NS 100 Earth and Life Sciences PDF Past Paper

NS 100 An overall examination I. EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE reviewer beneficial to the Senior High School students of San Pedro College Cosmology...

NS 100 An overall examination I. EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE reviewer beneficial to the Senior High School students of San Pedro College Cosmology - the study of the origin and This reviewer serves as the compilation of all the development of the universe lessons discussed by different teachers of the same subject, it also includes examples and short Astronomy activities to sharpen one’s knowledge about the topic. - study of the universe If there are topics included that are not discussed, II. THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE please clarify with your subject teachers. AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM II. EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE OUTLINE A. BIGBANG THEORY I. Earth and Life Science II. The Origin of the Universe and the The Bigbang Theory Solar System A. Bigbang Theory - a cosmological model that explains B. Steady State Theory how the universe began C. Oscillating Universe Theory - matter dilutes as the universe expands D. Nebular Theory E. Encounter Theory Bread Raisin Model III. Why Life is Possible on Earth A. The Origin of the Planet Earth - Bread: Universe; Raisins: Galaxies B. Water: The Medium of Life - Distance between galaxies increases C. Sun as the Main Source of Energy as the universe expands. D. The Earth’s Atmosphere IV. Earth System A. What is Earth System Science? B. Four Subsystems of Earth C. Earth’s Climate System D. The Biogeochemical Cycles V. Minerals and Rocks A. Rock-Forming Minerals B. Igneous Rocks C. Sedimentary Rocks D. Metamorphic Rocks E. Practical Uses of Mineral Resources F. Finding and Mining Materials Singularity VI. Review Questions - an area predicted to be in the core of a VII. Validated black hole with very high temperature and density Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 1  NS 100 - intense heat resulted in the formation - It also fails to explain how the galaxies of matter and antimatter particles that formed were destroyed every time they PROPONENTS collided with each other Nucleosynthesis Georges Henri Joseph Edouard - formation of elements, such Lemaître as H (Hydrogen) and He (Helium) ○ the first proponent of the theory. - led to the formation of stars ○ suggested the idea of the expanding and galaxies universe. - led to the formation of other cosmic bodies,such as planets, comets,and Edwin Powell Hubble asteroids ○ provided evidence that the universe Doppler Effect was not static but expanding. - the change in wavelength (or ○ Hubble’s Law: the velocities of distant frequency) of a wave when there is a objects in the universe is directly motion that increases or decreases the proportional to their distance from distance between the receiver and the Earth. source. Arno Penzias & Robert Wilson ○ discovered that microwaves with EVIDENCES THAT SUPPORT THE BIG wavelength about 7 cm were present BANG THEORY in space. the expansion of the universe is ○ Cosmic Microwave Background supported by the observation that radiation: the thermal energy released galaxies are receding from us when the ionized gases became high amount of light elements (H, He, neutral particles as the early universe Li) that were formed through the fusion cooled down; leftover heat from the of protons and neutrons immediately bigbang. after the big bang detection of the cosmic microwave B. STEADY STATE THEORY background (CMB) radiation Steady State Theory Drawbacks - Universe has no beginning and no - It fails to explain how the universe was end; has always been here; looks the created same in any time or space. - It just explains how the universe - Creates new matter as it expands evolves and not where it originated Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 2  NS 100 - Universe is constantly expanding, but its average density remains constant. Fig. 2. In the steady-state theory, matter is constantly created as the universe expands. Proponents Hermann Bondi Thomas Gold Fig. 3. The Oscillating Universe Theory Fred Hoyle Was proposed in 1948 STEPS Drawbacks Not parallel with the law of Bigbang > formation of galaxies> expansion> conservation of energy and mass singularity> Big Bounce Discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation significantly Proponent supported the explanations given by Richard Tolman the big bang theory and led many - a Caltech professor scientists to reject the steady-state theory. Big Crunch - Happens when a galaxy reaches its C. OSCILLATING UNIVERSE THEORY maximum size Pulsating Theory Big Bounce - Combination of big crunch and the big - Birth of a new universe bang. - Universe is expanding and will contract Drawbacks once all energy after the bigbang has ○ violate some current laws of physics, been used up; and will expand again such as the postulated existence of at the point of singularity. dark energy. ○ Currently postulated end of the universe is big freeze/ heat death. Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 3  NS 100 D. NEBULAR THEORY Formation of Protoplanetary Disk Nebular Theory - Metals and silicates could exist near - The Solar System originated from a the Sun because they have higher nebula. boiling points. As a result, terrestrial - It is the widely accepted view about planets were formed. the formation of the solar system some - Terrestrial planets could not grow in 4.5 billion years ago. huge diameters because of the limited reserve of metallic elements in the Nebula nebula. - A giant cloud of gas and dust in space. Protoplanetary Disk Proponents - the birth sites of planets; A Emanuel Swedenborg rotating disk of dense gas which Immanuel Kant is commonly found around Pierre Simon Laplace newborn stars. Terrestrial Planets STEPS IN THE FORMATION OF THE - Closer to the Sun and have SOLAR SYSTEM higher metallic and silicate compounds ( Mercury, 1. Cloud Collapse Venus, Earth, Mars) 2. Formation of Protoplanetary Disk 3. Growth of Planets Jovian Planets - Farther from the Sun where the Cloud Collapse lower temperature allows gas to - May be caused by a shockwave from a condense (Jupiter, Saturn, supernova or the effect of a passing Uranus, Neptune) star. - The collapse of the center of the cloud Growth of Planets due to gravity occurs when ga - Dust and grains surrounding the Sun pressure becomes insufficient to formed clumps. These clumps support the mass of the cloud. accreted forming planetesimals. - The collapsed cloud results in a smaller radius which means it will spin Planetesimal faster. - A small celestial body that once collide together, fuse to form the Supernova planets of the Solar System. - Explosion of a very large star Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 4  NS 100 Drawbacks of the Nebular Theory eject filaments of material which then - Particles surrounding Saturn repel condensed into planetesimals. each other - Describes Earth starting from a solid - It does not follow the law of angular mass smaller than its present size. momentum - It did not consider Uranus and Venus, Proponents which rotate in a clockwise direction Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin ○ Proposed that accretion of minute solid E. ENCOUNTER THEORY particles created planets and their moons. Encounter Theory Planets were formed from the material Forest Ray Moulton ejected from the Sun during an ○ Provided mathematical calculations to encounter with a celestial object. the Chamberlin’s idea. Drawbacks ○ No longer accepted today since hot material from the Sun expands and dissipates rather than contract. ○ The force form the passing started will pull dust and gases away from the Sun so they would not be able to form Fig. 4.The encounter theory proposes that planets. the planets formed from the material ejected from the sun during an encounter with Tidal Theory another star. - The Solar System formed as a result of a near collision between a passing star and the Sun FORMS OF ENCOUNTER THEORY - The hot gas from the passing star condensed into planets instead of 1. Planetesimal Theory planetesimals. 2. Tidal Theory Proponents Planetesimal Theory James Jeans - A passing star termed an “ intruding ○ An English physicist and astronomer star” nearly collided with the protosun - The massive gravitational pull of the Harold Jeffreys intruding star causes the protosun to ○ An English mathematician and astronomer Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 5  NS 100 ○ Proposed in 1918 Drawbacks ○ The hot material from either star cannot contract. Thus, planets will not form. III. III. WHY LIFE IS POSSIBLE ON EARTH IV. TWO HYPOTHESIS OF ACCRETION A. THE ORIGIN OF THE PLANET EARTH How the structure of Earth was formed which Accretion Theory both involves accretion - Gravity attracts tiny bits of matter 1. Homogeneous Accretion towards an object. Hypothesis - A gradual increase of the object’s size, 2. Heterogeneous Accretion pulls more fragments of matter due to Hypothesis stronger gravitational pull. Homogeneous Accretion Hypothesis - Earth began after the condensation of STEPS IN ACCRETION fine particles of the primitive nebula (4.6 billion years ago), followed by 1. Clumps of dust grains collide differentiation. forming planetesimals - Particles accreted formed a 2. Planetesimals turn into protoplanet homogeneous primordial Earth = early as more planetesimals are attracted. Earth had a uniform solid composition. - Temperature increased due to Protoplanet gravitational contraction & decay of - is a planetary embryo that consists of radioactive elements. collection of matter, from which a - Iron & nickel melted and sank towards planet is formed. the center because of high density; - Less dense silicates were displaces & they moved upwards; - Experienced turmoil, violent earthquakes, volcanic eruptions; - Cooled down & thin layer of solid rock formed crust Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 6  NS 100 Supporting Statements ○ Explains the presence of volatile elements in the core ○ Explains the heat source for early mantle melting & formation of early B. WATER THE MEDIUM OF LIFE continents. Loopholes Earth is a blue planet (⅔ covered by water) ○ Cannot explain the abundance of osmium, iridium, ruthenium, and Hydrosphere rhodium in the mantle. Saltwater - 97.5%: ocean & seas - marine life & diverse mineral resources Heterogeneous Accretion Hypothesis Freshwater - Core has formed at the same time as - 2.5% (groundwater 30.8%, lake Earth (basic layered structure). river 0.3%, locked in glacier Accreted during condensation, forming 68.9%) a differentiated planet as it grew in - Low salt concentration size. - 1% potable and recycled - Nebula cooled down, particles - Present in the form of rain & condensed collided and accreted. snow; - aluminum & calcium oxides accreted - Permafrost: permanently frozen first, followed by iron and nickel to form soil Earth’s core. - Stored in rivers, streams, ponds, lakes, marshes, glaciers, Supporting Statements and polar caps. ○ Qualitatively explains the density differences among terrestrial planets ○ Explains the abundance of elements PROPERTIES OF OF WATER THAT ENABLE EXISTENCE OF LIFE Loopholes ○ Accretion must be very fast & doesn’t coincide with the occurrence of large Density impact craters. Transition Temperatures ○ Abundances of iron, calcium, titanium, Heat Capacity & aluminum do not coincide with what was predicted. Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 7  NS 100 Density ○ 10% - Domestic purposes, for drinking 3 water and bathing. - Measured as (in 𝑔/𝑐𝑚 ) ○ 20% - Industrial purposes, globally - Water is densest at 3.98°C & is least dense at freezing temperature. C. SUN AS THE MAIN SOURCE OF - Ice floats on the surface of liquid ENERGY water= lower density; - Insulates the underlying liquid & Photosynthesis prevents it from further freezing. - Capture and use to create biological - If ice doesn’t have low density which compounds enables it to float, all organisms living - Sun shines → plants capture sunlight in the lake will be dead. → obtain carbon dioxide from atmosphere and water in the soil → Transition Temperatures plants produce sugar & oxygen, - Consistency of water in maintaining essential for living organisms. liquid form at room temperatures is important as it allows flow & transfer of Albedo substances from the cell to its - ability of a material to reflect light. environment and vice versa. - 0%: absorbs all the light (low albedo) ○ ex. Asphalt, dark colors/ black Heat Capacity - 100% reflects all the light (high albedo) - If water doesn’t have a high heat ○ ex. White paint, ice, light colors capacity, our temperature can get too surfaces high quickly which can be highly - Sunlight & heat are essential detrimental to most organisms. organisms to function properly Hypothesis on the Origin of Water on - Plants capture sun’s energy to Earth produce food ○ The origin of water on Earth suggests that water came from comets that Uses of Solar Energy collided with Earth. ○ Primary source of energy ○ Another theory suggests that water ○ Warms earth; driving forces of weather was already present within Earth since & climate formation as volatiles trapped in ○ Transferred across a vacuum to the magma, & manifested as liquid water surface through radiation during degassing after the crust had ○ Essential in regulating Earth’s formed. temperature. ○ Minimal cost of maintenance of Uses of Water in Modern Civilizations equipments ○ 70% - Agriculture, irrigation of crops Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 8  NS 100 Energy Budget Insolation/sunlight ○ Earth’s albedo is 0.3 - Amount of solar radiation that reaches ○ 30% solar energy reaches the surface a given area of Earth is reflected back to space by - Location, season, angle clouds & light-colored areas ○ 70% solar energy is absorbed by Greenhouse gasses Earth’s surface, atmosphere, land, & - Energy balance is affected ocean. - Trapped solar energy which should've ○ Absorbed solar radiation is balanced reflected back to space with the radiated ones & average - Emit absorbed radiation and warms temperature keeps us stable earth & atmosphere FACTORS AFFECTING EARTH’S D. THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE ENERGY BUDGET The atmosphere is crucial in enabling & maintaining life on Earth. Without the Amount of radiation atmosphere, Earth would look like the Axial tilt moon. There would be no life forms Incolation/sunlight existing on Earth. Greenhouse gasses The bulk of the atmospheric composition: nitrogen & oxygen (99%), Amount of radiation argon (0.9%) &trace gases (0.1%) - Changes in Earth’s orbit & axial tilt-series of ice ages Layer of the Atmosphere The Smart Man Takes THe Elevator Axial tilt - 23.5° vertical tilt, causing sun’s Troposphere- change position to wander at 47° - 5-9 miles, 14.5 km - Amount of radiation coming from the - Closes layer sun - Persistently changing weather in this layer Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 9  NS 100 - Temp. gets cooler as you go the higher in the atmosphere - Regulates weather & climate & hold the water vapor Stratosphere- up to 50 km - Warmer the higher - OZONE Layer- protects from the sun’s harmful UV radiation - Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) causes ozone depletion Characteristics of the Atmosphere that Enable Life on Earth Mesosphere- middle, up to 85km Carbon Dioxide: used by - Coldest layer-85*C photosynthesis organism - Lessened solar heat Oxygen: cellular respiration for - Meteor showers burns up here; humans - Protects from space debris Atmosphere’s Role in the Hydrologic Thermosphere- heat Cycle - Extends up to 600 km - 1500*C Water Cycle - Regulates temperature & filters x-rays - serves as the reservoir of large & ultraviolet radiation amounts of water. - Internation space station orbits ○ Evaporation: converting liquid to gas Exosphere- outside / outmost layer (atmospheric water vapor) - 10 000km ○ Condensation: stored in the form of - Absorbs radiation & protect layers clouds and moisture underneath (hydro & helium) ○ Precipitation: releasing water from cloud, returning from atmosphere The Stratospheric and Tropospheric IV. EARTH SYSTEM Ozone V. Important boundaries Stratospheric: Good ozone & essential A. WHAT IS EARTH SYSTEM Tropospheric: Harmful ozone, irritate SCIENCE? lungs & breakdown lung tissue Earth System Science (ESS) - integration of the different scientific fields Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 10  NS 100 - the study of Earth as an integrated sedimentation driven by heat from system volcanic activities. - seeks to understand the past, current, ○ Uniformitarianism - geological forces - and future state of Earth in the past are the same as those in - interdisciplinary nature of ESS led to the present; determining Earth’s the development of new ideas for history by studying rocks research James Lovelock Notable Scientists/Proponents ○ British environmentalist Vladimir Vernadsky ○ Proposed the “Gaia Hypothesis” or ○ Russian mineralogist and geochemist “Gaia Principle” a postulate that Earth ○ Noosphere - sphere of human works as a self-regulating system consciousness & ○ Proposes that all organisms and their Reason habitats are closely integrated to form ○ Studied & theorized that the a single and self-regulating systems development of human thought & reason led to the concept of Lynn Margulis sustainability ○ American biologist and evolutionary theorist Alexander Von Humboldt ○ Further developed the “Gaia ○ German geographer and naturalist Hypothesis” when she noticed that all ○ Studied how types of organisms living kinds of bacteria release gases as by in certain areas are affected by products transfer of heat through ocean currents ○ Hypothesized that atmospheric gases ○ Determined how distribution of life were from biological sources forms are affected by atmospheric and geophysical factors by collecting NASA Involvement botanical, zoological and geological ○ National Aeronautics and Space specimens Administration ○ In 1983, NASA formed the Earth System Science Committee, aiming to James Hutton understand Earth’s system by using ○ “Father of modern geology” satellites for long-term observations ○ Weathering - rock and soil are transformed through exposure to Knowledge on Earth System Science is Earth’s atmosphere essential to understand Earth’s components ○ Described how Earth was formed in a that are essential in our daily lives and useful repeated cycle of erosion and in drafting policies for conservation of our planet Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 11  NS 100 - It has charged particles that are B. FOUR SUBSYSTEMS OF EARTH affected by Earth’s magnetic field, causing Auroras & Northern Lights Earth has of four major subsystems 1. Atmosphere 2. Geosphere 3. Hydrosphere 4. Biosphere 1. Atmosphere ○ All of the gasses on Earth ○ Comes from the greek word “atmos” meaning gas ○ Karman Line - imaginary line that separates the atmosphere and outer space ○ Nitrogen - the most abundant gas in 2. Geosphere the atmosphere, makes up 78.1% ○ Comes from the greek word “geo” ○ Oxygen - makes up 20.9% meaning ground ○ Argon - a noble gas, makes up 0.9% ○ Carbon Dioxide, etc. - 0.1% Layers: ○ Crust - outermost layer Layers: - Made mostly of silicate materials ○ Troposphere - extends to 14.5 km - Oceanic Crust: 5-10 km thick, - where weather disturbances occur beneath oceanic floors - Continental Crust: 15-70 km thick, ○ Stratosphere - 14.5 to 50 km making up continents - the “ozone layer” protects Earth from - Mohorovicic discontinuity - or UV radiation “Moho” is the boundary between the crust & mantle, named after Andrija Mohorovicic ○ Mesosphere - 50 to 85 km - protects Earth from impact of space ○ Mantle - 2900 km thick layer debris - Mostly made up of silicate rocks, rich - Earth’s coldest temperature (-90°C) in magnesium and iron are found near the top of this layer - Has the lowest temperature, soft enough to allow plates of the crust to ○ Thermosphere - 85 to 600 km move - where many satellites orbit Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 12  NS 100 - Uppermost mantle which is cold & ○ Biomes - communities where brittle, forms the “Lithosphere” with organisms interact with other the crust, the hard rigid outermost organisms & the physical environment layer of Earth, then broken up into - Examples: deserts, tropical tectonic plates rainforests, swamps, or coral reefs - “Asthenosphere” is the layer directly below, hot enough to flow & minimally C. EARTH’S CLIMATE SYSTEM melt, allowing the tectonic plates above to move. Weather - Lower mantle is hotter and denser but - fluctuating state of the atmosphere remains solid because of the immense over a short period of time pressure. - Factors: temperature, wind speed & direction, type of precipitation, & type ○ Core - has a radius of 3,480 km of clouds - Made up of iron & nickel - Has two layers: outer and inner core, Climate separated by the boundary called - average weather over a certain period “Bullen discontinuity” and area - It varies depending on latitude, 3. Hydrosphere distance to large bodies of water, & ○ Comes from the greek word “hydro” geography meaning water ○ Composed of all the water in Earth in Earth’s Subsystems and Climate any form: water vapor, liquid water, - The climate system of Earth is an and ice interactive system consisting of the ○ Salt/Saline water - 97.5% interactions of the atmosphere, ○ Freshwater - 2.5% hydrosphere, biosphere, & geosphere ○ includes all bodies of water like oceans, lakes, rivers, and marshes. Atmosphere ○ Clouds and rain are also part of the - considered the most uneven, unstable, hydrosphere. & fast-changing part of the system - Nitrogen is the most abundant gas in 4. Biosphere the atmosphere, followed by oxygen ○ Comes from the greek word “bio” meaning life Trace gasses ○ Comprised of all living things on Earth: - water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane microbes, plants, animals, insects & nitrous oxide & ozone birds (found in upper area of - Absorb and emit radiation atmosphere) & marine organisms Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 13  NS 100 - They tend to increase temperature of affecting the weather in surrounding Earth’s surface because they absorb areas the outgoing radiation from the surface - Temperature at sea level may also differ from the temperature on elevated Water Vapor places - primary greenhouse gas because it is - Dust from land may also be blown into the most variable component of the the atmosphere and may interact with atmosphere the radiation. - The transitions between the water cycle phases result in continuous Biosphere absorption and emission of energy in - Photosynthesis - allows the release the atmosphere of oxygen and uptake of carbon dioxide, hence, organisms take part in Hydrosphere the exchange of greenhouse gases - Stores and transports large amounts of - Removing many plants & trees in an energy area can cause an increase in free - Oceans act as climate regulators carbon dioxide due to less plant because they strongly influence absorbers, mostly in highly urbanized temperature changes through areas (factories, manufacturing plants) absorbing majority of sunlight that reaches Earth’s surface D. THE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES Soil and Vegetation Biogeochemical Cycle - Control how much energy received - complete path an element or a from the sun is returned to the compound takes through the four environment subsystems of Earth - Soil moisture affects surface - this includes the water, nitrogen, temperature because evaporation of carbon dioxide and oxygen cycles water from soil requires energy Water Cycle - Also known as the “Hydrologic Cycle” - Movement of water from the ocean to Geosphere the atmosphere to land and back to - Topography or description of the the ocean surface feature of the land: affects the wind that blows on the land surface 1. Evapotranspiration - process that - Example: A mountain range may block transfers water from land to the the path of low altitude clouds, atmosphere Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 14  NS 100 - Evaporation - The sun heats up 1. Nitrogen Fixation - process of bodies of water moisture from land converting atmospheric nitrogen into and vegetation, water transforms from biologically available nitrogen liquid to gas (ammonium compounds) - Transpiration - Plants release water - Molecular nitrogen is a very stable vapor through the pores under the compound, so the bond requires a leaves large amount of energy to break - Nitrogen-fixing bacteria - a selected 2. Condensation - Lighter water vapor group of prokaryotes that can carry out cools as it reaches a certain altitude, reactions that break such bond and forms tiny floating droplets - This forms clouds, ground-level fog 2. Nitrification - process that converts and leads to glasses in rooms fogging ammonia and ammonium compounds up into nitrite and then to nitrate - Occurs aerobically (requires oxygen) 3. Precipitation - release of water from and is carried out exclusively by clouds in the form of rain, sleet, hail or prokaryotes snow - The nitrates and nitrites are utilized by - water droplets collide with each other land plants and algae in water bodies. or condense on smaller dust, salt, or - Plants & algae convert the inorganic smoke particles which serve as the forms of nitrogen through different nucleus chemical reactions - Around 60% of precipitation on land evaporates back to the atmosphere 3. Ammonification - also known as each year while 40% returns to the “Nitrogen Mineralization” ocean as runoff - process where fungi & prokaryotes decompose the dead tissue of Nitrogen Cycle organisms & release the inorganic - movement of nitrogen between the nitrogen back into the ecosystem as four spheres ammonia - Nitrogen makes up 78% of the atmosphere - Nitrogen is essential to life’s protein 4. Denitrification - process of releasing synthesis nitrogen back to the atmosphere - Conversion of nitrogen is vital because - organic compounds from dead organisms cannot use molecular organisms are converted back to nitrogen directly ammonia, nitrate, or molecular nitrogen Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 15  NS 100 Carbon-Oxygen Cycle ○ Diffusion - takes place between the - Carbon is present in many forms atmosphere and the surface waters ranging from compounds found in ○ Aerobic respiration - a process which living organisms to fossil fuels produces energy for the organisms - Carbon dioxide & methane enters the ○ Other processes: Metabolism & atmosphere through respiration, Oxidation combustion or burning of organic compounds & diffusion from the VI. MINERALS AND ROCKS ocean. VI. A. ROCK - FORMING MINERALS Photosynthesis - Organisms convert carbon dioxide & Minerals water from the environment into ○ It is a naturally occurring, inorganic glucose and oxygen, removing carbon homogeneous solid, with a definite from the atmosphere chemical composition, and an ordered - Carbon reaches the oceans through crystalline structure. rivers & streams in forms of dissolved carbon, organic compounds, or Physical Properties of Minerals calcium carbonate shells Color - refers to certain wavelengths - Carbon from dead organisms which of light that are reflected by a mineral are buried for a very long time is and is perceived by the observer. converted into fossil fuels Streak - is the color of the powdered form of a mineral. Oxygen Cycle Luster - is the appearance of a - Through this process, we can mineral’s surface and is dependent on determine the amount and distribution how it reflects light. of O2 from the simple and complex Crystal habit - is the characteristic processes both on the surface and shape in which a mineral grows and is beneath Earth a projection of the mineral’s crystal - Oxygen is distributed among structure. reservoirs including the atmosphere, Specific gravity - is the ratio of a oceans, freshwater environments, minerals’ weight to the weight of an soils, and groundwater equal volume of water. Hardness - is the resistance of the ○ Photosynthesis - major mechanism minerals to scratching. that produces oxygen gas occuring in Cleavage - is the tendency of some plants, algae, & in prokaryotes: minerals to break along flat surfaces. cyanobacteria & prochlorophytes Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 16  NS 100 Fracture - is the pattern in which the that are violent or that result in the mineral breaks aside from its planes of extrusion of lava produce and release cleavage. these rocks. Chemical Properties of Minerals ○ Solubility - refers to the ability of a Classification substance to dissolve in a solvent at a - Igneous rocks can be classified based specified temperature. on its texture and composition of the ○ Melting point - refers to the rock. temperature at which solid turns into liquid. Bowen’s reaction series - shows the progression of silicate B. IGNEOUS ROCKS materials crystallization at specific temperatures. Igneous Rocks - are formed from C. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS solidification of magma or lava which flows out from depth. Sedimentary Rocks - were formed from organic, mechanical Form of crystallization of magma. “Fiery.” or chemical sediments. From the cooling of molten material. Lithification Formation of Igneous Rocks - is where hardened sediments become ○ Formation by slow cooling - Plutonic sedimentary rocks (compaction and rock is an ideal example of this. A form cementation). of intrusive igneous rock developed when magma beneath the Earth's Diagenesis surface cools slowly as it crystallizes. - is a collective process where ○ Formation by rapid cooling - sediments are lithified (becomes rock). Volcanic rocks are a prime illustration It has four main parts: of this. A rock formed above the Compaction surface by extrusion of igneous Cementation material. Crystals do not fully form Recrystallization because the lava cools rapidly as it Chemical changes flows out onto the surface. These (oxidation/reduction) combine to form materials like obsidian, which resemble glass. Types of Sedimentary Rocks ○ Formation by pyroclastics - Rocks ○ Clastic Sedimentary Rocks- made made of pyroclastic material are up of sediments from pre-existing excellent examples. Volcanic eruptions rocks. Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 17  NS 100 ○ Metasomatism - formation of new ○ Clast/Detritus – product of minerals with only some original pre-existing rocks that went through elements and new elements were erosion and weathering added through hydrothermal migration. ○ Non-clastic Sedimentary Rocks - are TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS formed from chemical or biological processes rather than the accumulation of rock fragments. ○ Contact Metamorphism - heat from an intruding magma interacts with its Types of Non-clastic Sedimentary Rocks surroundings. ○ Biological - are lithified accumulation of dead organisms. ○ Chemical - formed from chemical precipitation ○ Regional Metamorphism - Pressure brought by the movement of rock. D. METAMORPHIC ROCKS Metamorphic Rocks - Given to those rocks that experience change or go through a metamorphic process. ○ Foliated metamorphic rocks are Metamorphosis - rocks undergo formed by the formation of parallel mineralogical and texture changes. planes of platy or elongated minerals, Where a rock acquires new properties due to known as foliations. temperature and pressure. FORMATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS Recrystallization - occurs when small crystals of one Increasing metamorphism causes distinct mineral gradually transform into larger bands or foliation to form. crystals without melting the rock. ○ Neomorphism - different minerals form from the same chemical elements. Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 18  NS 100 E. PRACTICAL USES OF MINERAL RESOURCES The mineral halite is the source of the rock salt that is in our homes. Additionally, quartz and silicon are found in computers, copper is found in electrical wiring, and gold is found in electronic circuit boards because it is a good conductor of When granite is subjected to extreme heat electricity and can be easily formed into fine and pressure, it transforms from an igneous wires in the fields of electronics, rock into a metamorphic rock known as infrastructure, and manufacturing. Minerals gneiss. are also utilized in health and medicine. In Gneiss is a high grade rock that has a addition, barium is a useful addition to characteristic of distinct foliation that shows medication in X-rays of the digestive system alternating layers made of various minerals. and iron in the treatment of anemia. Certain ○ Non-foliated metamorphic rocks do minerals, such as gemstones, diamonds, not have layered appearance. and emeralds, which are found in most jewelry, are also used for aesthetic purposes. In general, minerals are necessary for daily living, and one way to determine whether a mineral can be utilized is through an examination of its chemical and physical properties. F. FINDING AND MINING MATERIALS Mineral Deposits ○ aggregates of minerals present in high concentration. ○ Regardless of whether it has high economic value or none, an accumulation of minerals are still considered mineral Shows that all rocks are related to each other. deposits. ○ Categorized into four (4) groups Four Groups of Mineral Deposits Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 19  NS 100 diamond bearing rocks known 1. Energy Resources can be further as kimberlites were carried from divided into fossil fuels and nuclear the mantle to the surface. ○ Geologists search for these fuels. ancient volcanic pipes when 2. Metal Resources include structural looking for diamond deposits. metals such as iron, copper, and aluminum as well as economic metals. Geochemical Methods 3. Industrial Mineral resources include ○ Merging the idea of the commodities such as salt, potash, and chemical properties of minerals sand. and geology of a location, compounds present in the ore 4. Essential Minerals are minerals that and its abundance will be pertain to those needed by living identified. organisms. Mining Mineral Exploration Mining is the extraction of valuable - Searching for valuable ore is called minerals from mineral deposits. mineral exploration. There are two methods of mining: surface mining and underground - Most ore deposits are found in mining mixtures with minerals called gangue minerals or minerals that have no Surface Mining commercial value. ○ Is being used to extract ore minerals near the surface of Various exploration techniques were used to Earth. ○ This type of mining is being assess ore deposits: performed to obtain sand, gravel, coal, phosphates, iron, Remote Sensing copper, and aluminum. ○ This method uses devices such ○ Usually preferred over as sonar, radar, and satellite underground mining since it is images to gather image less expensive, safer, and it representation of the earth’s involves less electricity and surface. water. ○ These representations aid us in ○ Poses more environmental finding probable mining sites. problems than underground mining. Geophysical Methods ○ There are five types of surface ○ a technique that uses the mining: properties of minerals and Strip mining is usually geology to determine their used in extracting coal. location. (ex. diamond This type of mining is extraction) ideal on surfaces that are ○ Through volcanic pipes, flat and horizontal. Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 20  NS 100 Open pit mining, also Shrinkage stoping is a known as open-cast method where the ore mining, is considered as deposits are excavated the most common type of by slicing a horizontal surface mining. pattern, starting from the Dredging is a type of bottom of the deposit mining that is used to going upwards. collect unconsolidated Vertical crater retreat materials from bodies of (VCR) is a method that water. uses crater blasting Mountaintop removal techniques where mining is a form of strip powerful explosives are mining where the placed in big holes. This mountaintops are method is widely used by removed to extract coal, miners worldwide. and the wastes are dumped to nearby areas Factors Affecting Mineral Availability called valley fills. Geologic factors that affect Highwall mining is an abundance of mineral deposits are open-cut mining which geological origin of the area. can be a combination of surface and underground Economic factors include the costs in mining. getting the supply such as engineering, mineral extraction. Underground Mining Environmental factors affect mineral ○ used to extract the rocks, resources. minerals, and other precious stones that can be found deep VI. REVIEW QUESTIONS beneath Earth’s surface. ○ requires the creation of a tunnel Google Forms Link: Google Form Link so miners can reach the ore minerals. 1. A cosmological model that explains how the ○ More expensive and dangerous universe began. due to explosive use. 2. A planetary embryo that consists of a ○ Costlier and riskier with collection of matter, from which a planet is explosive mining. formed. ○ Pricier and more perilous due to explosives. 3. An area predicted to be in the core of a black ○ Several Methods of hole with very high temperature and density. Underground mining: 4. Formation of elements, such as H (Hydrogen) Room-and-pillar mining and He (Helium). is a method used to 5. A giant cloud of gas and dust in space. extract mineral resources 6. The combination of big crunch and the big that are deep and bang tabular. Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 21  NS 100 7. The process when gravity attracts tiny bits of matter towards an object. 8. Where the ozone layer is found. 9. Ability of a material to reflect light. 10. The water environment on Earth. 11. Amount of solar radiation that reaches a given area. 12. Imaginary line that separates the atmosphere and outer space. 13. Fluctuating state of the atmosphere over a short period of time. 14. Average weather over a certain period and area. 15. Rock and soil are transformed through exposure to Earth’s atmosphere. 16. Movement of water from the ocean to the atmosphere to land and back to the ocean 17. It is a naturally occurring, inorganic homogeneous solid, with a definite chemical composition, and an ordered crystalline VII. VALIDATED structure. 18. It is a collective process where sediments are Prepared by: lithified (becomes rock). 19. Product of pre-existing rocks that went through erosion and weathering. (SGD) Jade Andrew D. Castro 20. It is a permanently frozen soil. G12 Science Representative 21. Were formed from organic, mechanical or chemical sediments. (SGD) Shekinah Carla M. Baguio 22. These are formed from solidification of Subject Leader magma or lava which flows out from depth. 23. Occurs when small crystals of one mineral (SGD) Katrina Angela D. Ponce gradually transform into larger crystals without Member melting the rock. 24. Plants release water vapor through the pores (SGD) Janessa Mikaela L. Lasala under the leaves. 25. Stored in the form of clouds and moisture Member (SGD) Jacob Marcus B. Carandang Member (SGD) Quincy Nichole R. Atabelo Member Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 22  NS 100 Approved by: (SGD) Carlo Andro Juanico Earth and Life Sciences Teacher Disclaimer: This reviewer is only verified by one teacher in NS 100 however, you may still use this reviewer but please do not depend fully on its contents. If ever you feel that what is written was not discussed, please do clarify with your subject teachers. 23