8th Social Science Textbook (Karnataka)

Government of Karnataka Social science (Revised Textbook) 8 EIGHTH STANDARD KARNATAKA TEXT BOOK SOCIETY (R) 100 Feet Ring Road, Banashankari, 3rd stage Bengaluru-85. I  Preface The Textbook...

Government of Karnataka Social science (Revised Textbook) 8 EIGHTH STANDARD KARNATAKA TEXT BOOK SOCIETY (R) 100 Feet Ring Road, Banashankari, 3rd stage Bengaluru-85. I  Preface The Textbook Society, Karnataka has been engaged in producing new textbooks according to the new syllabi prepared which in turn are designed based on NCF – 2005 since June 2010. Textbooks are prepared in 11 languages; seven of them serve as the media of instruction. From standard 1 to 4 there is the EVS and 5th to 10th there are three core subjects namely mathematics, science and social science. NCF – 2005 has a number of special features and they are: Connecting knowledge to life activities Learning to shift from rote methods Enriching the curriculum beyond textbooks Learning experiences for the construction of knowledge Making examinations flexible and integrating them with classroom experiences Caring concerns within the democratic policy of the country Make education relevant to the present and future needs. Softening the subject boundaries-integrated knowledge and the joy of learning. The child is the constructor of knowledge The new books are produced based on three fundamental approaches namely. Constructive approach, Spiral Approach and Integrated approach The learner is encouraged to think, engage in activities, master skills and competencies. The materials presented in these books are integrated with values. The new books are not examination oriented in their nature. On the other hand they help the learner in the total development of his/her personality, thus help him/her become a healthy member of a healthy society and a productive citizen of this great country, India. II  In Social science especially in standard V the first chapter deals with the historical, geographical, cultural and local study of the division in which learners live. Chapters on sociology, business studies and commerce are introduced in standard VIII as per the guidelines of NCF-2005. A lot of additional information is given through box items. Learners are encouraged to work towards construction of knowledge through assignments and projects. Learning load of memorizing dates has been reduced to the minimum. Life values have been integrated with content of each chapter. The Textbook Society expresses grateful thanks to the chairpersons, writers, scrutinisers, artists, staff of DIETs and CTEs and the members of the Editorial Board and printers in helping the Text Book Society in producing these textbooks. Prof. G S Mudambadithaya Nagendra Kumar Coordinator Managing Director Curriculum Revision and Textbook Preparation Karnataka Textbook Society® Karnataka Textbook Society® Bengaluru. Bengaluru. III  Foreword The text book which is being prepared for the high school students has come out differently and distinctively. This book has come out with unique features while compared with the previous texts that have appeared in the Text book. It should be noted that the 8th standard text book has incorporated Political Science, Sociology, Economics and Business Studies along with the traditional subjects like History and Geography as per the guidelines of NCF-2005. We have made all the attempts to make this text easily understood and read comfortably, since this is a project of the Government oriented towards the common man. The present text has included the creative curriculum in order to discourage rote-learning in the system. We have designed the texts as it should correlate with the experiences of the students. We have deleted unnecessary dates and data that are burdensome to the students. Instead, the text gives attention to the historical understanding and the process. Besides, the text has provided ample information in order to understand contemporary affairs in the boxes throughout the text. We have endeavoured to project these issues as part of the experience of both the students and teachers. Members of the text book preparation committee dedicated themselves to prepare this text on international academic standards. I acknowledge the members of the text book preparation committee for bringing this text successfully. I extend my gratitude to the Editorial Board, Translation Committee, Scrutinizers and Chief Advisors for their valuable suggestions in bringing out this text book. I am grateful to Prof. G.S. Mudambadithaya, Officers and technical assistant of the Karnataka Text Book Society for their dedication in involving in the text book preparation project. I thank Dr. Shashikantha Koudur of NITK, Surathkal for his effort in editing the language in the text book. Prof. Vijay Poonacha Thambanda Chairperson, Text Book Committee. IV  Text Book Committee CHAIRperson Dr. Vijay Poonacha Thambanda, Professor, Department of History, Kannada University, Hampi, Vidyaranya, Ballari. MEMBERS Dr. M. Shashidhar, Associate Professor, Department of History, Bengaluru University, Bengaluru-56. Sri N. Sathyaprakash, Asst. Master, Vidyavardhaka Sangha High School, Ist Block, Rajajinagar, Bengaluru-10. Sri P. A. Kumar, Retd. Head Master, Vijaya High School, 3rd Block, Jayanagara, Bengaluru-11 Dr. Lakshmipathi.C.G, Associate Professor, Department of Sociology, Smt. VHD Home Science College, Sheshadri Road, Bengaluru- 01. Sri K. R. Manjunath, Principal, MES Pre-University College, BTM Layout, Bengaluru-76. Sri B. Hanumantharao, Lecturer, Govt. Pre-University College, Chikkaballapura. Sri G.N. Kempaiah, Lecturer, Govt. Pre-University College, Dandinasivara, Turvekere Tq., Tumakurukur Dist. Sri A.S. Dikshit, Retd. Principal, Vani Education Centre, Basaveswaranagar, Bengaluru-79. Sri Shaik Irfan, Drawing Teacher, Police Public School, KSRP Campus, Koramangala, Bengaluru. SCRUTINIZERS Dr. Rajaram Hegde, Professor, Deparment of History, Kuvempu Univesity, Shankaraghatta, Shivamogga. Prof. T.D. Devegowda, Professor, Deparment of Political Science , Dean (study centers) K S O U, Mysuru. Dr. Ranganatha, Professor and Head, PG center of Geography , Maharani’s woman Arts & Commerce College, Mysuru. Dr. Jogan Shankar, Professor, Department of Sociology, Mangaluru University, Mangaluru. Dr. S.R. Keshav, Faculty, Department of Economics, Bengaluru University, Bengaluru-56. Dr. K. R. Srilakshmi, Associate Professor, Department of Commerce, Govt. First Grade College, 6th Block, Jayanagar, Bengaluru. Editorial Board Dr. R. L. M. Patil, Retd. Professor, Department of Political Science, Bengaluru University, Bengaluru-56. Dr. Eshwarappa, Professor, Department of Geography, Bengaluru University, Bengaluru-56. Sri Ramprasad, (History ) Principal, Sri ARS PU College, Hariharapura, Chikkamagaluru District. TranslatORS Prof. Geetha Sreenivasan, 329/1, 1st Cross, 23rd Main, Sarakhikere Village, 5th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-78. Dr. Ranganatha, Professor and Head, PG center of Geography , Maharani’s woman Arts & Commerce College, Mysuru. Sri K. R. Manjunatha, Principal, MES Pre- University College, BTM Layout, Bengaluru-76. Chief Coordinator Prof. G.S.Mudambadithaya, Coordinator, Syllabus Revision and Text Book preparation committee, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru. Chief Advisor Sri Nagendra Kumar, Managing Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru- 85. Smt Nagamani C. Deputy Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru -85. Programme COORDINATOR Sri A. T. Rangadasappa, Senior Asst. Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru -85. V  About the Revision of Textbooks Honourable Chief Minister Sri Siddaramaiah who is also the Finance Minister of Karnataka, in his response to the public opinion about the new textbooks from standard I to X, announced, in his 2014-15 budget speech of constituting an expert-committee, to look into the matter. He also spoke of the basic expectations there in, which the textbook experts should follow: “ The textbooks should aim at inculcating social equality, moral values, development of personality, scientific temper, critical acumen, secularism and the sense of national commitment”, he said. Later, for the revision of the textbooks from class I to X, the Department of Education constituted twenty seven committees and passed an order on 24-11-2014. The committees so constituted were subject and class-wise and were in accordance with the standards prescribed. Teachers who are experts in matters of subjects and syllabi were in the committees. There were already many complaints, and analyses about the textbooks. So, a freehand was given in the order dated 24-11-2014 to the responsible committees to examine and review text and even to prepare new text and revise if necessary. Eventually, a new order was passed on 19-9-2015 which also gave freedom even to re-write the textbooks if necessary. In the same order, it was said that the completely revised textbooks could be put to force from 2017-18 instead of 2016-17. Many self inspired individuals and institutions, listing out the wrong information and mistakes there in the text, had sent them to the Education Minister and to the Textbook Society. They were rectified. Before rectification we had exchanged ideas by arranging debates. Discussions had taken place with Primary and Secondary Education Teachers’ Associations. Questionnaires were administered among teachers to pool up opinions. Separate meeting were held with teachers, subject inspectors and DIET Principals. Analytical opinions had been collected. To the subject experts of science, social science, mathematics and languages, textbooks were sent in advance and later meeting were held for discussions. Women associations and science related organistation were also invited for discussions. Thus, on the basis of all inputs received from various sources, the textbooks have been revised where ever necessary. VI  Another very important aspect has to be shared here. We constituted three expert committees. They were constituted to make suggestions after making a comparative study of the texts of science, mathematics and social science subjects of central schools (NCERT), along with state textbooks. Thus, the state textbooks have been enriched basing on the comparative analysis and suggestions made by the experts. The state textbooks have been guarded not to go lower in standards than the textbooks of central schools. Besides, these textbooks have been examined along side with the textbooks of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra states. Another clarification has to be given here. Whatever we have done in the committees is only revision, it is not the total preparation of the textbooks. Therefore, the structure of the already prepared textbooks have in no way been affected or distorted. They have only been revised in the background of gender equality, regional representation, national integrity, equality and social harmony. While doing so, the curriculum frames of both central and state have not been transgressed. Besides, the aspirations of the constitution are incorporated carefully. Further, the reviews of the committees were once given to higher expert committees for examination and their opinions have been inculcated into the textbooks. Finally, we express our grateful thanks to those who strived in all those 27 committees with complete dedication and also to those who served in higher committees and experts of revised text also. At the same time, we thank all the supervising officers of the Textbook Society who sincerely worked hard in forming the committees and managed to see the task reach it’s logical completion. We thank all the members of the staff who co-operated in this venture. Our thanks are also due to the subject experts and to the associations who gave valuable suggestions. Narasimhaiah Prof. Baraguru Ramachandrappa Managing Director Chairman-in-Chief Karnataka Textbook Society (R) Textbook Revision Committees Bengaluru. Karnataka Textbook Society (R) Bengaluru. VII  Text Book Revision Committee Chairman in chief Prof. Baraguru Ramachandrappa, Chairman, State Textbook Revision Committee, K.T.B.S. Bengaluru. CHAIRperson Dr. Aswathanarayana, Professor, Department of History, University of Mysore, Mysuru. MEMBERS Dr. Aswathanarayana, Professor, Department of History, Bangalore University, Bengaluru-56. Dr. J. Somashekar, Professor, Department of Political Science, Vijayanagar Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Ballari. Dr. H.D. Prashant, Professor, Department of Developmental Studies, Kannada University, Hampi, Vidyaranya. Dr. S.T. Bagalkoti, Professor, Department of Studies in Economics, Karnatak University, Dharwad. Prof. P. Mallappa, Professor (Retd.), Department of Geography, J.S.S. College, Mysuru. Dr. B. Shekhar, Professor, Department of Studies and Research in Commerce, Tumkur University, Tumakuru. Sri A.S. Dikshit, Principal (Retd.), Vani Education Centre, Basaveswaranagar, Bengaluru-79. Sri Iaranna M. Ambi, Asst. Teacher, G.H.S. Tadakodu, Dharwad Taluk and District. Sri D.N. Venkatesh, Drawing Teacher, G.H.S. Uramarkasalagere, Mandya Taluk and District. SCRUTINIZERS Sri. Ashok V.Shettar, Associate Professor, Deparment of History and Archaeology, Karnatak Univesity, Dharwad. Dr. M.S. Talawar, Professor (Retd.), Deparment of Studies in Education, Bangalore University, Bengaluru. Dr. Dhasharath Naik, Professor, Department of Economics, Gulbarga University, Kalaburagi. Dr. Haseen Taj, Professor, Deparment of Studies in Education, Bangalore University, Bengaluru. TranslatORS Sri R. Sadananda, Lecturer, Government Pre University College, Arkalavadi, Chamarajnagar District. Sri Nisar Ahamad, Lecturer, Government Pre University College, Kamalapura, Hosapete, Ballari District. Chief Advisor Sri. Narasimhaiah, Managing Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru- 85. Smt. Nagamani, C., Deputy Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru -85. Programme COORDINATOR Sri A. T. Rangadasappa, Senior Asst. Director, Karnataka Text Book Society, Bengaluru -85. VIII  CONTENTS Sl. Page No No. History 1. sourceS 1 2. GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES and Pre Historic INDIA 6 3. ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS OF INDIA 13 4. Ancient Civilizations of the World 25 5. GREEK, ROMAN AND AMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS 32 6. Rise of jainism and buddhism 47 7. MAURYAS AND KUSHANS 55 8. THE GUPTAS and Vardhanas 62 9. SOUTH INDIA-SHATAVAHANAS, KADAMBAS AND GANGAS 69 THE CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI AND THE PALLAVAS OF 10. 76 KANCHI THE RASHTRAKUTAS OF MANYAKHETA and ThE 11. 82 Chalukyas of kalyana 12. THE CHOLAS and Hoysalas OF DWARASAMUDRA 89 Political Science 1. Meaning and importance of political science 95 2. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 98 3. HUMAN RIGHTS 112 4. Local Government 118 IX  Sociology 1. INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY 129 2. CULTURE 140 3. SOCIal inSTITUTIONS 146 4. TYPES OF SOCIETY 151 Geography 1. THE EARTH–OUR LIVING PLANEt 159 2. LITHOSPHERE 166 3. ATMOSPHERE 182 4. HYDROSPHERE 194 5. BIOSPHERE 202 Economics 1. INTRODUCTION TO ECONOMICS 208 2. MEANING AND TYPES OF ECONOMY 215 NATIONAL INCOME AND SECTORAL ASPECTS 3. 224 OF THE iNDIAN ECONOMY 4. GOVERNMENT AND THE ECONOMY 235 Business studiES 1. COMPONENTS OF BUSINESS STUDIES 245 2. BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY 252 3. FORMS OF BUSINESs ORGANISATIONS 261 X  History Chapter - I Sources In this chapter you learn : Sources required to the study of history. Types of sources of history. Importance of the archaeological sources. Importance of the inscription. Importance of Oral sources in history History is a systematic study of the past. History is written on the basis of sources. Hence, ‘there is no source no history’ is the stance of history. Historian is like an advocate. The advocates present their arguments on the basis of followed evidences and sources related to their case. Similarly, historians collect the sources, subject them to critical examination, analysis and then write the history. Whenever direct sources are not available, they need to make assumptions based on the available sources. Hence, often an event is analysed from different perspectives by different historians. What is a source? Human beings had created many facilitates to lead their life since ancient times. If the things used by human beings in the past have remained, then they are called as the sources by historians. Hence, the agricultural tools left by the earlier people, forts, coins, inscriptions, arms, temples and other religious buildings are considered as sources to write history. Similarly, the written documents and literary works are the main source of history. The materials needed for the writing of history are the primary sources. These sources can be divided into two: a) Literary sources b) Archaeological sources a) Literary Sources : There are two types in literary sources : 1) Written Literature 2) Oral Literature 1. Written Literature Written literature is the main source of literary sources. Literature 1 can bring the contemporary social life of the times of the writer alive to us. A literary work portrays the then existing aspects of life either directly or indirectly. There are two types in written literary forms. Native Literature: The literature created by Indians in native languages is called as the Native Literature. Literary works in Sanskrit, Prakruth, Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, Hindi, Marathi, Kashmiri, Gujarathi, Oriya and in many others native languages are the sources. Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’, King Hala’s “Gathaspathasathi’, Vishaka Dutta’s ‘Mudrarakshas’, Kalhana’s ‘Rajatarangini’, Banabhatta’s ‘Harsha Charitha’, Chand Bhardayi’s ‘Prithiviraja Raso’, Pampa’s ‘Vikramarjunavijaya’, sangam literature, and many other such literary works can be named as native literature. These works portray then contemporary social, religious, economic, cultural and political life of people. Foreign Literature : Many foreigners who visited India as travellers, ambassadors, businessmen, officials and missionaries have recorded their observations and experiences in their works. These works are considered as foreign literature. Megasthanese’s ‘Indica’, Fa-hien’s -Gho-ko-ki’, Hiuen Tsang’s ‘Si-yu-ki’, Tolemy’s ‘Geography’, Ferishta’s ‘Tarikh-i-Ferishtha’, Babar’s ‘Tuzk-e-Babri’, and others are the important sources. Apart from these, there are many other writings that serve as the sources. In these works also one can get the depiction of then contemporary social, political, economic, cultural and administrative aspects. Exaggeration, hyperbole and loyalty to one’s master are apparent in native literature. Similarly in foreign literature, due to lack of local knowledge, many misgivings are recorded. These are the drawbacks of written literary sources. Historians have the challenge of writing history keeping in mind all these limitations. 2. Oral Literautre Oral literature means the folk story, folk songs, folk legends, ballads, and others that pass on from one person to another by word of mouth. Since the beginning of human life, human beings are passing on their experiences in the form story, songs, and ballads orally from generation to generation. The folk people have created ballads about their local heroes. There are ballads on Kumararama, the Nayakas of 2 Chitradurga, Kempegowda, Tippu Sultan, Sangolli Rayanna, Kittur Chennamma, Sindhoora Laxamana, Meadows Taylor and others. Legends mean the local mythological stories. Every place will have their own legends. There are legends behind the names and places like Shravanbelagola, Bengaluru, Koppala, Patadakallu, Gokarna and Mysuru. Similarly, every village and town have their own legends. Archaeological Sources Archaeological sources are divided into four types : 1. Inscriptions. 2. Coins. 3. Monuments. 4. Other ruins. Archaeological sources are available not only on the surface of the earth but also hidden deep in the depths of the Earth. The hidden things in the earth are dug out by using scientific methods. This process is called as excavation. Harappan civilisation came to light only due to the process of excavation. During excavation, ruins of buildings, inscriptions, coins, terracotta pieces, bangles, seals, beads, bone pieces, metal and others have been found. These are analysed by applying various scientific methods to understand the life of people of those times. Inscriptions : Inscriptions mean engraved writing. Inscriptions are written on stone, rock, metal, ivory, terracotta and other materials that last longer. Inscriptions are more reliable as these have a direct relationship with then events. Ashoka’s inscriptions are the earliest inscriptions found in India. Most of his inscriptions are in Bhramhi script. Their language is Prakrit. Thousands of inscriptions are found in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, Sanskrit, Prakrit languages. Samudra Gupta’s Allahabad pillar inscription, Immadi Pulukeshi’s Aihole inscription, Kharavela’s Hathigumpa inscription and other inscriptions portray the Inscription military achievements of then rulers. The Uttarameruru inscription narrate the rural administration of Chola kings. Apart from this, many political, social, cultural, economic, educational, religious aspects are reflected in these inscriptions. 3  Coins : Though the coins are small in shape, they contain many important aspects. They are helpful in understanding the geographical extent of the ruler’s kingdom who minted the coins. They also aid us in knowing the language of administration, titles that the kings possessed their religion, economic conditions of the times and metal technology in vogue of the particular kingdoms. Samudra Gupta had minted seven different types of gold coins. Based on the pictures on those coins, it is said that Samudra Gupta was a lover of music and he had conducted Ashwamedha Yaga too. Gouthamiputra Shakarani got the name of Coins Nahapana erased on his coins, and engraved his name on them. This supports the view that Gouthamiputra had defeated Nahapana. The availablitiy of Roman coins in Bengaluru proves the fact that this region had trade link with Romans two thousand years back. Monuments : Monuments are the major sources to write history. Palaces, temples, forts and pillars etc,. are the monuments only. Meharuli’s iron pillar and Vijayapura’s whispering Golgumbuz are the evidences of the maturity of then Science and Technical knowledge. Shajahan’s Tajmahal tells the story of love. Chitor’s Vijayastamba (victory pillar) tells the victory of Ranakumbh. The cave pictures and engravings of Elephanta, Ellora and Ajanta narrate the mastery over painting and sculpture during their time. The temples of Aihole and Patadakallu explain the evolution of Indian temple architecture. The monuments of Nalanda and the architecture of Madrasas built by Gawan in Bidar narrate the importance given to education during those times. The fort of Srirangapatana explains the accomplishments in the area of defence technology. Thus, the monuments throw light on then contemporary religious aspects, technology, economic growth, scientific knowledge and creativity achieved. Other Ruins : Based on the various pieces of terracoata, bangles, beads and seal procured during the examination, one can understand the socio cultural, economic, political and religious life of then people. Not only this, one can also understand the food habits and pattern of business of those times. By applying carbon-14 dating procedure on 4 the biological ruins (dead animals, birds and trees) found in these sites, one can arrive at the accurate period of the ruins. Budha stupas came to light during excavations at Sannathi in Yadagiri District and Rajagatta of Doddaabalapura Taluk. In the excavations conducted at Arikamedu and Patanam in Tamilnadu a large number of evidences were found that speak of commercial contact between South India and Romans. Like this, the remains found at excavations tell many things that were lost over a period of time. You should know C -14 - Radio active carbon. This should be done only to the biological fossils (tree, birds, plants, and animals). In every being, the C-14 and C-12 will be present in equal amounts. After the death of the living being, C-12 remains constant, but C-14 starts losing its volume. It loses half of C-14 by 5700 years. If one can estimate the levels of C-12 and C-14, one can estimate the accurate age of the fossil. Fossils which are ten thousand years old can also be identified using this carbon dating method. Exercises I. Answer the following after a discussion with your classmates: 1. How do historians write history? 2. What is the meaning of source? How many types are there? 3. Name any two native literary works. 4. Name any two foreign writers. 5. What is the source which has more reliability for writing history? 6. Explain the importance of coins in the writing of history. 7. What are the aspects on which monuments throw more light? 8. By what method, the age of biological fossils can be dicided? II. Activities : 1. With the help of your teachers collect the legends of your village/ town. Make a hand written book and place it in the school library. 2. By understanding a study tour prepare the list of monuments and their uniqueness.  5  CHAPTER–2 GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES and pre - historic india In this chapter you learn : The physical features of India. India is both a subcontinent and peninsula. Recognise the neighbouring countries of India. The living style of man in pre-historic period. The stone Age. The geographical environment has influenced every country and people in the world. There is an intimate relationship between human life and the environment. Hence it is necessary to learn about the geographical environment in order to know about human history. India is a sub-continent occupying a huge area in the southern part of the Asian Continent. As it is surrounded by water on three sides and land on one side it is a peninsula. India shares its boundaries with Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar. It consists of 29 states and 6 union territories and one national capital region (Delhi). India’s geographical features comprise the Himalayan mountains, the Indo-Gangetic plain in the North, the Deccan Plateau and the Coastal region in the South. The snow-capped mountains in the North include some of the tallest mountain peaks in the world. They help to preserve the safety and security of India. There have been very few intrusions on ancient India from the northern Himalayan region. The attacks have been mainly from the north- western side through the valleys of Bolan and Khyber passes. The flat Indo-Gangetic plains are extremely fertile. The ancient civilizations of Indus Valley and Vedic period flourished here. Many battles have been fought from time to time to establish control over this area. Usually, the dynasties that established control over this fertile gangetic plain also established empires. The Narmada river separates India into two - Malwa plateau or Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau, in the south. The Mauryas and the Guptas ruled these two areas of ancient India. The Indian coastline 6  Uttarkhand Odisha Telangana athi rav A ma Puducherry is vast and stretches over 6,100 kms. The eastern coastline is called the Coromandel Coast, whereas the western coastline is referred as Konkan and Malabar coast. The numerous ports on this coastline had attracted the Romans from time immemorial. Foreign trade was carried on in those 7 days only through sea-routes. As a result, port towns flourished resulting in the rise of powerful kingdoms in South like the Pandyas, the Cheras and the Cholas. The diversity in the Indian geographical environment has also influenced the lives of communities living here. Despite the communual diversity, 8 there exists a cultural unity which binds all these diversities. Unity in diversity is the essence of this culture. The Prehistoric Period The period before the discovery of the art of writing is called the Prehistoric age. This is so because we do not find evidence of the linguistic development or the use of script. We do not get any written records for the study of history of this period. Then how do we get to know about the people and their life in the prehistoric age? The scholars who study this period are called Archaeologists. In this age, man was a nomad and indulged in hunting and food-gathering. Archaeologists have discovered few tools created and used by these people. Probably they used tools made of stone, wood and bones. Among these, only tools made of stone have survived today, providing us the sources for study. Human beings in the prehistoric age used stone tools to peel the skin and separate the flesh and bones of animals, to scrape the bark of trees, and to cut fruits and roots. The people used to create handles out of bones and wood, and using them like spears and arrows, hunted animals. They used stones as axes to chop down trees and cut them up into logs. They might have used wood to build huts for themselves, or to make handles for their weapons. The word pre-historic period provides this sort of vision to us. Where did the Pre-historic man live? The relics of the hunting and food-gathering humans are available in Bimbetka, Hunasagi and Kurnool in India. There are many other sites in which such relics have been found. Most of these sites have been discovered along the banks of rivers and lakes. Furthermore, since stone tools were essential for the survival of people of that age, they chose areas abundant with stone which could fulfil their needs. Areas where people used stones to create various tools have been thought to be the first industrial sites of human beings. How do we get to know about such industrial sites? Usually we get to see stone tools around rocky areas. People might have rejected some rocks as unsuitable for their tools. Heaps of broken rock or stone-chips obtained during the creation of implements abound in such areas. It is possible that people lived for a long time in these places. These sites are called residential and industrial sites. 9 Knowledge of fire Signs of ashes have been obtained in the caves of Kurnool. They reveal the knowledge and the use of fire by the people of the Stone Age. Probably fire was used for various purposes to cook food, for light and to frighten animals. Drawings found in caves We get to see some drawings in many caves in which people lived in the Stone Age. Even today we can see these drawings done on the walls of caves and on rocks. Such cave-drawings can be seen in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka. There are beautiful drawings of wild animals and hunting. The Changing Environment It is believed that 12,000 years ago a major change took place in the Earth’s environment. The Earth’s temperature began to gradually increase. This led to the development of grasslands in many places. Birds and animals began to multiply in unprecedented numbers. Animals like deer, elks, goats, sheep and others prospered in these grasslands. Humans who had been hunting animals, began to observe their nature, food habits and the way these animals multiplied. Over a period of time, they captured some these animals and brought them up. Like this animal husbandry and dairying started. Humans had by now, learnt to catch fish in streams and lakes. Human beings noticed in the meantime that some grass bearing grains had grown naturally. They learnt to use them as food, the grains and cereals like rice, Wheat and Barley obtained from such plants. Gradually they learnt to grow them too. Archaeologists refer to the period we discussed now, by different names. The age that prevailed 2 million years ago is the oldest age and is called the Old Stone Age, and it stretched over a period of 12,000 years. This long duration has been classified into three stages is - the Early, Middle and Late Old Stone Ages. The period from 12,000 years to around 10,000 years is called the Middle Stone Age. The tools of this period are generally very small and hence they are called delicate stone tools. They used to fix these stone tools with handles made out of wood and bones. They used those tools as 10 axes and saws. Along with these tools, tools of the old kind too continued to be used. Weapons Diagram showing the stages of the Prehistoric Age The New Stone Age began after 10,000 years. The stone tools of this period are different from those of the earlier periods. These tools were bright and had sharp edges. People of this age used grinding stones for grinding leaves and herbs and grains and cereals. Some pots and pans 11 of this period have been found, a few of which have been decorated. Pots were used for storing grains. They were also used for cooking rice, wheat and other grains and cereals. People of this age had learnt to weave cloth. Exercises I. Complete the following sentences. 1. Geographically, India is a ___________. 2. Signs of ashes have been found in the caves of ___________. 3. The tools of the Middle Stone Age are called ___________. II. Answer the following questions in brief. 1. Describe the geographical features of India briefly. 2. What are the valleys through which the attacks on India have taken place? 3. What is meant by ‘Prehistoric Age’ ? 4. How did animal husbandry and dairying start ? 5. The different periods of prehistory have been given various names by archaeologists. What are they ? III. Activity : 1. Visit a cave and learn more about it from your teacher.  12  CHAPTER–3 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS OF INDIA In this chapter you learn : Ancient civilizations of India. First urbanization special features of the cities, town planing, life style and the decline of towns. The development of vedas, types of vedas and vedic period. When nomadic life became stable Archaeologists have come across signs of huts and houses in some places. They have excavated a cellar in Burzahom in Kashmir. People of those times used to dig shallow pits in the soil and live in them. There were steps leading to the pits. These were built in this manner in order to provide protection from the cold weather and wild animals. Earthen pots have been found inside and outside such pits. In accordance to the weather condition, people cooked food either inside or outside. There is a site named Mehrgarh near the fertile plain of Bolan pass which leads to Iran. The people of Mehrgarh were the first ones to have learnt the cultivation of Barley and Wheat crops and the rearing of goat and sheep. This is the first village that has come to our notice. The people of Mehrgarh lived in houses. Some houses had four or more rooms. Many sites have been discovered here which not only have the fossils of animals but also graves. People and animals used to be buried together here. The first urbanization The ancient sites of Harappa were discovered by the engineers when the railway lines were being laid 150 years ago in the Sindhu valley region of Punjab. They thought that it was a mound made of excellent bricks. They utilized the bricks for the construction of railway lines. In this way, many houses which had been buried under the soil, were destroyed. Subsequently, Archaeologists took up research in this area. They were convinced that it was an ancient city. Since the sites around this city resembled the sites discovered earlier, they were called the Harappan Civilization. These cities are said to be 4600 years old. 13 The significance of the cities We can see two or more parts in the cities of Harappa. The western part is narrow and at an elevated place. Archaeologists are of the view that this was a citadel. The eastern part is wide and at a lower level. This area has been called the lower town. Every part had a wall made of burnt bricks. Since the bricks around them, were placed in an interlocking manner, the walls were very strong. There were note worthy buildings inside the citadel. Mohenjo-Daro, one of the cities, had a water tank. Scholars have called this as the bath tank. It is built of brick so as to prevent the seepage of water from the tank. The Bath tank has steps on either sides to go down, and has rooms all around. The water was probably supplied to the tank by a well, and the used water was let out. Probably very important people used to take bath in this pool on special occasions. Fire alters have been discovered in other cities like Kalibangan and Lothal. Mohenjo-Daro, Bronze dancing girl Harappa and Lothal had constructed systematic granaries. Torso of a man Mahenjo-Daro town bath tank 14 Town Planning The lower town in the low lying area of the city was the place of habitation of the people. It was constructed in a very methodical manner. Systematically laid-out houses, roads and drains can be seen here. Almost every person lived in either one or two-storied house. The houses were built of bricks and had strong walls. There were rooms all around the courtyard inside. The main door faced the street. None of the windows opened onto the streets. There were bathrooms in the houses. Some houses had wells which supplied water. The cities had a neatly laid-out underground sewage system. The drains were built of brick and covered with stone slabs. The gutter of each house was linked to the main drain outside, and enabled the flow of dirty water from the house to the main drain. Holes were created in the drains to enable timely cleaning of them. Town Life Apart from houses, precious stones and metals were also found. Most of the objects found were beads and seals. The layout of the town reveals the existence of administrative class. The people of this place may have used expensive metals, gems and jewellery. The beads were probably used by the common people. There is an unknown script on the seals. This reveals that there was no dearth of literate people. This enabled the engraving of scripts on thousands of seals. The people of Harappan culture had depended on agriculture and trade. Wheat, Barley, pulses and mustard were their main crops. They had learnt to grow cotton and weave cloth from it. We can say that they knew irrigation since many towns were situated on the banks of rivers. They had domesticated the humped bull, cow, buffalo, sheep, goat, dog and hen, and were engaged in cattle-rearing, sheep-rearing and poultry. Oxen were used to carry heavy loads. Trade and commerce had assumed primary importance along with agriculture. The towns carried on business with rural areas. Baluchistan, Saurashtra and the Deccan were some of these areas. The seals obtained at Mesopotamia establish the fact that the Indus Valley Civilization had trade relations with it. The decline of the Towns The situation in these places began to change some 4000 years ago. There were reasons, apart from natural reasons. The walls of the 15 Harappan fort were further strengthened. Towards the final days of this town, its west gate was closed completely. The spacious rooms of Mohenjo-Daro became smaller. Huge buildings turned into huts. Neither the town planning nor the road planning was systematic at this time. Historians have given various explanations for the decline of these towns. Some feel the dried rivers as the reason, and others feel that changed course of rivers was the reason. Other historians have cited the destruction of forests as the cause. Probably inundation by floods could be the reason. People living in Indus valley and some sites of West Punjab might have deserted the area and migrated to new areas in the east and south. This civilization survived in Lothal town of Gujarat for some more years. The Indus Valley civilization has remained an evidence of Maturity of the Indian Civilization. The Vedic Age Aryans complied the Vedas. Aryans belonged to the early Indo- European tribe of southern Russia Eural mountain slopes. many of the groups of this tribe through Central Asia came to Iran plateau and from there migrated to Punjab area via Afghanistan, according to well known historian B.K. Ghosh in History and Culture of the Indi- an people published by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. The culture built by these people is understood based on the Vedas and is called as Vedic culture. The vedic period is identified as the period between 1500BCE and 700BCE. This is divided into two periods. First part is the Rig-Veda period or the beginning Vedic period. This period is between 1500BCE to 1000BCE. The second part is the post Rig-Veda period or post Vedic period. This period is between 1000BCE and 700BCE. But, the Vedas were not compiled in written form during this period. Vedas were in the oral form at the beginning and later emerged into written form with a lot of changes. Four Vedas : Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda and Atharva-Veda are the four Vedas. Vedas are mainly a compilation of nature worship, Yaga and process of yagas; and balck magic. These are also called as ‘Samhithe’. Every ‘Samhithe’ has a text called ‘Brahmana’ that explains the various ways of performing rituals. Every Brahmana has an ‘Aranyaka’ and an ‘Upanishad’. Aranyakas have necessary suprasensory instructions to hermits who were living in the forest. Upanishads are the reflective 16 discourses on philosophy. Upanishads are the evidence of intellectual maturity of Indians during Veda period. Rig-Veda Period Rig –Veda is the first among all the Vedas. The language used, the geographical and social situations depicted in it justifies this. Rig–Veda has 1028 sukthas or prayer songs. They are grouped under 10 Mandalas. All these sukthas were not complied in a single time. Historians opine that there was a gap of five hundred years between the initial text and the last text of Rig-Veda. The language used in Rig-Veda belongs to Indo-European family of languages. The geography discussed in Rig-Veda extends from Afghanistan’s Hindukush mountain to doab of Ganga and Yamuna rivers (Doab is the area between two rivers – the western part of present Uttar Pradesh state) and from Kashmir to Sindh in the northern boundaries. Social System: At the time of their entry into India there were three communites among Aryans viz Aristocracy, Priestly class and common people. Caste conciousness had not yet emerged. We get the picture of an emerging social system in the ‘Purushasukta’ that appears in the 10th Mandala of Reg-veda (Probably during 1000 BCE). According to this the gods created Adipurusha whose mouth became Brahmanas; Shoulders became Kshatriyas; thighs became Vyshyas and Shudras were born from his Feet. Thous, an effort was made to provide divine and mythicalbackground to the birth of caste. There is no mention of the word ‘Varna’ here. In the later Vedas the word ‘Varna’ appears. The first three ‘Varnas’ performed the roles in rituals, administration and busi- ness and had the right for property. The fourth Varna ‘Shudhra’ comes during the last stage of Rig-Veda. The local tribal groups; Dasyu, Paani, and Dasa form this shudra varna. Aryans after defeating the local tribes Dasa and Dasyu, made them work as their slaves. The wealth that was accumulated after winning in battles and their unequal sharing resulted in the growth of social discriminations. The first three varnas had the right over expanding agriculture and lands. The Shudhras were forced to work for the first three Varnas. It was told as their duty. The patriarchal family was the main social unit. 17  Economic System : Rig-Vedic people were basically into animal husbandry. According to the Rig-Vedic compilers, wealth meant cows, horses, camels and sheep. Still, cultivated land was considered as part of wealth. There are details of the emergence of agriculture as a profession. Anyone could have obtained land and could have owned it. Importance of cattle increased as they were used for tilling, to lift water, and to move carts and expansion of agriculture. They were also useful for their milk and meat. On the whole, the need to own cattle herds grew more. With this, village common meadow (grass lands for grazing) came into existence. They were not aware of the usage of iron. But, they were using ‘mature and processed plants’ as charcoal to melt metals. The brass, an alloy was called as ‘Ayas’. Though there are references of pots, there is no reference to pottery as a profession. Situational references appear in Rig-veda on crafts like weaving, carpentry and other professional skills. The word ‘Pani’ is referred to in Rig-Veda many times. This was used to refer to a local rich tribe. They knew agriculture. In Rig-Veda the cultivable land is called as ‘Kshetra’ and cultivation is called as ‘Krushi’. An irrigated land belonging to Aligram of Swat valley has been found and it belongs to 11th century BCE. There is reference to stone pulley with wood cups to lift water from a well. Oxen were used to pull carts and ploughs. They were used to pull water by using rope and pulley, the lifted water was flown into broader canals. With the help of this technology, the agriculture that was limited to areas closer to rivers, expanded to areas which had higher level of underground water table. There are references to preservation of seeds in the underground and also of harvested grains. ‘Yava’ is identified as Barely. Political System : A reference to Grama (village) appears in Rig-Veda. Tribes were living in gramas (Villages). Rajan or Raja was the head of the tribes. The names of Rajas were related to their specific tribes. Some tribes may have had more than one Raja. The position of Raja was hereditary. ‘Trukshi’ of Puru clan and ‘Sudhas’ of Bharatha clan are the examples for this. In the political activities the invasion and suppression of on non- Aryan tribes like Dasyu and Paani by the Aryans one of the major 18 parts Rig-Veda considers Dasyu and Paani as inhuman, aliens and killable There are references to this conflict between Aryans and non-Aryans in Rig-Veda. The words ‘Sabha’ and ‘samithi’ were used to denote the assembly of common people around the King. The people who ruled over common people are called as ‘Kashatra’. The one who fights or a soldier was called as ‘Yodha’. The word Kshaytriya was not in use. Kings and the rich had power. concentrated in them. They were gifting cows, horses, gold and cultivation tools to priestly class. Invasions and conflicts used to take place for cattle. Those who were successful in these invasions increased their wealth and could also get prisoners. Religious system : Yagna was the epicentre of religious practices. During the Yagna animal sacrifices were done to appease Gods. Yagnas were organised primarily for two reasons: to get good rains and harvest and to seek the help of Gods to defeat their enemies like dasyus. The priest who conducted the Yagna was called as ‘Hothru’. Dur- ing Yagna, the reciting of slokas and consumption of Soma (a drink) was done. There was no idol worship in Aryans religion. They were also not using any animal, human or other symbols. More prominence was given to Fire (Agni) in Rig-Veda period. There are around 200 shlokas on Fire. Around 250 shlokas dedicated to lord Indra expouse that Indra brings rains, defeats the enemies of Aryans – the Dasyus and Dasas, eats buffaloes and gets drunk with Soma rasa. Vishnu had not gained prominence then. At a later stage, Rudra appears as Shiva in Rig-Veda. There are no references to beliefs to incarnations. Mahayagas were preformed by the rulers and heads of various tribes, and were led by priests. When the hold of priestly class was insignificant during the early Rig-Veda period references to minor God of cultivation –‘Kshetrasya Pathi’, God of plough ‘Devi Sita’, and minor house deity ‘Vasutosh-pathi’ are found. There are many such references to the religion of common people. In the last part of Rig-Veda, there are Shlokas on marriage and death. The people of Rig-Vedic time did not know the art of writing. The language was based on phonetics. only spoken. There are similarities in the characters and names that are found in Rig-Veda and Indo-Iranian religious text ‘Avesta’. 19 Post Rig-Veda Period After Rig-Veda, ‘Sama-Veda’, ‘Yajur-Veda’ and ‘Atharva-Veda’ appeared as the continuation and contributory to it. These are named after three priests who conduct three different types of ‘Yagnas’: Samaan (Udgaathri = Singer), Adhvaryu (the one who recites Yajus suthras), and Atharvan (Angira=Priest of Agni). Sama-Veda has taken much from the Rig-Veda and with few alterations of the borrowed content, it manily consisted of the slokas (mantras) that are recited at the time of Yagna. Yajur-Veda has two different types of text called ‘Black’ (Krishna) and White (Shukla). In the black Yajur-Veda, there areexplanations about the way of reciting mantras, and also has commentary and discussions on the same. The White Yajur-Veda has only ‘mantras’ but no explanations. There is a reference to Iron in these. Hence, we can conclude that this Veda is not before 1000BCE. Atharva-Veda is similar to Rig-Veda in its size and content. It has taken much from the tenth Mandala of Rig-Veda. It is in prose form. It has used the language of ‘Brahamanas’ rather than the ancient language. The geographical details in this Veda are different the found in Rig-Veda. This shows that Aryans had moved to the East by that time. Social System : The four divisions of Brahamana, Kshtriya, Vyshya and Shudra that are found in the last part of Rig-Veda as part of ‘Purushasukta’, incorporating certain changes became more strong. Brahmins used to accept gifts for conducting Yagnas and rituals. In owning lands, receiving cows, offering pooja and in matters related to God Brahmins had gained a more prominent position. Rajanya indicates the Kshatriya Varna. Those who had the political power were called Kshatriya irrespective of their origin. Rajanyas who were soldiers trained in archery and could wage war in chariots, gained a lot of importance. The word ‘Vyshya’ is found here and there. They were supposed to offer gifts to others. They could have been subjected to exploitation to one’s whims and fancies. They neither had the right to perform Yagnas nor a right to enter the place of Yagna. They were placed lower than the first two Varnas and still remained as Aryans. 20  Shudras were part of the varna system, but were kept at the lower end of it. But, Dasyus and Dasas were kept outside the Varna system. Slowly, they were integrated to Shudra Varna. Though the Shudras were accepted as part of the varna system, they were not given any rights They could have been thrown out or killed at any time. Shudras were not allowed to perform Yagna. It was held that the sacred Guru not only should disown a shudra, he even should not see a shudra. Some times the Shudras could have come from tribes like Dassyu, Dasa and others. Some of the early food collecting tribes like ‘Nishaada’ and ‘Chaandala’ were grouped as untouchables. Women were placed at the lowest position in the social hierarchy. Women are considered as the embodiment of ‘Lies’. There is a reference to ‘Dowry’ in Athrava-Veda. There was no proper benefit for the women’s work. There was no practice of child marriage. Polygamy was prevalent among the rich and powerful. The widow could remarry. Economic System : By the time of post Rig-Vedic period, Aryans moved from Sindhu river area to Ganga river area. For this they had to destroy the forests. With the help of fire, they brunt the forest and cleared the land for agriculture and in the process these tribes reached the plains of Uttarpradesh. The scarcity of water in the doab region of Sutlej and Yamuna made them move towards the river Ganga plains. Iron axes were used to chop off trees. There is a reference to six and eight oxen driven plough in Athrava-Veda. Twelve oxen driven plough is referred to in Yajur-Veda. This proves that the usage of oxen in agriculture increased. The following crops find reference in the text of Vedas : 1. Paddy. 2. Barely. 3. Black gram. 4. Green Gram 5. Sesame. 6. Horse gram. 7. Foxtail millet. 8. Common Finger millet. 9. Poor’s Finger millet. 10. Kaadu Nellu. 11. Wheat. 12. Masoor. Excluding Kaddu Nellu, nine out of twelve crops discussed above were cultivated before 1500BCE as per the archaeological evidences. In another Suktha, sugar cane (Ikshu) is mentioned as the thirteenth crop. At this stage of Aryans life agriculture became more important than the hunting and animal husbandry. Whoever that was not involved in agriculture and business were called as ‘Vyathras’ which meant ‘Outsider’. Oxen became more important for agriculture and transport 21 of goods. It was in this background, the idea that one should not eat cows and oxen took its root and became an important issue. But this prohibition was not acceptable to all. The wealth of a person was calculated on the number of cattle that he possessed. There is a reference to metals like gold, copper, iron, lead, brass and tin in vedas. Silver is also referred to in the vedic texts As per the archaeological evidences, there is no indication of iron mining and preparation before 1000BCE in the river Ganga and river Sindhu areas. It is believed that the technology of converting iron to steel was first found in west Asia and then later moved towards eastern countries after 10BCE. The knowledge of this technology in northern India before 8BCE is very bleak. The iron artecrafts that were found in Athranjikhera (West Uttar Pradesh) support this observation. Know this : The preparation of chariots as a reason had accorded respectable position to carpentry. wooden mortar and wooden pestle were in use. With the increase in metal tools, probably the stone usage would have decreased. Pottery making was in practice. Women were engaged in spinning. They were also involved in dying the cloths, washing cloths and embroidery works. One can note the increase in specialised professions during this period. There were professionals like: makers of arrows and bow, rope makers, bamboo makers, ointment making women, firewood makers, fire makers, horse tenders, cowherds, hunters, fishermen, smiths, businessmen, doctors, astrologers and others. The growth of cities was not much during this period. The word ‘Pur’ that comes in ‘Shathapatha Brahmana’ probably indicates a one door dwelling surrounded by fencing and wall with good protection. There is no reference to cities that had roads, stores, fairs or housing rows in post Vedic texts. Probably the economy was not strong enough to support cities. Political System : The South East geographical edge during the final stages of Rig-Veda now became the central location of Aryans. This place was inhabited by Kuru, Panchala, Vasha, Usheena tribes. The present Kurukshetra was the habitat of Kuru tribe. Kosala and Videha tribes were present at the east end of Aryan’s settlement. That means they were living in the north east of present Uttar Pradesh and the north Bihar areas. Tribes were the major controlling of the political system. During Atharva Veda period Angas were living in the east Bihar and 22 the Magadh tribe in central Bihar, south of the river Ganga. These tribes were considered as enemies by the sages. The Pundras who were to the far east and Andhras of the south were called as untouchables. These tribes were still not influenced by Aryan ways of life and language. This means that the political system of tribes continued even during the time of Atharva Veda. The arrival of Indo-Aryans to the banks of river Ganga and tranians at the Indian border and west Punjab due to their invasion. The Vedic tribes with superior archery and chariots won over the local tribes living on the banks of river Ganga. The usage of iron after 800BCE has supported this victory. The improved military power of Vedic tribes helped them to extend their geographical limits. As a result, powerfull kingships emerged. A king is described in Atharva vedas as ‘the one who rules all is like a God in human form.’ As the accumulation of wealth and power increased attempts were made in levels the King as equal to the God or the representative of the God. More references to sacrifices, taxes and gifts o ccur at this stage. Many complex and wealth indicating rituals grew around the King. A coronation ceremony to mark the ascendance to the throne by the King called ‘Rajasooya’ came into existence. As a symbol of king’s power ‘Ashwamedha Yaga’ gained importants. Religious System : The religious beliefs and rituals of Rig-Veda continued along with changes and additions during post Rig-Vedic period. ‘Rudra’ and ‘Vishnu’ had gained a significant postiton during post Rig-Vedic period. They became important Gods along the vedic Gods during the time when Brahmans developed as an appendage to the vedas. There are no direct references to Vishnu’s incarnations. It is said that by imbibing the local gods, Rudra also took over the legends and mythology of them unto himself. It was believed all things that happen in this world are the result of Yagnas and such notions were incorporated into puranas (Mythological stories). In ‘Upnishads’, new concepts like ‘Karma’ and ‘rebirth of the soul’ were created. This aided the place of a person in the caste system which is based on birth. This became the most important philosophcal base for the continuation of the caste system in its institutionalised form. 23  Know this : On the occasion of the Ashwamedha yaga a special horse belonging to a per- ticular king would be let loose. A contingent of specially-trained soldiers would follow it. Whichever places the horse wandered into, the king of that land would accept the sovereignty of the horse’s owner and pay tributes to him. If anyone stopped and tied the horse, that act would be seen as a challenge and a battle between the two kings would follow. In this manner the horse would return after one year having victoriously conquered all the terriotories.It was then that the Ashwamedha yaga was performed. It was the desire of most of the kings. Exercises I. Complete the following sentences : 1. The Fertile land that is near Bolan Pass ______________. 2. Harappa was found in the ______________ Valley of Punjab. 3. Harappan people depended on agriculture and ______________. 4. The Oldest Veda is ______________. 5. The priest who conducted yagnas was called as ______________ in Rig-Veda. II. Answer briefly: 1. Write on the special features of Harappa cities. 2. Write a note on the great bath of Mohenjo-Daro. 3. How was the nature of town plan during Harappa civilization? 4. Name the Vedas. 5. What Yajna and Yagas were important during the Vedic period? 6. Name the professions of the post Vedic period. III. Activities 1. Prepare a plan of Mahenjo-Daro or Harappa civilisation. 2. Read few stories from Upanishads.  24  CHAPTER – 4 Ancient Civilizations of the World In this chapter you learn : The great civilizations of the world - Egypt, Mesopotamia and China. Art, architecture and life style of different civilizations. Many other civilizations flourished in various parts of the world at the time of Indus Valley Civilization. We can see the Egyptian civilization, Mesopotamian civilization and Chinese civilization in Asia and Africa. The Egyptian Civilization Generally all civilizations have originated in the river plains. The Egyptian civilization could take birth due to the presence of the river Nile. The relics obtained here proclaim the grandeur of Egypt. Huge pyramids, sculptures, temples and the inscriptions in these temples tell us a lot about Egyptian culture and history. The Contribution of Egyptians The Egyptians were expert farmers. They knew a lot about irrigation. They had built temples. They invented the calendar which has helped us to measure time. More than anything else, they had mastered the art of writing. It was a symbolic language. It consists of small drawings and has been called hieroglyphics (sacred writings). The Nile Valley Every rainy season, the Nile river would transform the Nile valley into a huge lake. After the valley dried up in summer, a fertile layer of clay soil would form the grazing field and neighbouring agricultural lands. The work that would need the labour of hundreds of people, was being done by the kind river all alone. This fertile land provided food for the population of the first town in the area. Not all agricultural regions where in the valley. Hence through small canals and wells, they were responsible for the development of a complex system of irrigation through out the land. The prosperous, wealthy Egyptian peasants and citizens during 25 their liesure engaged themselves in the creation of artistic works. The role of priest was created to interpret nature and explain it. The priests were scholars and shouldered the responsibility of protecting written documents. They believed in life after death. They believed that man had to give an account of his deeds on Earth to Osiris, the most powerful God of Life and Death. The priests considered that life on Earth was temporary and was needed only to prepare for the next life. Thus the whole of the Nile valley was reserved for the dead. The dead body would be smeared with various chemicals and wrapped with a thin cloth. The entire body was in this way preserved. The body protected thus was called a ‘mummy’. It would be kept in a specially designed coffin. The grave was considered the true ‘place’ for an Egyptian. Hence all around the dead body, items needed for daily use and small dolls of a cook and barber would be kept to fulfil all future needs. In the beginning, graves were created by carving into the rocks in the hills. As the Egyptians moved north, they had to construct graves in the desert itself. Tall towers were built on these graves using huge blocks of stone in order to protect the eternal sleep of the dead. Kings and wealthy people vied with each other to Pyramid build taller and taller towers. The Greeks called these structures ‘Pyramids’. The kings of Egypt were called ‘Pharaohs’. ‘Pharaoh’ means ‘a person who lives in a palatial house’. The peasants who had accepted the rule of powerful Osiris, now accepted the rule of Pharaohs too. After an independent, prosperous life for twenty centuries, Egypt was ruled over by an Arabian shepherd tribe called Hyksos which attacked it and after defeating it, ruled for 500 years. They looted the wealth of the natives, and hence did not become popular. The Jews who came wandering through the deserts in serch of shelter were also hated by the people of Egypt. By cooperating with the foreign rule the Jews even assisted them in collecting taxes and in administration. 26  In 1700 B.C.E. the people of Thebes rose in revolt against the foreigners. After a prolonged conflict, they succeeded in driving Hyksos out of their country. Egypt became free once again. After a thousand years, it came under the rule of Sardanapalus of Assyria. The Persian Emperor Cambyses occupied Egypt in the 6th Century B.C.E. Alexander occupied Persia in the 4th Century B.C.E. Egypt became a province of Macedonia. One of Alexander’s military generals declared himself the King of Egypt and established the dynasty of the ptolemies. He founded the city of Alexandria. At last came the Romans in 39 B.C.E. The last Egyptian queen, Cleopatra, tried her best to save her country. It was said that the Romans feared her beauty more than her troops. Twice she was successful in her attack upon the hearts of the her Roman conquerors. However, in 30 B.C.E., Caesar’s successor, his son-in-law, Augustus, did not succumb to her beauty like his father-in-law, but defeated her army, though he spared her life. When he planned to carry her away along with the other spoils of the battle, Cleopatra consumed poison and ended her life. From then onwards, Egypt became a province of Rome. The Mesopotamian Civilization Mesopotamia is an area that lies in a valley between two rivers. Many of the places described in the Old Testament can be seen here. The land which inspires awe and fascination is called the ‘Land between the rivers’ or ‘Mesopotamia’ by the Greeks. The two rivers, Euphrates and Tigris, had made this West Asian barren land very fertile. It was the fertility of this area that attracted the people to it. Since food crops could be grown with little effort, the northern hilly tribes and the southern nomadic tribes of the desert tried to establish control over this area. The rivalry between these tribes led to number of endless conflicts. However, in the midst of these conflicts, there emerged a civilization of strong and brave race. The Sumerians were the first ones to evolve a system of writing in Mesopotamia. For 30 centuries all those who entered the fertile valley – Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Persians–used this system of writing, which was called Cuneiform. The central area of this civilization was the southern part of the valley between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. From olden times, this area had been referred to as Babylonia. The northern part of Babylonia was called Akhad and the southern part Sumer. The northern part of Mesopotamia was known as Assyria. 27 The Hanging Gardens of Babylonia The legendary Hanging Gardens were created on the banks of the river Euphrates around 7th Century B.C.E. This was one of the seven wonders of the Old World. But it is surprising to note that the Babylonian cuneiform records which make a mention of the city, its palaces and its walls, are totally silent about the Hanging Gardens. Most of the scholars are of the view that King Nebuchadnezzar II was the one who created the gardens. Nebuchadnezzar’s wife Amitis was from Mead. It is said that Nebuchadnezzar got the gardens built in order to console his wife who was missing the beautiful environment of hills, trees and flowers of her motherland. Some scholars Opine that the gardens were created by Assyrian queen Sammu-Ramat. In reality, the gardens did not hang in the air. The trees and bushes were grown at different levels (or terraced land) of the ziggurats. When the branches hung at different levels and swayed, they gave the onlooker an impression of being a hanging garden. The Euphrates provided the water for these gardens. The history of Mesopotamia is a story of end less hatred and conflict. The Sumerians, the hilly tribe from the north, were the first to arrive here. They who used to worship their Ziggurat gods on top of the hills, after coming to the plains, built artificial hills and established their places of worship there. These were called Ziggurat. They did not know how to build stairs and therefore surrounded them with sloping galleries. The Jews called these the Towers of Babel. The Law Codes of Hammurabi The main source of the law codes of Hammurabi are the rock edicts found in 1901 C.E. Today this has been kept in ‘The Louvre’ museum of Paris. Hammurabi’s law enforced the logic of ‘An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth’. Hammurabi’s Law Codes are one among the most ancient of the codes available to us. They were probably written to protect the rights of all sections of Babylonian society, especially women and slaves. The Sumerians had entered Mesopotamia in 4000 B.C.E. Later they were overpowered by the Akkadians, one of the tribes of the 28 Arabian desert. These are known as Semites. After a thousand years, these Akkadians came to be ruled over by the Amorites, another Semitic tribe. The most famous king of the Amorites was Hammurabi. He got built a fabulous palace for himself in Babylonia. He framed the codes of justice and made Babylonia to be considered the best-administered kingdom in the whole of the Old World. The Hittites who came later, occupied the valley and destroyed all that they could not carry away. These Hittites were defeated by the Assyrians who were the followers of ‘Asura’, the desert God. The Assyrians occupied the whole of West Asia and Egypt till about 7th Century B.C.E., and collected taxes from all the people there Another Semitic tribe, the Chaldeans, re-established Babylonia in the 7th Century B.C.E. and developed it into a prominent capital of that time. Nebuchadnezzar was the greatest king among them. He encouraged the study of science. But the Chaldeans came under the attack of the Persians in the 6th Century B.C.E. Two hundred years later, Alexander transformed this place of the Semitic peoples into a Greek province. After the rulers of the Romans and Turks who followed Alexander, this civilization declined and turned into a wilderness. The Chinese Civilization It is a special feature of all ancient civilizations that they were established on river plains. The Chinese civilization was no exception to this. But the river which led to the establishment of the Chinese civilization was known as ‘China’s Sorrow’. This was the Hwang Ho river. After the floods this river changed its course in an unpredictable manner and inundated houses and agricultural lands. It would render all the canals useless. This was the reason the people of that area referred to it as the ‘Symbol of Sorrow’. According to Archaeological evidences, the first ruling family of the Chinese civilization was the Shang dynasty. It ruled in the period between the 18th century B.C.E and the 12th century B.C.E Under the rule of this dynasty, the people had developed a wonderful culture by the 14th century B.C.E. The Shang dynasty was overpowered by the neighbouring Chau dynasty. The Chau dynasty continued the good traditions of the Shang culture and ruled till 250 B.C.E. In the Chou dynasty there was a section of officials below the kings. The king allotted portions of land to the officials. In return for that, the officials supported the king during battles. In the social stratification, the communities in the next level were the merchants and craftsmen. Apart from them we can find a great majority of peasants as well. In the lowest 29 strata of social hierarchy were the slaves. The prisoners of war were made slaves by the kings. The Great Wall of China The Chinese Empire consisted of many small provinces. Seven big states were created bringing these smaller provinces under them. Every state that was created thus, constructed a wall along its boundary for protection. Emperor Qin Shihuangti ordered that the walls of the northern chinese states be connected. This enabled the northern walls to ward off the attacks of invaders from the north. The construction of the great wall began in the 7th century B.C.E. and continued till the 16th century. The worn-out parts were repaired and strengthened. When the work was completed it stretched to more than 5000 kilometers. It is one of the seven wonders of the world. The Shang kings spent quite an amount of time in conquests and battles. Hence the army was in prominance. The soldier enjoyed a dignified place in society. Soldiers wore bronze helmets and metal armours. The bronze daggers, axes, bows and iron-tipped arrows which they used have been found. The people of the Shang dynasty depended on agriculture. They had a well-organized system of irrigation. They used to grow plenty of rice. Porcelain It is believed that porcelain originated in China. Semi-porcelain objects were in use from 1600 B.C.E. By the time of the reign of the Han dynasty (200 B.C.E.), glazed porcelain had been developed. It had developed into an exotic art. The ancient Chinese used to bury their dead along with porcelain pots, animals and the objects loved most during their lives. 30  The Chinese used to wear thin cotton dresses. They used silk too, and engaged in silkworm-rearing. Silk- manufacturing was a prominent industry. The Chinese used to make excellent pots, and had learnt to make various objects from porcelain. It was a custom of the Chinese to worship their ancestors. They believed that a dead man became a spirit and that the spirit had special powers. The dead body was buried along with various wooden articles, pots, bronze vessels and other objects. The tombs of kings used to be quite large. The Chinese tradition of writing began with pictures and got transformed into an ideographic script. Writers used to write on silk and bamboo slips. Porcelain and the Great Wall are the exceptional contributions of this culture. Exercises I. Complete the following sentences by using suitable words in the blanks: 1. Hieroglyphics are called _____________. 2. The kings who ruled Egypt are called ___________. 3. The Greeks referred to Mesopotamia as ___________. 4. The most famous king of the Amorites is __________. II. Match the following : A B 1. Hwang Ho River a. Mesopotamia 2. Cuneiform b. King of the Amorites 3. Cleopatra c. Shang 4. Hammurabi d. China 5. Chinese dynasty e. the last Egyptian queen III. Answer in brief the following questions : 1. How are ‘mummies’ preserved? 2. Write a paragraph on the Pyramids. 3. How was ‘Hwang Ho River’ China’s sorrow? IV. Activity : 1. Collect information about the Nile river.  31  CHAPTER – 5 GREEK, ROMAN AND AMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS In this chapter you learn : The development of Greek civilization and contributions. The development of Roman civilization and contributions. The ancient Columbian civilizations of America - Maya, Aztecs and Inca. Greek Civilization Greece is a peninsula in Mediterranean Sea. Aegean Sea separates Greece from Asia Minor. Since the Balkan mountain range passes through the middle of Greece, small hills and valleys divide Greece. Since all the parts of Greece are connected by Sea, Greeks could strengthen their navy. The Greeks belong to Indo-European race. The ancient Greek was called as Hellen’s. Because their forefather was Hellen this name had come. Later, the Italians called Hellenes as the Greek. There were many tribes communities like Ayoulian, Ayonian and Dorius among the ancient Greeks. City States : Three thousand years back every tribe had a king and every king had an advisory committee of senior citizens. As the industries and business increased, the villages of the tribes slowly grew into small towns and later into cities. Later, these became the city states. The city states are called as ‘Polis’ in Greek language. The Greeks were basically loyal to their city but not the country. Every city state had its own army, city God and administration. Though the city states had maintained their separate identity, culturally they were similar. The Greek language, Homer’s epic poetry, Olympic games, and Greek Gods were able to knit Greeks together. Athens and Sparta were the two important city states of Greece. Athens : Athens is the capital of Attica state. This was an ideal democratic city state in Greece. It had monarchy in the beginning and later had developed into oligarchy. The rich were electing an administrator named 32 ‘Archon.’ A person by name Draco enforced inhuman laws in Athens. These were later modified and made human friendly by Solaan. After Solaan, anarchy set in Athens. The middle class and the working class that had emerged due to commerce, business and industries joined hands and played a significant role in removing the dictators and restoring back democracy. Later the age of Pericles started. His period is called as the Golden Age of Athens. During the time of Pericles, art, literature, science, philosophy and other fields of knowledge flourished. As result of this Athens was called as ‘The School of Hellas’ by Pericles. Philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle belonged to Athens. Sparta : Sparta, the city state of Darien tribe, was the military state of Greek. Boys who attained the age of seven were separated from their family and were given rigorous military training. They were recruited to military after twelve years of training. Due to this, Sparta city state had a strong military strength. Athens and Sparta had successfully encountered the invasion of Persian King Darius united and defeated the Persian forces in the marathon battle. Later, Athens state organized a federation of city states called ‘Confederacy of Delos’, that took the shape of an empire. This stimulated enemity between Athens and Sparta. As a result two Peloponnesian wars were fought against by these two states. Finally, Athens lost to Sparta and became a feudatory state of Sparta. Though Athens lost to Sparta militarily, culturally it overpowered Sparta. By 5 B.C.E., due the invasion of Persia and the internal wars between Athens and Sparta Greek civilization lost its importance. Religion : The Greek Gods like human beings had desires and aspirations. Greeks believed that these Gods resided on the Olympus mountain. Zeus is the most important God. Hera is his wife. Apart from them, Greeks worshipped Apollo, Aphrodite, Ares and other gods. Athena was the patron goddess of the Athens city. Zeus temple is located at Olympia. All the ancient city states participated in Olympic Games held at Olympia. Education and Literature: The Greek had a great tradition of teacher philosophers. Socrates was the teacher of Plato, and Plato was the teacher of Aristotle. Alexander, the King of Macedonia, was the illustrious student of Aristotle. Plato had founded a learning 33 institution named ‘Academy’. Aristotle founded a learning centre by name ‘Lyceum’ Demosthenes was a great orator. Homer, the blind poet, wrote two great epics ‘Iliad’ and ‘Odyssey’. These two epics provide the details of life styles of then contemporary Greeks and their socio-religious system. Iliad narrates the victory of Greeks over Troy city and the Odyssey narrates the journey and adventures of Greek hero Odysseus while coming back home from the victorious battle of Troy. Herodotus and Thucydides are the important historians. Herodotus is called the father of history. Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides are the important playwrights. Sophocles is the most renowned playwright who wrote the plays ‘Oedipus the King’ and ‘Antigone’. Art and Architecture: Slavery was universal in Greeks. This provided the Greeks ample leisure time and allowed them to engage in various art forms. They sang using a string instrument called ‘Lyre’. Greeks excelled in music, theatre and dancing. Greeks made tremendous achievements in the field of architecture, sculpture and painting. Pericles built the Parthenon temple using white marble and is a fine example of beautiful architecture. A Sculptor named Myron has sculpted ‘discuss throwing athlete’s sculpture called ‘Diskobolos’. Greek sculptors sculpted the realistic human shapes. Polygnatus was the most famous painter of that period. Science: Pythagoras and Thales were the two stalwarts in mathematics. Democritus who presented Atom theory vaguely and Anaximander who advocated the evolutions of humans from fish are the important scientists. Hippocrates, called as the ‘father of Medicine’ had mastered the method of providing medicines scientifically to human diseases is from Greece. Sports: Greeks had given equal importance to both physical growth and psychological growth. Hence, sports always had special acceptance among Greeks. Sportsman had respectful status in society. Different levels of sports events were organised. Olympics Games stands unique among these regular sports events. It started 2759 years back in Olympia. Sportsmen from all the city states represented their city states with much pride and happiness. Greeks won the marathon battle against Persians 2500 years back. A soldier named Pheidippides ran twenty four miles to deliver the news of victory to Athens from the battle field. He died after delivering the news of victory. In his honour, marathon running was added to Olympic Games. 34 Olympic Games The Olympic Games began in Greece in 776 BCE. The Games, which were held once every four years, were also used for measurement of time. They used to be arranged in Olympia in Illis area as part of the Olympic festival. This festival was celebrated in honour of the peace pact between Illis and Pisa city-states. In the beginning there were only running races. This race over 200 metres was called ‘stadium’. Thus the term of measurement of distance was ‘stadia’. An olive branch used to be placed on the head of the winner in the race. The Olympic Games were held for more than a thousand year. They came to an end when the Christian Emperor of Byzantine Theodossus banned them in the 4th century C.E. The Olympic Games were revived in the 19th century under the initiative of France. Even today olympic games are conducted once in 4 years. The democratic political system of ancient Greece was destroyed by the king Philip of Macedonia of north Greece. Alexander was his son. He was a great conqueror. Aristotle was his teacher. He undertook an ambitious military expedition of conquering the world which resulted in the victory over Egypt, Babilon and Persia. He reached till India. There after while on his way back home he died at Babilonia. He built a city called ‘Alexandria’ in Egypt. Alexander He was the king of Macedonia in Greece. In his short life span, he set out to conquer the whole world. He was successful in building a huge empire. He defeated the Persian empire and advanced towards India. Aristotle, one of the greatest scholars of Greece, was his teacher. He died while returning after a war at the borders of India at Babilonia in 323 B.C.E. Socrates There are many anecdotes depicting Socrates intellectuality. The following is one such ancedote. Athens city was known as the city intelligents. Once a question arose among the intellectuals group. The question was there are many intelligents in the city. Who is more intelligent among all? As they failed to find a solution among themselves, they went and submitted before Athena, the patron Goddes of the city. Athena says the most intelligent of the Athens is Socrates. So intellectuals went in search of Socrates and located him. They asked him 'what is the secret of your intelligence and how you are more intelligent than us'. On hearing them Socrates answers like this 'I really don't know. Similarly you also don't know. But I know that I don't know. But you don't know that you do not know'. Thus he untolds the vastness of knowledge and philosophy. 35 Socrates Socrates was the philosopher who taught the Western world to think logically. Socrates was reknown for intellectuality and rationality. He gave a philosophical basis for early Greek thought. He believed in politics, social system, justice, morality, religion, patriotism, democracy, humanity and ethics. His life was a struggle, suffering and adventure. His intellectuality was mainly ethical. ‘Knowledge is virtue: virtue is knowledge’ – was the foundation of Socratic thought. He did not develop his philosophical thought within four walls. He used to carry on his intellectual excercise in the form of questions and answers with strangers in the crowded areas like market-places, shops and streets. Such thoughts of Socrates teaching enraged some Athenians and he earned their hatred. Some prejudiced people heaped various accusations on him in order to have him punished. As a result, the jury sentenced him to death and threw him into prison. One month later the jury decided to give him hemlock. Socrates told his students, “I’m not afraid of death, but I’m afraid to go against religion and truth”. On the exceution, a jail attendant brought him a cup of poison. Socrates drank the poison and left his earthly abode. Plato He is one of the famous philosophers of Greece. He was a disciple of Socrates and advocated ideas of social justice and ethics, among others. He was the architect of the idea of ‘Ideal Republic’. He was disturbed by the life around him when the city of Athens was in danger. In order to avoid social and political disintegration, he advocated ethics, philosophy and education with respect to society and the nation. He was a staunch supporter of education and started a school named ‘The Academy’ in Athens. This became famous as the first University of Europe. Significant among Plato’s scholorly works are ‘The Republic’ and ‘The Text and History’. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle have been ancient Greece’s most important philosophers. Proved tobe able to influence even the 20th century political thoughts, Plato left Athens after the death of Socrates and travelled to Greece, Egypt and Italy. He was a scholar who distinguished himself not only in the field of Political Science but also in Mathematics and Jurisprudence. 36 Aristotle Aristotle is as important as Plato in the tradition of western Philosophy. He was a disciple of Plato. The infuluence of Plato and Socrates are prominent on the thinking of Aristotle. As Aristotle was the teacher and admirer of Alexander, the great, he was opposed by some prejudiced people. The number of enemies increased. Finally, by consuming poison he comitted suicide. He has discussed on the structure of the best State and its nature, status of women, slavery, extent of ownership of property, citizenship, education, revolution, socialism and democracy. His thoughts can be termed as the progression of Plato's thoughts. He established ‘Lyceum’ as a complementary to his teacher Plato’s school. He told his students “I respect my teacher. But I respect the ‘Truth’ even more.” He studied medicine and botany. He had studied deeply the ‘investigative techniques’ in research. He was the student of Plato at the age seventeen. He knew about Ethics, Aesthetics and early Greek Philosophy and was deeply influenced by Plato on these aspects. Due to these traits, he became a close associate of Alexander, the Great. Roman Civilization Italy is a peninsula spreading down into the Mediterranean Sea towards the south of Europe. Alps mountain range is to the north of Italy and Alpines mountain range passes through the centre of Italy. Rome is on the banks of river Tiber. It is twenty five kilometres a way from Mediterranean Sea. In the plains between Alpines and the Sea, a tribe name Latins lived. Around 2700 years back people settled in the place called Rome on the banks of river Tiber. The ancient people of Rome were called as ‘Patricians’. The word Patrician originates from the latin word ‘Pater’ which means 'father.' Romans beleived Romuls and Remus as their forefathers. Rome was under the rule of a monarchy. The Romans’ had ‘Assembly’ and a ‘Senate’, as two political advisory institutions. The Assembly was made up of all the middle-aged men, whereas the Senate was an elite institution which was very influential. The Senate had the power to reject the proposals of the Assembly and the king. In the 6th century B.C.E., monarchy was abolished and a republic was established. Around 3rd century B.C.E. the administration of the whole of Italy came under the republican states. Even under the Roman republic, the Senate and the Assembly continued as advisory institutions. The members of 37 these institutions headed the armies during wars. They enforced the law and dispensed justice. There were two classes in the Roman society: the Patricians and the Plebians. The Patricians were the elite in the society. They were land-owners and formed the upper class. It is they who controlled the Senate. The Plebians were the common people. They were the ordinary workers, small land-owners, artisans, small traders and soldiers. Their rights were limited. They were meant to pay taxes, and to undergo punishment. The decisions taken by the Council and the Senate regarding the Plebians could be rejected by the Tribunes. In the 5th century B.C.E. the Plebians rebelled against this system. As a result, the Patricians granted them some concessions. Thus the Plebians got the right to choose the members of the Tribunes. It was around this time that a rule-based on ‘Roman law’ was established. This provided awareness over their rights and learnt to oppose the violation of their rights. A desire for expansion exposed the Romans into newer conflicts. Hence they batteled with Carthage, a coastal town in North Africa. Sicily was a fertile area. The Romans fought for the control of this area for 118 years. These wars are referred to as the ‘Punic Wars’. The Carthegens were defeated in this war. By early 1st century B.C.E., the Romans had conquered Greece, parts of Asia and Egypt. Conquests and victories had enabled Rome to acquire vast wealth and riches. Rome won over a lot of gold and innumerable slaves. Rome not only had Patricians and Plebians but also had slaves. The slaves did not have the rights of citizenship. They were the private property of their owners. Slaves were also sold. Amphitheatre There were instances when the slaves secured their freedom under special conditions. The Romans who had immersed themselves in their pride of status used the slaves as gladiators. They amused at the combat of the gladiators from the amphitheatre. A majority of the slaves and prisoners lost their lives in such games. 38 Gladiator The wrestlers of ancient Rome were called Gladiators. There were both expert and amateur wrestlers among them. The fights were organised to entertain the spectators. These fights which were fought between human beings, and sometimes between human beings and animals, ended in gruesome deaths of the participants. The place where gladiators fought were called as ‘Amphitheatre’ and ‘Colosseum’. Criminals, slaves and prisoners-of-war who had lost their citizenship rights were taken as gladiators. Gladiators, very rarely used to obtain their freedom by becoming popular and wealthy. Recently, a film titled ‘Gladiator’ has become famous world-wide. Over a period of time the chaos engulfed the Roman state. Now rebellions and assassinations took place regularly. Bribery and corruption during elections became the order of the day. At this juncture, around 60,000 poor and exploited slaves rose in rebellion under the leadership of Spartacus. One year after their strugle they were ruthlessly suppressed. Around 60,000 people were crucified at this time. The Generals on the account of continual wars reduced the authority of the senate to insignificance. Pompey and Julius Ceasar are prominent among the hundreds of such military generals. Julius Caesar : In the course of time, the rule of the first triumvirate consisting of Crassus, Pompey and Julius Caesar started in Rome. As the military generals, Julius Caesar won France (Gal) and England, Pompey won Syria and Turkey. Crassus died while wining Parthia. Like this Rome which was just a city state became an Empire. Julius Caesar defeated and killed his rival Pompey. Caesar won the love of Cleopatra, the Queen of Egypt. The powerful Caesar declared himself as the dictator of Rome and weakened the republic system of Rome. He was assassinated. By that time, the Roman agriculture, industry and commerce had evolved a lot. He implemented the Julian calendar also. His work was further continued by Augustus Caesar. Augustus Caesar : Augustus previous name was Octavius. He formed the Second Triumvirate with Mark Antony and Lepidus. Later he chased away Lepidus and shared the kingdom with Antony. Augustus Caesar defeated Antony as he sided with Cleopatra. Mark Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. After this Augustus assumed the title of ‘Imperator’. He consolidated all power with himself and ruled. The period of Augustus 39 Caesar is called as the ‘Golden Period’ of Rome. Jesus Christ lived during his period. Augustus undertook many welfare programmes. He himself declares that he changed the Rome from mere bricks city into white marble city. ‘Pax Romana’ was established. Pax Romana means peaceful period of Rome. After Augustus, except Markus Aurelius and Constantine, the last rulers of Rome were incapable rulers. During this period a barbaric attack by Odoacer led to the fall of the Ancient Roman empire 1500 years ago. Literature: Romans achieved a lot in the field of literature. Vergil is Rome’s greatest poet. Aeneid was his epic poetry. Ovid is another great poet. He has documented the mystical stories of Greet in his book ‘Metamorphoses’. Apart from them poplar poets like Cicero, Plutous, Terrance and others are known names. Julius Caesar himself was a good his