document analysis/get feedbacks from the group members  23 Observation: Preparing Observations Decide on a technique for our observations: i)What we expect to learn from our observational study Structured (e.g. a checklist developed) Unstructured (e.g. we expect the data to be qualitative) ii) Select participants and ensure that you have selected a relevant sample size. iii) Recruit observers (if it is a research team), ideally train all observers, and explain how they will observe participants. iv) Explain to participants what they will be doing and what they will be observed for. v) Explain to participants how their data and any data collected will be used and how it won’t be used  24 Structured Observation Forms Quantitative data Items Frequency Place a checkmark (/)each time the teacher asks a question that requires: 1 Recall of information / / / 3 2 comparison / / 2 3 Critical thinking  25 Unstructured Observation Form Qualitative data Date: 8-10am 11-12noon 3-4pm Area of observation Behaviour context Number of individual  26 Performance checklist Class:_________ No of students: ______ Time :__________ Students’ Tick Students’ Tick Behaviour Behaviour Looking at their / Answering to / teacher only teacher’s questions Taking notes Reading textbook / Chatting with their / Looking at friend/s handphone Sleeping Sharpening the pencils Drawing/colouring Playing tick toe something  27 Time- and-motion-log Qualitative data Time Activity 11.00- 12.00noon Wrote name Rubbed nose Continued with reading 12.00- 1.00pm Made funny faces Picked up paper and read Drank water 1.00-2.00pm Played with pencils and fingers Rubbed eyes Watch other group, chin on hand  28 Guidelines for Research Instruments 1. The language used must be the language mastered by the respondents/participants. 2. Words and sentences in each item must be fully understood by the respondents/participants 3. Every item used must be uni-dimensional 4. Avoid giving items in the form of general knowledge 5. Avoid using complex items 6. Use words which protect the feelings of respondents/participants 7. Use word accurately 8. Avoid using words with meanings which are too specific or too general. e.g.: how many times you went to the kitchen during RMO?  29 RESEARCH ETHICS  30 Ethics refers to the question(s) of right and wrong. Ethics in research involve: i. Informed consent ii. Dignity iii. The protection of participants from harm iv. Ensuring confidentiality of the research data v. The question of deceptions of subjects  31 Issues related to Ethics in Research Plagiarism Misuse of privileged information Manipulate Data Authorship and publication issues Research with human Research with animals  32 End of Chapter 3 Part 3  1 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY PART 4  2 Write up Chapter 3  3 Chapter 3 Research Methodology 3.1 Introduction Highlight on research topic and Research Objectives Introduction to Chapter 3- highlighting on subtitles 3.2 Research Design Explain about your Research Approach –justification of using such approach. Explain about your research design – justification of using such design 3.3 Population and Sampling Describe your Research Population Elaborate on your samples (Who and justification) Describe your specific sampling procedure in depth Explain the reason of selecting the respondents/participants  4 3.4 Research Instrumentation Describe your instruments – Where, who developed and in what year, what was the reliability values previously, was it being used before… by who (year) Adopt – no changes, use as it is  Adapt – made certain changes, explain on each items that you made changes- justifications Or you develop your own instruments- need to explain in detail, the processes (face, content validity- checked by experts) How do you define your constructs- must tally with the instruments that you have chosen 3.5 Pilot study Pre –testing your research instruments Quantitative- get the Cronbach Alpha Values ( More than 0.7) Qualitative – run the interview / observation ( to make sure participant understood your Interview Questions and to estimate timing  5 3.6 Research Ethics Informed consent, voluntary participation, confidentiality, anonymity Compile the forms in appendices 3.7 Data Collection Procedures Detailed description of the exact steps taken to get permission from the respected Bodies of Authority, contact participants, obtain cooperation, administer instruments- states locations, dates and time. Explain in detail Can support explanation by having figure  6 Data Collection Procedures  7 Data Collection Procedures 8  9 3.8 Research Analyses How is the data analysed Describe based on ROs Instrument Respondents Types of Analysis RO 1 Survey Secondary School Descriptive Statistic – To ……. (state the name of the Students (75) Mean and Standard instrument, author, year) Deviations RO2 Survey/ test Secondary School Inferential Statistic - To….. Students (75) T.test/ Anova/ Pearson RO3 Interview Questions Maths Teachers (4) Thematic Analyses To….. 3.9 Conclusion Conclusion to the chapter Summary of what has been done in chapter 3 Indication of what is to be done in Chapter 4  10 End of Chapter 3 Part 4