Traits PDF

Traits Date @October 21, 2024 chapter 6 progress Done Textbook Learning Objectives explain main principles and historic context Allport, Cattell, Eysenk, and Big Five application...

Traits Date @October 21, 2024 chapter 6 progress Done Textbook Learning Objectives explain main principles and historic context Allport, Cattell, Eysenk, and Big Five application The Trait Approach def: focuses on identifying and measuring traits traits: distinguishable and stable patterns of behaviour and experience both behaviour and experience with attention to causes identification and measurement of individual traits combination and interaction of various traits from personality are unique to each individual Common Principles 1. Traits are not single behavioural manifestations or isolated emotional reactions supposed to be stable or relatively unchanging over time different from states evolve with or without effort → transitory or dynamic period of dysphoria: exaggerates sadness, lack of motivation, and fatigue Traits 1  2. Traits should impact the individuals actions, emotions, and overall experiences if we recognize and measure a trait in a person → ability to anticipate how they react, think, or feel in certain ways or situations 3. Traits are expected to be dichotomous measured as a point on a continuum not common for a person to have or not have a trait How Many Traits are There? depends on the taxonomies: descriptive models or classifications based on similarity, functioning, structure, size, and origin scientifically based cross cultural applicability understood in a simple way be able to compare findings need to examine a small number of traits The degree or similar measure referring to these traits should indicate an “identification card” of each individuals personality Ancient Philosophies Buddhism: individual uniqueness as a combination of various traits 5 constituents of personality aka khanda body perception feeling mental formatons consciousness Traits 2  Greek Philosophers: individual traits refer to the work of different parts of the body the heart and liver → courage, lustfulness, stamina, and awareness the brain → judgement, patience, and intellectual skills Early Classifications: bodily humors as foundations of stable traits a misbalance either due to inborn or natural forces caused a person to be: persistently and unreasonably elated constantly withdrawn and grumpy stubbornly belligerent and unpredictable persistently sad easily disturbed Hinduism: people had obligations regarding their position in society and to their stages of individual development had to act and think according to the prescribed models: Brahmins (highest class) taught religion Nobles practiced defence Commoners plowed, tended cattle, and lent money lowest class served the upper ones The caste system had a profound impact on India’s society and the behaviour of citizens caste segregation remains prevalent Islamic: several levels or qualities of personality traits distinguished according to the quality of nafs (self or soul) the lowest → tendency toward evil the middle → conscience and concern with moral rectitude the highest → gradual movement toward perfection in thought and action Astrological: specific personality traits largely depended on celestial bodies Traits 3  Jupiter: individuals predominant happiness and optimism Saturn: make people constantly bitter or sardonic Mars: bravery and conscientiousness Future Research in Philosophy and Psychology David Hume 1711 - 1776: described four significant traits 1. pleasure seeking: commitment to fun, variety, and entertainment 2. virtue seeking: commitment to good deeds and action 3. philosophical devotion: commitment of thinking 4. critical thinking: commitment to skepticism and evaluation David Hartley 1705 - 1757: two groups of traits 1. Imagination, ambition, and self interest a. Imagination: objects as sources of pleasure or displeasure b. Ambition: realization of one’s own status in the eyes of other people c. Self interest: manages the demands of imagination and ambition 2. Sympathy, theopathy, and the moral sense a. Sympathy: feelings of other people b. Theopathy: individuals moral sense and connection with spiritual issues such as religion Wilhelm Wundt 1832 - 1920: language played a role in individual traits thinks differently according to language ex German requires discipline, precision, and order → those who speak will be more organized, orderly, and responsible William Stern 1871 - 1983: personality as unique, active, and self contained identity traits are formed through the process of constant interaction among the environment, individuals characteristics, and individuals motivation, Traits 4  intellectual skills, and personal goals James McKeen Cattell 1860 - 1944: created mental test which are procedures used to measure mental energy difference between: a. an individuals performance b. the performance of large populations on the same test Trait Theorists and Perspectives Gordan Allport created a new field of study dedicated to the measurement of personality character and personality were distinct and different entities character: moral category associated with societal prescriptions and the manner with which people follow these directions personality: objective self or the fundamental adjustment patters that an individual forms over the course of their life and in various situations both internal and external influences an individuals personality traits Genotypes: individual forces that relate to how we keep information and use it to interact with the social and physical world around us Phenotypes: the way individuals accept their environments and how others influence their behaviour there was a stable but heavily interconnected core of traits in every person only experimental procedures and measurements could bring psychology a new understanding of personality → free from theoretical speculation and bias Allport and Odbert identified 19953 unique terms used to describe an individuals personality, behaviour, feelings, etc. Column 1: Descriptions of seemingly stable personality traits polite, extroverted, assertive, etc. Traits 5  Column 2: Descriptions of passing emotional states referring to a period attitudes such as frantic or calm Column 3: Reflections of other people regarding an individuals character valuable or respectable Column 4: Important personality descriptive terms that did not fit the other three physical abilities or skills Limitations arbitrary consistency among different assistants was relatively Raymond Cattell Believed that only science and the scientific method could explain human behaviour and experience Factor Analysis: a method to deal with large numbers on observed variables that are thought to reflect a smaller number of underlying variables performs complex calculations on the correlation coefficients among the variables within a particular domain to determine the basic, primary factors for the domain. Cattell believed it could identify basic “building blocks” such as honesty or aggressive tendencies of human personality used three kinds of data L data: gather facts from the individuals behaviour pattern in the real world T data: responses to standardized experimental situations Q data: self assessments or answers to a series of questions about specific behaviour or experiences created the 16 factor structure of personality factors Traits 6  ex. warmth high degree manifestations ex. outgoing low degree manifestations ex. reserved 16PF for the measurement Hans Eysenck Emphasized two major personality dimensions → extroversion (E) and neuroticism (N) Extroversion (E): characterized by talkativeness, positive emotions, and the need to seek external sources of stimulation tend to be underaroused (bored) making them need to seek out new experiences to achieve the optimal level of arousal Introversion: characterized by quietness, doubt, and the need to stick to inner experiences overaroused (jittery) and need calm and peace to achieve their optimal level of arousal Neuroticism (N): an individuals level of emotionality people who measure high → tendency to see danger in many people, events, and developments around the, brains are activated quickly when faced with a new situation or encounter new problem tend to experience negative reactions associated with fear or anger tend to be easily upset and are prone to depression anxiety people who measure low → more emotionally stable brains are not activated quickly in new circumstances Traits 7  tend to control their negative emotions and are likely to be calm and collected under pressure depression and anxiety are not typical Similar to the temperaments proposed by Hippocrates High N and E: Choleric High N and Low E: Melancholic Low N and High E: Sanguine Low N and E: Phlegmatic Later in his career he added a new dimension to his model Psychoticism: personality pattern that manifest in persistent aggressiveness and hostility to others Tough minded and nonconforming, prone to recklessness, unfriendliness, anger, and impulsiveness tend not to experience remorse sensation seeking: constant tendency to search for new experiences and feelings The Big Five Data driven analysis of verbal descriptors of human behavioural patterns that tend to cluster together sometimes referred to as OCEAN no single researcher who originated and developed the model Traits 8  Empirical Support twin studies suggests that both heritability and environmental factors influence all five factors to the approximately the same degree longitudinal data and cross sectional data show a high degree of stability in personality traits during adulthood likely be cross cultural Gender Differences women score higher in neuroticism, extroversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness differences tend to be larger in prosperous, healthy, and more gender equal based cultures women’s behaviour in egalitarian countries are more likely to be attributed to their personality rather than gender roles within more collectivist or traditional communities people tend to become less open to experience and less extroverted after parenthood Traits 9  Criticisms does not look at deeper structures and inner experiences people tend to describe their own behaviour differently than they describe other people’s does not include many other important features of human being's cross cultural applicability is an issue Humanities and Personality Traits knowledge across cultures contains detailed descriptions of desirable and undesirable individual traits and types → stable behavioural traits The Perfect The sacred figures of saints, angels, and prophets provide a collective portrait of ideal desirable individual qualities religions distinguish an individual entity who carried the holiest, most divine, and important message from the supernatural entity Muslims → use the life of the prophet Mohamed as the touchstone for proper thought, decision, and action Christians → admire the life, the thought, and the deeds of Jesus Christs who represents to them ultimate kindness, justice, wisdom, and compassion. Buddhists → Buddha reflects the complete set of virtuous personality traits Angels: in most religious teachings usually appear as innocent and helpful transcendental beings who are universal helpers and rescuers people attribute great and unexpected events to the work of angels Saints: generally people who are believed to have holiness, which is a high measure of perfection, purity, and righteousness. share three common traits Traits 10  1. sacrifice themselves for the sake of many 2. refuse material possessions and bodily pleasures 3. inspire many followers to think, act, and feel in a positive, uplifting way National heroes: typically appear in books, stories, films, and songs as most infallible, honest, brave, and dedicated to their cause children are taught to admire them, be like them, think, and act like these heroes The Cursed In religious teachings, the devil is the ultimate evil → most repulsive traits and individual features All possess evil human traits such as greed, trickery, ire, jealoysy, and pride Christianity: Demons and ghosts Islam: Jinn Hinduism: Vetala, bhoot, and others Judaism: dybbuks Buddhism: mara In folklore: the most undesirable traits appear in witches The cursed often: 1. interfere in and obstruct human affairs 2. evoke fear and other negative emotions such as jealousy 3. provoke people to commit evil deed National historic accounts there are unconditional evil individuals lives and deeds are seen as cruel, trickery, abhorrent, and overall, unconditionally repulsive The Mingled Example of the Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde Traits 11  Dr Jekyll changes from a nice man to his alter personality Mr Hyde who is nasty, violent, and bad two personalities live in one individual, changing control of the body’s behaviour and the mind’s functioning. Symbolize good and bad Cross Cultural Approach Popular Assumptions were established about the differences between European and Asian Cultures Karl Jung: believed in substantial differences between Eastern and Western types of individuals based on their traits Western: rooted in reason but less connection to intuition and emotion most extrovert Politics play a role in how people see other nations and cultural groups Japan and China have had very negative views of each other for years Americans described as assertive, hardworking, and open minded, but antagonistic more than 50% of people around the world rated Americas as industrious and inventive but also greedy and violent Canadians tend to emphasize multiculturalism, diversity, and inclusion as key features of their nations and their country’s most notable contribution to the world Applying the Trait Tradition Major goals for learning and interpreting individual traits are: a. Making decisions about people in terms of their professional selection and promotion b. Helping people make better decisions Traits 12  c. Helping people in finding their unrealized potentials Marriage and Individual Traits Marriage is supposed to be an interaction → both spouses have their own unique traits two hypotheses exits: 1. both spouses should have similar personality traits, and the more they match, the more stable the marriage 2. stable marriage in which individual traits of both spouses are different so that they compensate each other Numerous dating sites boast the ability to help people find others with compatible personality traits eHarmony: questionnaire Match.com: opposites attract Two Problems Exists: 1. Methodological: methods do not allow for an independent verification or peer review 2. Factual: research based psychology is skeptical about the claims that certain personality traits reliably predict compatibility and lead to more satisfying relationships in marriage Why do millions of people look for personality profile matches online? communicating online can nurture intimacy, bring excitement, and build affection between two people who may not have met otherwise Most important thing in any relationship in the mutual willingness and ability of two people to communicate and create a healthy, exciting, and long lasting relationship Personality Traits are most Important to Employers Almost 20% of employers report they use some personality test or a similar assessment procedure as part of the hiring process. Traits 13  some experts estimate that almost 60% of potential employers are now asked to take some form of workplace assessment Using the big five, most companies look for: 1. Conscientiousness 2. Agreeableness 3. Emotional Stability Politics Studies of Traits Related to Political Behaviour Research Interpretation Validation Likely to be divided into political Radicalism (R - Factor) categories based on their acceptance of Partial Support and Tender-mindedness toughness and force and tolerance and has been found (T-Factor) consensus correlated to conservative defence and Psychoticism limited evidence social attitudes Social Desirability related to liberal social attitudes limited evidence Neuroticism liberal economic attitude limited evidence Some people develop a set of traits such as intolerance, obedience to authority, Authoritarian Personality mystical view of life, rejection of new Limited experiences, superstition, and propensity for violence cross national Openness to Experience liberal political views studies Emotional Stability conservative views cross cultural Extroversion negatively correlated with liberalism studies cross cultural Conscientiousness not correlated with either studies develop in childhood and are influence by Political Preferences limited evidence genetic factors Traits 14  Traits Associated with Stupid People 1. Confident Arrogance: behaviour and thinking to support people’s belief that their ability to do something outweighs their actual ability to do it drunk drivers 2. Lack of Control: someone is supposed to be doing something important but becomes engaged in some other unimportant activity instead often refers to particular forms of obsessive, compulsive, and addictive behaviours 3. Absentmindedness: can be called lack of practical skills, common sense, or simply attention Criminal Traits Studied by Cesare Lombroso Atavism: reversion of behaviour to some earlier developmental stages when theft, rape, and pillage contributed directly to male reproductive potential most violent biological predisposition Traits in Relation Agreeableness: low scores with criminality Conscientiousness: low scores with criminality Self-Control and Impulsivity: lack of associated with criminality Novelty Seeking: high scores associated with criminality Empathy and Propensity to be remorseful: inconclusive Reward Dependence: inconclusive Brain imaging studies → the connection between frontal lobe executive functioning and impulsivity Hyperactivity and poor ability to perceive potential consequences of actions → may result in antisocial behaviour Traits 15  Tendency toward intense excitement in response to novel stimuli and the temptation for short term pleasures in the face of escalating long term risks Lecture what is a trait? are some more important than others? Two Basic Branches of Trait Researchers 1. Trait as Internal Causal Properties what makes you YOU ex. why do you smile at others? 2. Traits a Purely Descriptive Summaries behaviorists Traits 16  limitations: some traits aren’t observable non verbal personality questionnaire: see a cartoon performing some action and you attempt to understand what the stick figure with the hair is doing and what is the likelihood of the individual of performing the same action can’t measure conscientiousness this way Traits as Internal Causal Properties Biological Models Behaviour Genetics Consistent across situations can lie “dormant” (not expressed) ex. there are a lot of functional psychotics people are suppressing parts of their character explains needs/wants ex. someone behaving “out of character” Traits as Purely Descriptive Models behavioural models habitual No assumptions about internality, nor is causality assumed your personality has no influence on future events Identify and describe important individual differences and then learning explanations Act Frequency Formulation traits are categories of acts Traits 17  a trait is a descriptive summary of the general trend in a person’s behaviour relative to other people Problem: does not specify how much context should be included in the description of the trait relevant act example: not all “parties” are the same Tailgate vs Cocktail Problem: Seems applicable to overt actions BUT what about failures to act or covert acts not directly observable example: acts do not include thoughts may not capture complex traits Good for: making explicit the behavioural phenomena to which most trait terms refer identifying behavioural regularities observable learning Act Frequency Research Act Nominations: designed to identify which acts belong in which trait categories Example: Is visiting a sick relative an example of altruism what about pushing a strangers car up a snow bank? Prototypicality Judgements: involves identifying which are most central or prototypical of each category example: red flags or behaviours we look out for being talkative is more indicative of extroversion than having a lot of social media “friends” Monitoring Act Performance: securing information on actual performance of individuals in their daily lives example: daily diary studies Traits 18  could be used for moods as well as actions limitations: social monitoring and social desirability responding time consuming Three Way to Describe Traits 1. Lexical Approach 2. Statistical Approach 3. Theoretical Approach NOTE: lexical feeds into statistical Lexical Approach Hypothesis: all important individual differences have become encoded within the natural language trait terms are important for people in communicating with others if its important → you label it two criteria for identifying important traits: 1. Synonym Frequency 2. Cross-Cultural Universality Example: Allport and Odbert 1936 Trait Names: A psycho-lexical Study. Psychological Monographs located terms within dictionaries Problems and Limitations many traits are ambiguous, metaphorical, obscure, or difficult personality is conveyed through different parts of speech (not just adjectives), including nouns and adverbs Traits 19  Statistical Approach Goal: identify major dimensions of personality factors through factor analysis starts with large, diverse pool of personality items most researchers using lexical approach turn to statistical approach to distill ratings of trait adjective into basic categories of traits Theoretical Approach def: starts with a theory, which then determines which variables are important taxonomies of personality Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model of Personality Cattell's Taxonomy: the 16 Personality Factor System Circumplex Taxonomies of Personality: The Wiggins Circumplex (1979) Five-Factor Model The HEXACO model Eysenck’s Model (PEN) Extraversion-Introversion (E) Neuroticism-Emotional Stability (N) Psychoticism (P) Biological Underpinnings Key criteria for “basic” dimensions of personality Heritability: P, E and N have moderate heritability Identifiable physiological substrate Limitations: many other personality traits show moderate heritability may have missed important traits Traits 20  Cattell’s 16 PF wanted the basic units of personality true factors of personality should be found across different types of data, such as self-reports (S-data) and laboratory test (T-data) Major Criticisms some personality researchers have failed to replicate the 16 factors many argue that a smaller number of factors captures important ways in which individuals differ Circumplex Model Wiggins 1979 started with the lexical assumption argued that trait terms specify different kinds of ways in which personality differ: interpersonal Temperament Character Material Attitude Mental Physical The Wiggins Circumplex concerned with interpersonal traits interpersonal: interactions between people involving exchanges social exchange → love and status Three Key Advantages: Traits 21  1. provides an explicit definition of what constitutes “interpersonal” behaviour 2. specified relationships between each trait and every other trait in the model adjacency, bipolarity, and orthogonality 3. Alert investigators to “gaps” in work on interpersonal behaviour Limitations interpersonal map is limited to two dimensions other traits may have important interpersonal consequence s Five Factor Model empirical evidence: replicable in studies using English language traits words as items found by more than a dozen researchers using different samples replicated in different languages Criticisms omits important aspects of personality: positive evaluation negative evaluation Masculinity/Femininity Religiosity or spirituality Attractiveness Sexuality The HEXACO Model made by western graduates Micheal Ashton and Kibeom Lee does not cover some traits Traits 22  religion is covered in honesty factor 6 DIMENSIONS Honesty-Humility Emotionality Extraversion Agreeableness Conscientiousness Openness to Experience Final Points Traits and trait model to use should be based on the question predict certain behaviours may require narrow traits Traits 23