Earth Science PDF

UNIVERSE The Universe or cosmos contains all galaxies, stars, and planets Our solar system is located in the Milky Way galaxy, which is one of many galaxies in the Universe. Cosmology is the branch of science that studies the origin, evolution and fate of the universe' Aristotle (384 -- 322 B.C....

UNIVERSE The Universe or cosmos contains all galaxies, stars, and planets Our solar system is located in the Milky Way galaxy, which is one of many galaxies in the Universe. Cosmology is the branch of science that studies the origin, evolution and fate of the universe' Aristotle (384 -- 322 B.C.) Remarked that the universe had existed and would exist forever, but it never had a beginning. Support Geocentric Model/theory of Ptolemy. He said the Universe can be divided in 2 parts: 1\. Imperfect, changeable Earth 2\. Perfect heavens Geocentric Universe: The motion of the Earth should result in an observable parallax, which was not seen. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473--1543) Shift in the field of astronomy from geocentric understanding of the universe. He proposed the heliocentric universe (Sun in the center). Galileo Galilei Introduced the modern view of science: transition from a faith-based "science" to an observation-based science Greatly improved on the newly invented telescope technology (But Galileo did NOT invent the telescope!) Was the first to meticulously report telescope observations of the sky to support the Copernican Model of the Universe Major Discoveries of Galileo: Moons of Jupiter (4 Galilean moons) Sun spots (proving that the Sun is not perfect!) Phases of Venus (including "full Venus"), proving that Venus orbits the Sun,\ not the Earth! Big Bang -- is the leading explanation about how the universe began. In this theory, energy and matter divided and became distinct from each other. Steady State -- it states that the universe has been present ever since and therefore has no beginning and no end. According to this theory, the density of matter in the expanding universe remains unchanged due to a continuous creation of matter. Pulsating Universe -- it combines both the Big Bang and the Big Crunch as a part of a cyclic event. This theory, which is more commonly known as the oscillating or cyclic universe theory, postulates that the universe goes through regular cycles of expansion and destruction. The Big Crunch States -- states at a certain point in time, it will stop expanding and collapse into itself, pulling everything with it until it eventually turns into the biggest black hole ever. Is one of the scenarios predicted by scientists in which the Universe may end. Our solar system consists of an average star we call the Sun and the planets. It includes: the satellites of the planets; numerous comets, asteroids, and meteoroids; and the interplanetary medium. Our solar system started to form around 4.6 billion years ago. Nebular Hypothesis (Pierre Simon Laplace) -- the concentration of gas and dust surrounding and orbiting the early sun became minute particles, w/c then coalesced to form planetesimals. Planetismal Hypothesis (Chamberlin and Moulton) -it explains that when a star passes close to the early sun, the hot matter is tidally stripped from the Sun and the star. Protoplanet Hypothesis -it integrates several components of Laplace\'s theory and incorporates new ideas by understanding fluids and states of matter. Cometary Collision Hypothesis (Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon) \- the , proposed in 1749, was the idea that a comet struck the Sun and broke off fragments which formed the planets. Earth - was otherwise known as the world, is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life. It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets. What is Unique about the Earth? Earth has the following: The existence of water at the Earth's surface -- neither too much nor too little -- that is in liquid form. Proximity to the sun -- neither too much heat nor too little. System of plate tectonics that enables the carbon -- silicate cycle regulating temperature. The right size -- large enough to hang on to its atmosphere, but not so large to hold on too much. Its protection by "big brother Jupiter," whose gravity helps diverts and vacuum up incoming debris and keeps Earth safe. The only moon and it's stabilizing effect on our planetary rotation, which prevents the poles from shifting unexpectedly. FACTORS THAT MAKES EARTH HABITABLE TEMPERATURE \-- influences how quick atoms and molecules move, allows liquid water to exist on earth Water -- is an excellent solvent, capable of dissolving many substances, 70% of Earth's surface is covered by water. ATMOSPHERE \-- traps heat and shields the surface from harmful radiation and provides chemical needed for life such as nitrogen and carbon dioxide, it regulates the balance of water oxygen and carbon dioxide. ENERGY FROM THE SUN: used by organisms to run their life processes NUTRIENTS; used to build and maintain organism\'s body. Plate Tectonics -- is vital for a world to host life -- that is, a planet whose shell is broken up into plates that constantly move around. Atmosphere -- contains 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% argon. It blocks some of the Sun's dangerous rays from reaching Earth. It traps heat, making Earth a comfortable temperature. And the oxygen within our atmosphere is essential for life. Atmosphere Gaseous blanket of air that envelops, shields, and insulates Earth. Contains substances that are essential for life, including carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen. The atmosphere contains all the air in Earth\'s system. Troposphere The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth\'s atmosphere. It extends about 8 to 16 kilometers from the Earth\'s Surface. Almost all weather occurs within this layer that is why it is called Zone of weather\". Stratosphere The stratosphere is the layer of the atmosphere directly above the troposphere. The stratosphere is where you\'ll find the very important ozone layer. The ozone layer helps protect us from ultraviolet radiation (UV) from the sun: tropopause-boundary that separates the troposphere from the stratosphere. Mesosphere It is the third layer of the atmosphere. This is where the meteorites burn up before they reach Earth. This layer protects the Earth\'s surface from being hit by most meteoroids. It is the coldest layer. Thermosphere Has extremely high temperature, the temperature is very high in this layer because the rays from the sun are absorbed in this layer. Some satellites orbit here. Exosphere The Exosphere is the uppermost region of the Earth\'s atmosphere and has no clear upper boundary since it gradually fades into outer space. Hydrosphere -Contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the planet. -Includes the waters of Earth-oceans, lakes, rivers, and glaciers. -Water is essential for the existence and maintenance of life on earth. Geosphere Solid part of the earth, from the core to the surface. Includes landforms, rocks, soils, and minerals. Biosphere The biosphere is a narrow zone of the earth where land, water, air interact with each other to support life. Composed of all living things: people, animals, and plants. Also known as the ecosphere, is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems. It can also be termed the zone of life on Earth. Environment is the surrounding in which an organization operates, including water, land and natural resources. It is where human beings, animals, or plants lives. It is the basic life support system. Ecosystem: It is a community or group of living organisms that live in and interact with each other in a specific environment. Ecology is a branch of biology concerning interactions among organisms and their biophysical environment that includes both biotic and abiotic components. ROCKS AND MINERALS mineral is a natural inorganic substances with a definite chemical composition. It is found in the earth's crust and does not come from living things. It is naturally formed solid element or compound in which atoms and molecules are bound in together in a definite orderly arrangement to form crystals. Minerals are found in rocks. They appear like grains set firmly in a bed of rock. Some are dark and others are light in color. Hardness: is the resistance of a mineral to scratching or abrasion. To test the hardness of a mineral sample, scratch it against another. The Mohs scale rates the hardness of minerals by their ability to scratch softer minerals. Color: is one way of telling one mineral from another. It is their usually most noticeable and interesting property. But it is not the reliable. Streak: Refers to the color of the powder a rock or minerals leaves behind when rubbed on a rough surface. The mineral hematite may be reddish brown or brownish black when viewed in solid form but is always cherry red in powder form. Luster: Show how much light is reflected in a mineral. This depends on the brilliance of light used to observe the surface of the minerals. Cleavage: When a minerals break along a flat, smooth surface. Fracture: Fracture is breakage that is not flat. The two main kinds of fracture are conchoidal (shell-shaped, as in quartz) and uneven The richness of the Philippines in term of mineral resources is being attributed to its location at western fringes of so called Pacific Ring of Fire The Philippines is situated along the circum Pacific Ring of Fire where the processes of volcanism and plate convergence caused the deposition of minerals, both metallic and non-metallic. Among our important metallic minerals found in abundance in various parts of the country include gold, copper, iron, chromite, nickel, cobalt and platinum while our non-metallic resources include sand and gravel, limestone, marble, clay and other quarry materials, The most prolific copper and gold products are found in Baguio and Mankayan district province of Benguet; although the Surigao- Davao district are also contributing much to Philippine gold production. Major producers of nickel are in Palawan and Surigao. A rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of minerals and/or other rock fragments. IGNEOUS ROCKS: Form from the cooling and crystallization/solidification of molten lava or magma. Extrusive/Volcanic: rocks that form the cooling of lava are generally fine -- grained because they cool quickly, before large crystals grow. Intrusive / Plutonic: rocks that form from the underground cooling of magma are generally coarse -- grained because they cool slowly so that the large crystals have time to grow Felsic - light colored rocks that are rich in elements such as aluminum, potassium, silicon, and sodium\ Mafic - dark colored rocks that are rich in calcium, iron, and magnesium, poor in silicon\ Coarse-grained - takes longer to cool, giving mineral crystals more time to grow\ Fine-grained - cools quickly with little to no crystals SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: Are formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living organisms. They form from deposits that accumulate on the Earth\'s surface. \- Formed when loose sediment (rocks, sand) is deposited by water, compacted, and cemented together. \- Sedimentary rocks are fossil-carrying rocks. Clastic sedimentary rocks -- made of fragments of rock cemented together. Chemical - form from minerals dissolved in water; which settle-out/precipitate. Organic - form from the accumulation of plant/animal matter that undergoes a transformation into rock. METAMORPHIC ROCKS: Existing rocks are changed through high heat and pressure to form different rocks Foliated - rock has mineral crystals arranged in layers or parallel bands. Non-Foliated/Unfoliated - rock does not have mineral crystals arranged in layers; do not break in layers/sheet rocks that form from pre-existing rocks (sedimentary, igneous, metamorphic);that have been changed. WATER RESOURCES WATER -- is a marvelous substance which can be beautiful, powerful and destructive Water -- is found i Is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of clean, fresh water is steadily decreasing. FRESH WATER: Water demand already exceeds supply in many parts of the world and as the world population continues to rise, so too does the water demand. Water resources are divisible into two distinct categories: the surface water resources and ground -- water resources. Each of these categories is a part of the earth's water circulatory system, called the hydrologic cycle and is derived from precipitation, which is rainfall plus snow SURFACE WATER - is a water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland. \- Is naturally replenished by precipitation and naturally loss through discharge to the oceans, evaporation and sub -- surface seepage. A lake is a large area of fresh water, surrounded by land. Provide water for agricultural irrigation, industrial process, municipal uses and residential water supplier. Saline lakes: Water cannot be used due to high salinity Caspian Sea, The Dead sea (between Jordan and Israel) Rivers: Are bodies of flowing surface water driven by gravity. Wetlands and soil moistures: are areas of land where water covers the surface for at least part of the year Groundwater is fresh water located in the pore space of soil and rocks. It is also water that is flowing within aquifers below the water table. DESALINATION -- is an artificial process which saline water (generally sea water) is converted to fresh water. Frozen water: Several schemes have been proposed to make use of icebergs as a water sources, however to date this has only been done for novelty purposes. Glacier runoff is considered to be surface water. Ice and snow\ - contain almost 90% of freshwater\ - is as much as 2km thick\ - situate mostly in Antarctica (85%), Greenland (10%) and other snow mountain (5%) Atmosphere: Contains about 0.0011% of total Earth's water Movement of water through atmosphere provide mechanism for distributing freshwater to terrestrial reservoir )in form of rain, snow and hail OCEAN: Is the largest area and volume of water. Contain more than 97% of the earth's water. Can be used after being desalinated. Pacific (the largest), Atlantic, Indian, Southern (ANTARCTIC), and Arctic (the smallest). Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto (4moons of jupiter)  - Nonrenewable Energy Resources : Fossil fuels: are found inside the earth crust where they have formed through heat and compression of forest waste and other organic matter, which got buried due to Earthquake and landslide. - CLASSIFICATION OF FOSSIL FUEL - Solid (Coal) - Liquid (Petroleum) - Gas is the most abundant fossil fuel in the world - Coal: is a solid, black rock-like substance and is the Earth\'s most abundant fuel. It\'s organic nature ensures the presence of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur, key elements found in decomposed plant and animal remains. - Petroleum: is natural a underground fossil energy resources - It is formed due to decomposition of micro plankton deposited upon the sea beds, lakes, and river for millions of years. - Natural gas: Another type of fossil fuel that is generally used for cooking and heating homes. - Nuclear power: Energy can also obtained from radioactive elements. - Nuclear energy harvest the powerful energy in the nucleus or core of an atom in a process called NUCLEAR FISSION. - Renewable Energy Resources - Geothermal power plants use steam to produce electricity. The steam comes from reservoirs of hot water found a few miles or more below the earth\'s surface. The steam rotates a turbine that activates a generator, which produces electricity. - Wind energy: the process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical power or electricity. - Solar energy: any type of energy generated by the sun. - Used to heat homes, water and generate electricity - Solar power plants turn sunlight into electricity. - Hydroelectric cell: s a renewable source of energy that generates power by using a dam or diversion structure to alter the natural flow of a river or other body of water. - Biomass energy: renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals. - Biomass contains stored chemical energy from the sun that is produced by plants through photosynthesis. - Biomass can be burned directly for heat or converted to liquid and gaseous fuels through various processes. - Generator- converts mechanical energy to electricity, for transmission and distribution to power lines. TRUE OR FALSE 1. Lakes and oceans are the only bodies of water in hydrosphere (FALSE)- only, is incorrect 2. Renewable material that comes from plants and animals is called biomass (TRUE) 3. The big crunch theory is the leading explanation on how the universe is created (FALSE)- Bigcrunch should be bigbang theory - Goldilocks Zone- or habitable zone, is the range of distance with the right temperatures for water to remain liquid. - Forms most of the earths crust, including oceans crust (BASALT) - Machine that transforms liquid to electricity (TURBINE)