Exam Prep PDF

exam prep week 1 - journalist, audiences & content week 2 - choosing the story: news values week 3 - content: framing and the journalistic product week 4: gatekeeping week 5: audiences week 6 - content: genres and styles...

exam prep week 1 - journalist, audiences & content week 2 - choosing the story: news values week 3 - content: framing and the journalistic product week 4: gatekeeping week 5: audiences week 6 - content: genres and styles week 7 - journalism and society (race, gender, and ethics) week 1 - journalist, audiences & content lipmann, wahl-jorgensen, hanitzsch which journalism? european context - post 1440 gutenberg’s printing press modern journalism = creation of a periodic news press in the 17th c 1st half 1600: english papers allowed to work with impartiality and factuality to inform people study of journalism exam prep 1  tobia peucer - 1st journalism doctoral dissertation in Leipzig, latin- 1690 news = notification of a variety of matters occurred recently in various places satisfy human curiosity and address the present wahl-jorgensen waves in journalism studies 1. empirical turn (1940-50): a. start of systematic research - us b. experiments and survey - understand how news is produced and effects c. more gatekeeping, agenda-setting , and news values 2. sociological turn (1970-90) a. influenced by sociology and anthropology b. journalism conventions and routines c. interpretive communities - groups of ppl with shared understanding (us and eur) d. storytelling e. uneven development in anglo-american journalism 3. international-comparative turn (2000) a. more global = studies comparing how they are practiced around the world → internalization (allowed collaborations) b. scholars find new topics (e.g. AI, digital media) 5 key areas news production news content journalism and society journalism and culture journalism in a global context exam prep 2  walter lipmann’s pseudo environment def: shared social reality created by the media as simplified images / picture in our heads to help understand the complexity of the world aimed to simplify complex political/social events stereotypes = the simplified images → can be misleading media’s role: we rely on the media to interpret what we cant witness often media frames them politically/ideologically public opinion → based on the “images” and interactions * propaganda could substitute one social pattern for another ? how do we build common ground week 2 - choosing the story: news values harcup, abubakar who decides what is news? editor (other staff might have a hand in gatekeeping what does and doesn’t make it into the publication) news values exam prep 3  challenge: selecting what is most relevant, interesting, or impactful to their audience “set of criteria employed by journalists to measure and therefore to judge the ‘newsworthiness’ of events’. News values, and the notion of newsworthiness that they are derived from, are meant to be the crystallized reflection of, or ‘ground rules’ for deciding, what an identified audience is interested in reading or watching.” values/filter to assess significance of news: 1. timeliness (immediacy): recent and relevant 2. proximity: happening close to the audience's location (local precedes global news) 3. impact (consequence): larger number of people = + newsworthy 4. prominence: well known figures 5. conflict: conflict, disagreements, or dramatic tension = + newsworthy (politics, protests, strikes…) 6. novelty (unusualness): if it's something new 7. human interest: stories that appeal emotion or personal narrative the process of developing news sense news sense: journalists' instinct for what makes a story newsworthy honed through experience and professional socialization galtung and ruge's news values (1965) the study identified 12 key news that influence how stories are selected: 1. frequency: events that fit the publication cycle (daily or weekly) are more likely to be covered 2. unexpectedness: rare or surprising events make for better news 3. negativity: bad news gets more attention 4. unambiguity: events that are straightforwards = selected exam prep 4  5. threshold: need to meet a certain level of significance (ex:large number of casualties) 6. meaningfulness: culturally more familiar 7. reference to elite nations/people 8. personification: individual people rather than abstract concepts 9. continuity: stories already in the news tend to stay in the news through follow-up coverage 10. compositions: selected to create a balanced news mix (serious and light stories) harcup & o'neill's revisions (2001, 2016) updated galtung's work critiquing its focus on international crises news selection is also shaped by ideology, framing how news is presented and interpreted 1. power elite: powerful individuals/institutions 2. celebrity 3. entertainment: concerning sex, showbusiness, human interest,… 4. surprise 5. bad news/good news 6. magnitude: of impact 7. relevance 8. follow up 9. the newspaper's agenda how journalists learn: socialization - newsroom, cultural experiences professional socialization = individual learns interact w others and internalize the rules and norms of society exam prep 5  learn to anticipate and embody what is expected from them (through intern) organizational - influences from diff news organizations values are interpreted differently in news (based on geographic, commercial, socio-cultural…) depends on intended audience how do social media impacts how journalists select news? harcup & o'neill questions: is this interesting for my audience? can actually be answered in realtime —> suggests new news values new news values: 1. exclusivity: unique 2. shareability: viral 3. audio-visual: compelling images/videos ethical considerations what journalists must decide: which content to select how to frame it how to responsibly deal with sources and victims how to protect themselves while covering dangerous stories abubakar explores the complex relationship between news media and violent extremism, specifically focusing on the Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria Boko Haram exploit the agenda-setting power of the media. By staging horrific events, they ensure that their activities will be covered, allowing them to spread fear and recruit new members through mass media exposure exam prep 6  emphasizes the tension between the media’s role in informing the public and the potential of inadvertently promoting extremist agendas. violent extremism often satisfies core news values such as negativity, conflict, drama, and impact, making these events highly newsworthy ethical dilemmas journalists face when reporting on such sensitive topics: content selection: will it promote extremists? framing: how to avoid that? sourcing: challenges in finding reliable sources personal safety: endangers journalists journalism ethics act as a balancing force - ethical frameworks, such as truth-telling and the public interest, help journalists navigate these difficult situations the inclusion of shareability and exclusivity in modern news values reflects how the digital era, particularly social media, has amplified the tension between reporting important news and sensationalizing violence week 3 - content: framing and the journalistic product d'angelo, vossen framing: how to package a story and considering the effects concept: exam prep 7  news stories are crafted to fit narratives, which dictate the storyline’s direction and highlight specific themes —> echo/reinforce shared cultural values structure: inverted pyramid structure - highly functional and objective but can be restrictive, limiting critical engagement news = reflect reality (mirror) or selectively highlight aspects of reality (frame) definitions: entman’s theory: frames news as inherently selective and purposeful Four Functions of Framing: problem definition, causal analysis, moral judgment, and proposed solution if audience interprets events = moving beyond the notion of journalism as a mere reflection of reality stuart allan: news values determine the relevance of events and guide framing choices ex: if an event is selected because it aligns with the conflict news value, it might be framed in terms of opposing sides, confrontation, or tension. This can set up an adversarial narrative that might not be as prominent without this value-driven selection process seo and ebrahim: framing embodies control over info and can guide public judgment frames on social media and other platforms shape not only knowledge but moral standpoints directive power that can legitimize specific perspectives while marginalizing others = shapes public dialogue ex: vietnam coverage framing as a process model model of framing: communicator → text → receiver → culture (acts as a reference system that informs and is informed by media framing) exam prep 8  cyclical not relational process - communicators influence audience perception, but cultural norms also feed back into how stories are framed and interpreted “Communicators make conscious or unconscious framing judgments in deciding what to say, guided by frames (often called schemata) that organize their belief systems. The text contains frames, which are manifested by the presence or absence of certain keywords, stock phrases, stereotyped images, sources of information, and sentences that provide thematically reinforcing clusters of facts or judgments. The frames that guide the receiver’s thinking and conclusion may or may not reflect the frames in the text and the framing intention of the communicator. The culture is the stock of commonly invoked frames; in fact, culture might be defined as the empirically demonstrable set of common frames exhibited in the discourse and thinking of most people in a social grouping.” (Entman) audience and framing: frame building: internal and external factor (eg: organizations) influence how frames are constructed manifest frames: the outcomes of frame-building processes (these are the actual frames to be found in news media text) frame setting: audiences process frames based on prior knowledge - framing varies by audience objectivity and authority: objectivity as power: Journalists establish authority through claims of objectivity, differentiating fact from opinion exam prep 9  occupational ideology: objectivity = ethical foundation / truth seeking as profession main elements of the news framing and how we can study them: (D’Angelo) journalistic frame = contextual → ethnographic research orientations (e.g. values/belief systems established in the newsroom) issue/advocacy frame: opinions → study news content and interaction or policy statements from indi, w sources groups, organizations come from outside the journalistic outlet to make an impact audience frame: study of → surveys, experimental designs cognitive mechanisms of individuals exposed to nes news/media frame / frames of → analyze news content (manifest emphasis: frames) written/spoken/graphical/visual messages to contextualize an event how do journalists cover conflict and war? us vs them narrative: conflicts as binary struggles between opposing sides, creates emotional connection plays into nationalism - ex: western media coverage against allied forces (implicit bias) decisions about whom to represent and what to omit have the power to shape public opinion, potentially affecting support for policies or military interventions exam prep 10  importance of language: referring to a military action as a “war” versus a “special military operation” significantly influences how the event is perceived (syria’s war) for a sense of urgency or gvnt’s hidden agenda importance of visual: especially in celebrity coverage princess of wales staing on cancer-free - centrality of visual footage on social media week 4: gatekeeping moller: Scandinavian newspapers use algorithms for news recommendation, exploring how these impact traditional gatekeeping tandoc jr. discusses gatekeeping as a traditional media role that has evolved with the rise of digital media and audience channels white gatekeeping tandoc jr: gatekeeping is the process of how bits of information pass through a series of gates and end up in news” gatekeeping theory predicts that “(…) bits of information that successfully pass through all the gates become part of the news” gatekeeper - senior journalists originated by psychologist kurt lewin, adapted to journalism by white at a time when news audiences had a limited choice of news sources and journalists had limited space for their news outputs - before social media “gate keeper” by white white’s study focuses on the last gate keeper who decides what will make the headlines, focuses on the journalist channel exam prep 11  it is his job to select from the avalanche of wire copy daily provided by the Associated Press.. goal of study: determine some preliminary ideas as to why this particular wire editor selected or rejected news stories filed by the three press associations - “mr gates” answers: communication of news - we begin to understand how highly subjective, how reliant upon value-judgements based on the gate keeper’s own set of experiences the communication of news really is category for news - “i make no attempt to hold a rigid balance in these selections but do strive for variety” concept of audience / imagine audience - “our readers are looked upon as people with average intelligence w a variety of interests and abilities” tandoc jr’s 5 levels of influences on news 1. individual - personal preferences, gender, etc 2. routines - how media workers do their jobs in repeated practices. it includes news values and other forms of automatizing the news routines and make it bearable 3. organizational - encompasses the influence exerted by the organization; size, structure, type of media or political orientation 4. extra media - pressure from sources, interest groups, advertisers, the government, audience 5. social systems - ideology = when a sentiment is stronger than other in the region (anti communism before the soviet union) how has gatekeeping evolved in digital age axel bruns: “gate watching” = they would keep an eye what they see in the media and identify important material exam prep 12  schoemaker and vos: audience channel = readers as having their own gate, can prioritize stories by sharing or engaging with content vos: gatekeeping is in transition - news produsers = those who consume and also produce tandoc jr: offers the idea “amplified gatekeeping” = involve both journalists and the audience. the process still exists, now increasingly participated by audiences and not controlled by journalists the journalist channel should be an accurate one limitations at white’s study lack of understanding for the effects of social media today think a lot about how it everything is used in today’s media and how it has changed (- filter bubble and echo chambers) recommended for you (moller) algorithmic news recommendations for the sake of personalized news experience moller - map the use and perceptions of algorithmic news recommendations method: interviews 19 national papers exam prep 13  the scandavian media landscape: big trust in news and strong relationship between readers and publishers online news recommender systems: popularity-based filtering - most accessed stories off the day, week, month - most views content-based filtering - based on the history of the use interactions - predicts suitable news why use these? participants expressed their desire to create a “more engaging, informative” environment, “relevant”, “useful” automatizing the process is seen as “more effective” than recommending the same topic to everyone (content-based filtering) conc: algorithms do not compromise the human factor of gatekeeping news stories are [still] “protected” and “manually curated” by editors based on “good old-fashioned journalistic selection principles” why not? some participants said that the readers prefer journalists to moderate/select news transferring editorial control to algorithms might come into conflict w the paper’s journalistic mission and public interest obligations week 5: audiences meijer, coddington historical context: exam prep 14  18th-19th c: europe allowed space for reader participation (ex: adding comments) but faded with the professionalization of journalism exception for traditional letter to the editor laswell’s mass communication model (1948): influential in understanding early journalism as a one-way communication from the sender (journalist) to a passive audience concept of reception: audience was seen as a passive receivers of information today: plurality: audience engagement is complex and varies depending on the country, culture and type of journalism - different newsrooms have different expectations for engaging w their audiences vocal: actively voice complaints and opinions shaping news production coddington: imagined audiences mental picture of their audience though cannot interact personally - shapes choices in reporting has implications for the real world focus of the study: which sources shape journalists’ perceptions of their audiences how it influences their perception of rationality and homophily audience is often perceived as irrational, incomprehensible, homophiles homophily principle = structures network ties of every type, including marriage, friendship, work, advice, support, information transfer → people’s personal networks are homogeneous with regard to many sociodemographic, behavioral, and intrapersonal characteristics limits people's social worlds in a way that has powerful implications for the information they receive, the attitudes they form, and the interactions they experience method: exam prep 15  american journalists bc of its heavy commercial influence and low levels of state intervention audiences = consumers, and journalists tailor the news to a more “audience-friendly” approach to what extent do social media, email and direct interaction w sources contribute to how you think about your audience? results: 3 larger channels influence the journalists perceptions of their audiences direct interaction - email, f2f,.. institutional - info from superiors, market research, web analytics → audience = rational but not necessarily homophiles journalists personal social worlds - family, friends,.. → audience = journalists but not necessarily rational importance of study: Journalists’ audience perception isn’t strictly determinative; actual audiences have agency in shaping those perceptions through their own behavior. But if journalists perceive their audience in a more positive light—as rational, smart, deliberative citizens— they are more likely to take audiences more seriously and may even more earnestly and effectively fulfill their normative aims as journalists. meijer: dutch audience focus: explain how journalists’ attitudes towards audiences changed from keeping them at a distance to constantly monitoring their movements exam prep 16  leading argument: reckoning with audiences and users of news changed from a threat to a condition for the survival of journalism by observing meetings and public debates, she found 4 key phases in commercial news and public service journalism in the Netherlands: 1. quality journalism as an anchoring practice and discourse (1990s) a. uphold informing citizenship as a mission - providing viewers with the information they need to make important decisions b. distance w the audience to avoid popularization and trivialization of journalism 2. professional awareness of informed citizenship (2000s) a. shift toward including perspectives from broader demographics, moving away from a detached view b. ex: NOS- aimed to make news relatable by connecting with everyday citizens’ concerns c. quality = reach all citizens d. but - a solid quality brand and the coverage of public interest offered a particular objective and distant approach 3. digitalization (2016) a. rise in digital platforms = “Keeping the readers satisfied became crucial for the survival of newspapers.” b. young people matter 4. new anchor = innovation over quality a. users = central figures in the decision-making process b. “digital first” policy was adopted: an initial text/content is published on websites and social media. Newspapers and TV/radio cover the topic in a deep manner c. audience engagement = survival - market-oriented content might sacrifice journalistic norms challenges: balancing autonomy and audience feedback: exam prep 17  struggle to maintain editorial autonomy while being responsive to audience feedback audience feedback reliability: journalists question considering that many don’t fully understand how journalism operates participatory journalism crowdsourcing = outsource a repetitive task to the crowd. rely on the public for tasks like data gathering, giving readers a voice in news production while retaining editorial control ex: ICIJ used crowdsourcing in its Implant Files Investigation ex: La Nación's audio classification of Nisman’s files offer another form of participatory journalism, where audiences help categorize content volunteers listened to 40,000 recordings over 2 years for info incidental consumption = encounter news while doing other activities (tiktok, instagram) exclusive groups: ex: new audience engagement on messaging apps in Global South (WA) to add daily updates given by users to admin team week 6 - content: genres and styles smith and higgins, verhoeven use of language, genres and formats, fact checking language (smith and higgins) “journalism is a matter of selection” able to construct an account of these events that give prominence to their most newsworthy characteristics news organizations and audiences share a common frame of reference in relation to the meaning of the language used ideological and political resource (e.g. conservatism and liberalism) exam prep 18  validates powers - quotes from individuals ex: when women make headlines topics related to women in news is comprised of stereotypes which leads to the use of ai to be detrimental towards women as it will reproduce the misconceptions, amplifying the already misleading data. characteristics: (1) language is social - reflects reality and constructs it to be a certain way “how do the news media treat women’s reproductive rights?” “is it a matter of public and accessible healthcare? is a matter of ideology?” (2) language enacts identity and the right to speak “what do we know about the rise of alternative voices and news influencers in social and video networks?” (3) language denotes agency and power - credible sources echoes power and agency in writing “Exxon uses big tobacco’s playbook to downplay the climate crisis, Harvard study finds” (4) language is political - language in news often demonstrates subjectivity “Israel invading Gaza vs Israel defending its borders” CDA (smith n higgins) possible question: would you use CDA as the main analytical model to analyze journalism? discourse in journalism is not just words - journalism as not only reporting facts but also engaging in activities that influence society by either maintaining the current power dynamics or pushing for change methodological → discourse refers to social and cultural practices = examining who has the power to shape narratives and how these narratives may privilege certain viewpoints or ideologies helps to sustain reproduce the social status quo / even challenging it often used with News Framing exam prep 19  specific angles or lenses through which news stories are presented = influences public perception CDA + framing analysis = understand not just the language used but also the underlying intentions or biases in news coverage - why was it framed that way? ex: what is femininity, how is it performed? how is violence against women and femicide covered? (patriarchy as ideology) intertextuality what is implied in the discourse beyond the actual words? the understanding that texts contain a discursively produced subjectivity societal and historical discursive formations are embedded within the discourse ex: “china has become the first non-european country to claim gold medal” genres and formats informative v opinionated - could be a format or style mode of expression connected with its values as an institution 18th c - separation between news and comments was crucial for journalism modern practice a genre encompasses a specific way of narrating an event ex: inverted pyramid - to inform start with the most important questions exam prep 20  to transmit info from one country to another - to ensure that the first part of the pyramid is always covered traditional genres: informative, opiniotative, interpretative, diversional, utilitarian (seixas) impossible to be fully be neutral but you can make sure that the writing is clear fact-checking to avoid “in house” verification process, fact checkers aim to expose incorrect claims publicly - reader can verify if the correction of the claim is good enough avoid personal views in their reports, and there are no opinion pieces deals w verifiable claims and present transparency as a mandatory elements labels e.g. “misinformation”, “no evidence, “half true”,.. genre approach (verhoeven) - explores conventions that structure the selection of fact-checkers by IFCN genre = discursive conventions arise from preferred ways of communicating knowledge with certain communities. The genre approach is useful in fact-checking to examine how journalism communicates their truth-claims to the public one approach to genre has four dimensions: medium (e.g., multimedia), subject (e.g., topics), style (e.g., labels and transparency), and context (e.g., country) week 7 - journalism and society (race, gender, and ethics) bland, brown stereotypes: gender: cognitive shortcuts shaping biased perceptions exam prep 21  racial: histories of colonization and systemic discrimination → media misrepresentations bland et al. intersectional lens to examine how gender and race influence media portrayal and public perception findings: humor-based memes can have a significant impact by simplifying complex political messages and appealing to emotions +1/3 memes focus on harris’ appearance - female politicians scrutinized for their looks over a third of the descriptive language in the content emphasized Harris’s racial identity, referring to her as "Black," "African American," "Indian," or "biracial “angry black woman” - stereotypes undermining their credibility questions her americaness based on her ethnic bg protest paradigm - brown and harlow examines how traditional news coverage often delegitimizes social movements, particularly those challenging political or social norms focus on aspects like violence, conflict rather than the movement media logic v activist goals - to receive media coverage, they often need to adopt tactics that attract attention, sometimes playing into the media's preference for sensational stories frames described by mcleod and hertog (1999) riot frame - emphasize violence (racial) confrontation frame - protesters v authorities (racial, environmental, indigenous) spectacle frame - dramatic visuals debate frame - protests as platform for discussion (rarely used) findings: exam prep 22  diverse demographics and historically conservative leanings, offered a varied context for understanding how location and audience might impact protest coverage ex: racial justice protests often received more confrontational framing, while women’s rights protests were less likely to be framed as confrontations protests related to race (black and Indigenous communities) have not evolved beyond the traditional paradigm’s structure exam prep 23